CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Disinformation - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"83b50343-7921-4a72-b413-b158c9057df9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Disinformation","wgTitle":"Disinformation","wgCurRevisionId":1261657784,"wgRevisionId":1261657784,"wgArticleId":142690,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: date and year","CS1: long volume value","Articles with imported Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 text","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from June 2017","Articles containing Russian-language text","Articles with limited geographic scope from October 2023","Articles with excerpts","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Disinformation", "Deception","Communication of falsehoods","Media manipulation","Propaganda techniques","Black propaganda","1920s neologisms","Russian words and phrases","Psychological warfare techniques","Intelligence operations by type","Lying"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Disinformation","wgRelevantArticleId":142690,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[], "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q189656","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init": "ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.6"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Disinformation - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Disinformation rootpage-Disinformation skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Disinformation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Disinformation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Disinformation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Disinformation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operationalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operationalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Operationalization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Operationalization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Operationalization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Operationalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparisons_with_propaganda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparisons_with_propaganda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Comparisons with propaganda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparisons_with_propaganda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Worldwide</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Worldwide-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Worldwide subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soviet_disinformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_disinformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Soviet disinformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_disinformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_disinformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_disinformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Russian disinformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_disinformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_disinformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_disinformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Chinese disinformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_disinformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_disinformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_disinformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>American disinformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_disinformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Response</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Response-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Response subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Responses_from_cultural_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses_from_cultural_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Responses from cultural leaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responses_from_cultural_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_in_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_in_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ethics in warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_in_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Consequences of exposure to disinformation online</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Alternative perspectives and critiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Strategies for spreading disinformation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Strategies for spreading disinformation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disinformation_attack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disinformation_attack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Disinformation attack</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disinformation_attack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_manipulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_manipulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Internet manipulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_manipulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Exploiting online advertising technologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Disinformation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformasie" title="Disinformasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Disinformasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B6%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84" title="تضليل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تضليل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3n" title="Desinformación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Desinformación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformasiya" title="Dezinformasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dezinformasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="অপতথ্যের বিস্তার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপতথ্যের বিস্তার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Дэзынфармацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дэзынфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Дэзынфармацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дэзынфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3" title="Desinformació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desinformació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformace" title="Dezinformace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dezinformace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyllwybodaeth" title="Twyllwybodaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Twyllwybodaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformatsioon" title="Desinformatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Desinformatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Παραπληροφόρηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παραπληροφόρηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3n" title="Desinformación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desinformación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsita_informo" title="Falsita informo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Falsita informo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformazio" title="Desinformazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Desinformazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دروغ‌رسانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دروغ‌رسانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9sinformation" title="Désinformation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Désinformation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4" title="역정보 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="역정보" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ապատեղեկատվություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ապատեղեկատվություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="दुस्सूचना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दुस्सूचना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformasi" title="Disinformasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Disinformasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkohlisa" title="Inkohlisa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inkohlisa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformazione" title="Disinformazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disinformazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="דיסאינפורמציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיסאינפורמציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinform%C4%81cija" title="Dezinformācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dezinformācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Ташаа мэдээлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ташаа мэдээлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformatie" title="Desinformatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Desinformatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%BD%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1" title="偽情報 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="偽情報" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformasjon" title="Desinformasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Desinformasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformatsiya" title="Dezinformatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dezinformatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਦੁਰਸੂਚਨਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੁਰਸੂਚਨਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%B7_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84_(%DA%AB%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="غلط معلومات خپرول (ګمراه کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غلط معلومات خپرول (ګمراه کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacja" title="Dezinformacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dezinformacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinforma%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Desinformação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desinformação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformare" title="Dezinformare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dezinformare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformimi" title="Dezinformimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dezinformimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Disinformation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinform%C3%A1cia" title="Dezinformácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dezinformácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زانیاریی ناڕاست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانیاریی ناڕاست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Дезинформација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дезинформација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformaatio" title="Disinformaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Disinformaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezenformasyon" title="Dezenformasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dezenformasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Дезінформування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дезінформування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تلبیس اطلاعات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تلبیس اطلاعات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A3n_th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Phản thông tin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phản thông tin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E8%B0%A3" title="造谣 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="造谣" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q189656#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Disinformation" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Disinformation" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Disinformation" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&oldid=1261657784" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Disinformation&id=1261657784&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlQ%C4%B1sald%C4%B1c%C4%B1s%C4%B1&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDisinformation"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrKodu&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDisinformation"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Disinformation&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Disinformation" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Disinformation" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q189656" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Deliberately deceptive false information</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">Misinformation</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Disinformation (disambiguation)">Disinformation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">Aerospace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">Counter-recruitment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military company</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Disinformation</b> is misleading content deliberately spread to <a href="/wiki/Deceive" class="mw-redirect" title="Deceive">deceive</a> people,<sup id="cite_ref-bittman1985_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to secure economic or political gain and which may cause public harm.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disinformation is an orchestrated adversarial activity in which actors employ <a href="/wiki/Strategic_deception" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic deception">strategic deceptions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">media manipulation</a> tactics to advance political, military, or commercial goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disinformation is implemented through <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">attacks</a> that "weaponize multiple <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_Strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetorical Strategies">rhetorical strategies</a> and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">half-truths</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Value_judgment" title="Value judgment">value judgements</a>—to exploit and amplify <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a> and other identity-driven controversies."<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, <i><a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></i> refers to inaccuracies that stem from inadvertent error.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Misinformation can be used to create disinformation when known misinformation is purposefully and intentionally disseminated.<sup id="cite_ref-golbeck_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-golbeck-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a>" has sometimes been categorized as a type of disinformation, but scholars have advised not using these two terms interchangeably or using "fake news" altogether in academic writing since politicians have weaponized it to describe any unfavorable news coverage or information.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/220px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/330px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/440px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png 2x" data-file-width="2092" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>The Etymology of Disinformation by H. Newman as published in The Journal of Information Warfare in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements of the word disinformation have their origins in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> language family. The Latin 'dis' and 'in' and can both be considered to have Proto-Indo-European roots, 'forma' is considerably more obscure. The green box in the figure highlights the origin 'forma' is uncertain, however, it may have its roots in the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelean</a> concept of μορφή (morphe) where something becomes a 'thing' when it has 'form' or substance.</figcaption></figure> <p>The English word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disinformation" class="extiw" title="wikt:disinformation"><i>disinformation</i></a> comes from the application of the Latin prefix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dis-" class="extiw" title="wikt:dis-"><i>dis-</i></a> to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/information" class="extiw" title="wikt:information"><i>information</i></a> making the meaning "reversal or removal of information". The rarely used word had appeared with this usage in print at least as far back as 1887.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some consider it a <a href="/wiki/Loan_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan translation">loan translation</a> of the Russian <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">дезинформация</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">transliterated</a> as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:дезинформация"><i>dezinformatsiya</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pacepa_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bittman1985_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> apparently derived from the title of a <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a> department.<sup id="cite_ref-jowett_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jowett-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bittman1985_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pacepa_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet planners in the 1950s defined disinformation as "dissemination (in the press, on the radio, etc.) of false reports intended to mislead public opinion."<sup id="cite_ref-ned_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ned-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Disinformation</i> first made an appearance in dictionaries in 1985, specifically, <i>Webster's New College Dictionary</i> and the <i>American Heritage Dictionary</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-bittman1988_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bittman1988-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1986, the term <i>disinformation</i> was not defined in <i>Webster's New World Thesaurus</i> or <i>New Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-pacepa_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Soviet term became widely known in the 1980s, native speakers of English broadened the term as "any government communication (either overt or covert) containing intentionally false and misleading material, often combined selectively with true information, which seeks to mislead and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulate</a> either elites or a mass audience."<sup id="cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1990, use of the term <i>disinformation</i> had fully established itself in the English language within the lexicon of politics.<sup id="cite_ref-davidmartin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidmartin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2001, the term <i>disinformation</i> had come to be known as simply a more civil phrase for saying someone was <a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">lying</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-heinemann_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heinemann-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stanley B. Cunningham wrote in his 2002 book <i>The Idea of Propaganda</i> that <i>disinformation</i> had become pervasively used as a synonym for <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cunningham_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cunningham-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operationalization">Operationalization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Operationalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Shorenstein_Center_on_Media,_Politics_and_Public_Policy" title="Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy">Shorenstein Center</a> at Harvard University defines disinformation research as an academic field that studies "the spread and impacts of misinformation, disinformation, and media manipulation," including "how it spreads through online and offline channels, and why people are susceptible to believing bad information, and successful strategies for mitigating its impact"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a 2023 research article published in <a href="/wiki/New_Media_%26_Society" title="New Media & Society">New Media & Society</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> disinformation circulates on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> through deception campaigns implemented in multiple ways including: <a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">clickbait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">echo chambers</a>, hoaxes, <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rumor" title="Rumor">rumors</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Activities that operationalize disinformation campaigns online<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Term </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Term </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">Astroturfing</a> </td> <td>A centrally coordinated campaign that mimics grassroots activism by making participants pretend to be ordinary citizens </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> </td> <td>Genre: The deliberate creation of pseudo-journalism <p>Label: The instrumentalization of the term to delegitimize news media </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theories</a> </td> <td>Rebuttals of official accounts that propose alternative explanations in which individuals or groups act in secret </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">Greenwashing</a> </td> <td>Deceptive communication makes people believe that a company is environmentally responsible when it is not </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">Clickbait</a> </td> <td>The deliberate use of misleading headlines and thumbnails to increase online traffic for profit or popularity </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> </td> <td>Organized mass communication, on a hidden agenda, and with a mission to conform belief and action by circumventing individual reasoning </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">Culture wars</a> </td> <td>A phenomenon in which multiple groups of people, who hold entrenched values, attempt to steer public policy contentiously </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a> </td> <td>Accounts that claim the explanatory power of science, borrow its language and legitimacy but diverge substantially from its quality criteria </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Doxing" title="Doxing">Doxxing</a> </td> <td>A form of online harassment that breaches privacy boundaries by releasing information intending physical and online harm to a target </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rumor" title="Rumor">Rumors</a> </td> <td>Unsubstantiated news stories that circulate while not corroborated or validated </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a> </td> <td>An epistemic environment in which participants encounter beliefs and opinions that coincide with their own </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Troll_(slang)" title="Troll (slang)">Trolling</a> </td> <td>Networked groups of digital influencers that operate 'click armies' designed to mobilize public sentiment </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a> </td> <td>News in which false facts are presented as legitimate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">Urban legends</a> </td> <td>Moral tales featuring durable stories of intruders incurring boundary transgressions and their dire consequences </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Note: This is an adaptation of Table 2 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231207644/">Disinformation on Digital Media Platforms: A Market Shaping Approach</a>, by Carlos Diaz Ruiz, used under <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> / Adapted from the original. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In order to distinguish between similar terms, including misinformation and malinformation, scholars collectively agree on the definitions for each term as follows: (1) disinformation is the strategic dissemination of false information with the intention to cause public harm;<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (2) misinformation represents the unintentional spread of false information; and (3) malinformation is factual information disseminated with the intention to cause harm,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these terms are abbreviated 'DMMI'.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Fran%C3%A7ois" title="Camille François">Camille François</a> devised the "ABC" framework of understanding different modalities of online disinformation: </p> <ul><li>Manipulative <i>Actors</i>, who "engage knowingly and with clear intent in viral deception campaigns" that are "covert, designed to obfuscate the identity and intent of the actor orchestrating them." Examples include personas such as <a href="/wiki/Guccifer_2.0" title="Guccifer 2.0">Guccifer 2.0</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troll_(slang)" title="Troll (slang)">Internet trolls</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_media" title="State media">state media</a>, and military operatives.</li> <li>Deceptive <i>Behavior</i>, which "encompasses the variety of techniques viral deception actors may use to enhance and exaggerate the reach, virality and impact of their campaigns." Examples include <a href="/wiki/Troll_farm" title="Troll farm">troll farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_bots" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet bots">Internet bots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a>, and "<a href="/wiki/Facebook_like_button#Fake_"likes"" title="Facebook like button">paid engagement</a>".</li> <li>Harmful <i>Content</i>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">health misinformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">manipulated media</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">deepfakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">online harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Violent_extremism" title="Violent extremism">violent extremism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">hate speech</a> or <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> proposed amending this framework to include <i>Distribution</i>, defined by the "technical protocols that enable, constrain, and shape user behavior in a virtual space".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a> proposed adding <i>Degree</i> ("distribution of the content ... and the audiences it reaches") and <i>Effect</i> ("how much of a threat a given case poses").<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons_with_propaganda">Comparisons with propaganda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Comparisons with propaganda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whether and to what degree disinformation and propaganda overlap is subject to debate. Some (like <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of State">U.S. Department of State</a>) define propaganda as the use of non-rational arguments to either advance or undermine a political ideal, and use disinformation as an alternative name for undermining propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While others consider them to be separate concepts altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One popular distinction holds that disinformation also describes politically motivated messaging designed explicitly to engender public cynicism, uncertainty, apathy, distrust, and paranoia, all of which disincentivize citizen engagement and mobilization for social or political change.<sup id="cite_ref-ned_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ned-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disinformation is the label often given to foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies on disinformation are often concerned with the content of activity whereas the broader concept of FIMI is more concerned with the "behaviour of an actor" that is described through the <a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">military doctrine</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_Tactics,_Techniques,_and_Procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures">tactics, techniques, and procedures</a> (TTPs).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Disinformation is primarily carried out by government <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence agencies">intelligence agencies</a>, but has also been used by non-governmental organizations and businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-jangoldman_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jangoldman-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Front_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Front group">Front groups</a> are a form of disinformation, as they mislead the public about their true objectives and who their controllers are.<sup id="cite_ref-eugeneasamier_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eugeneasamier-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most recently, disinformation has been deliberately spread through social media in the form of "<a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>", disinformation masked as legitimate news articles and meant to mislead readers or viewers.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disinformation may include distribution of <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forged</a> <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">documents</a>, manuscripts, and photographs, or spreading dangerous <a href="/wiki/Rumour" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumour">rumours</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">fabricated</a> <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>. Use of these tactics can lead to <a href="/wiki/Blowback_(intelligence)" title="Blowback (intelligence)">blowback</a>, however, causing such unintended consequences such as <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> lawsuits or damage to the dis-informer's reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-eugeneasamier_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eugeneasamier-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldwide">Worldwide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Disinformation" title="Talk:Disinformation">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_disinformation">Soviet disinformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Soviet disinformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet disinformation</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_disinformation&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/220px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/330px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/440px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption>Former <a href="/wiki/Siguran%C8%9Ba" title="Siguranța">Romanian secret police</a> senior official <a href="/wiki/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa" title="Ion Mihai Pacepa">Ion Mihai Pacepa</a> exposed disinformation history in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation</a></i> (2013).<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_adamtaylor_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_adamtaylor-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> Use of disinformation as a Soviet tactical weapon started in 1923,<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_manningromerstein_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_manningromerstein-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when it became a tactic used in the Soviet political warfare called <i><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">active measures</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_nicholasjohncull_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_nicholasjohncull-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_disinformation">Russian disinformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russian disinformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russian disinformation</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_disinformation&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russian disinformation</a> campaigns have occurred in many countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Botter_2022_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Botter_2022-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_ACI_2019_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_ACI_2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_WaPo2016_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_WaPo2016-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_zois_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_zois-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, disinformation campaigns led by <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin" title="Yevgeny Prigozhin">Yevgeny Prigozhin</a> have been reported in several African countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Cigi2021_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Cigi2021-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Guardian2019_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Guardian2019-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, however, denies that it uses disinformation to influence public opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_powerfulrussian_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_powerfulrussian-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Often Russian campaigns aim to disrupt domestic politics within <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in an attempt to weaken the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> due to its long-standing commitment to fight back against "Western imperialism" and shift the balance of world power to <a href="/wiki/Second_World" title="Second World">Russia and her allies</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>, Russia seeks to promote American isolationism, border security concerns and racial tensions within the United States through its disinformation campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:0_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_disinformation">Chinese disinformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chinese disinformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamouflage&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a>, Dragonbridge, Spamouflage Dragon, Storm 1376, or Taizi Flood is an online propaganda and disinformation operation that uses a network of social media accounts to make posts in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese government">Chinese government</a> and harass dissidents and journalists overseas since 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:4_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_CNN2023_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_CNN2023-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_MS_names_threat_actors_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_MS_names_threat_actors-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the early 2020s, Spamouflage accounts also began making posts about American and Taiwanese politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:0_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is widely believed that the Chinese government, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of Public Security (China)">Ministry of Public Security</a>, is behind the network.<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:6_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_CNN2023_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_CNN2023-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_Yang2024_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Yang2024-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:0_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spamouflage has increasingly used <a href="/wiki/Generative_artificial_intelligence" title="Generative artificial intelligence">generative artificial intelligence</a> for <a href="/wiki/Influence_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Influence operations">influence operations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_:2_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign has largely failed to receive views from real users,<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it has attracted some organic engagement using new tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_Yang2024_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Yang2024-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spamouflage_Graphika2021_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Graphika2021-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_disinformation">American disinformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American disinformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/220px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/330px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/440px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>How Disinformation Can Be Spread, explanation by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">U.S. Defense Department</a> (2001)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">United States Intelligence Community</a> appropriated use of the term <i>disinformation</i> in the 1950s from the Russian <i>dezinformatsiya</i>, and began to use similar strategies<sup id="cite_ref-manningromerstein_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manningromerstein-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the Cold War and in conflict with other nations.<sup id="cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> reported in 2000 that during the CIA's effort to substitute <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Reza_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Reza Pahlavi">Mohammed Reza Pahlavi</a> for then-<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iran" title="Prime Minister of Iran">Prime Minister of Iran</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mossadegh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Mossadegh">Mohammad Mossadegh</a>, the CIA placed fictitious stories in the local newspaper.<sup id="cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> documented how, subsequent to the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, the CIA put false articles in newspapers of Islamic-majority countries, inaccurately stating that Soviet embassies had "invasion day celebrations".<sup id="cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reuters noted a former U.S. intelligence officer said they would attempt to gain the confidence of reporters and use them as <a href="/wiki/Secret_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret agent">secret agents</a>, to affect a nation's politics by way of their local media.<sup id="cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1986, the term gained increased currency in the U.S. when it was revealed that two months previously, the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan Administration</a> had engaged in a disinformation campaign against then-leader of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-biagi_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biagi-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> representative <a href="/wiki/Larry_Speakes" title="Larry Speakes">Larry Speakes</a> said reports of a planned attack on Libya as first broken by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> on August 25, 1986, were "authoritative", and other newspapers including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i> then wrote articles saying this was factual.<sup id="cite_ref-biagi_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biagi-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a> representative <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Kalb" title="Bernard Kalb">Bernard Kalb</a> resigned from his position in protest over the disinformation campaign, and said: "Faith in the word of America is the pulse beat of our democracy."<sup id="cite_ref-biagi_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biagi-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The executive branch of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a> kept watch on disinformation campaigns through three yearly publications by the Department of State: <i>Active Measures: A Report on the Substance and Process of Anti-U.S. Disinformation and Propaganda Campaigns</i> (1986); <i>Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1986–87</i> (1987); and <i>Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1987–88</i> (1989).<sup id="cite_ref-manningromerstein_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manningromerstein-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a report by <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>, the United States ran a <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_United_States" title="Propaganda in the United States">propaganda</a> campaign to spread disinformation about the <a href="/wiki/Sinovac_Biotech" title="Sinovac Biotech">Sinovac</a> Chinese <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> vaccine, including using fake social media accounts to spread the disinformation that the Sinovac vaccine contained pork-derived ingredients and was therefore <i><a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">haram</a></i> under <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reuters said the <a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a> was designed to "counter what it perceived as China's growing influence in the Philippines" and was prompted by the "[fear] that China's <a href="/wiki/Vaccine_diplomacy" title="Vaccine diplomacy">COVID diplomacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">propaganda</a> could draw other Southeast Asian countries, such as Cambodia and Malaysia, closer to Beijing".<sup id="cite_ref-:6_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign was also described as "payback for Beijing's efforts to blame Washington for the pandemic".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign primarily targeted people in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and used a social media <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtag</a> for "China is the virus" in <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign ran from 2020 to mid-2021.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary contractor for the U.S. military on the project was <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics IT</a>, which received $493 million for its role.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Response">Response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses_from_cultural_leaders">Responses from cultural leaders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Responses from cultural leaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> condemned disinformation in a 2016 interview, after being made the subject of a <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">fake news website</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. election</a> cycle which falsely claimed that he supported <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-popewarnsnyt_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popewarnsnyt-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alyssanewcomb_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alyssanewcomb-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-didthepope_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-didthepope-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said the worst thing the news media could do was spread disinformation. He said the act was a <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-popewarnsreuters_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popewarnsreuters-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harrietsherwood_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrietsherwood-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comparing those who spread disinformation to individuals who engage in <a href="/wiki/Coprophilia" title="Coprophilia">coprophilia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-popefranciscompares_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popefranciscompares-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andrewgriffin_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andrewgriffin-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_in_warfare">Ethics in warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ethics in warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a contribution to the 2014 book <i>Military Ethics and Emerging Technologies</i>, writers David Danks and Joseph H. Danks discuss the ethical implications in using disinformation as a tactic during <a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">information warfare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They note there has been a significant degree of philosophical debate over the issue as related to the <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of war">ethics of war</a> and use of the technique.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The writers describe a position whereby the use of disinformation is occasionally allowed, but not in all situations.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically the ethical test to consider is whether the disinformation was performed out of a motivation of <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> and acceptable according to the <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of war">rules of war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this test, the tactic during World War II of putting fake inflatable tanks in visible locations on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a> in order to falsely present the impression that there were larger military forces present would be considered as ethically permissible.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, disguising a munitions plant as a healthcare facility in order to avoid attack would be outside the bounds of acceptable use of disinformation during war.<sup id="cite_ref-daviddanks_73-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/220px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/330px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/440px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>A framework for how disinformation spreads in social media<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Research related to disinformation studies is increasing as an applied area of inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The call to formally classify disinformation as a cybersecurity <a href="/wiki/Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">threat</a> is made by advocates due to its increase in social networking sites.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the proliferation of social media websites, Facebook and Twitter showed the most activity in terms of active disinformation campaigns. Techniques reported on included the use of bots to amplify hate speech, the illegal harvesting of data, and paid trolls to harass and threaten journalists.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas disinformation research focuses primarily on how actors orchestrate deceptions on social media, primarily via <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>, new research investigates how people take what started as deceptions and circulate them as their personal views.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, research shows that disinformation can be conceptualized as a program that encourages engagement in oppositional fantasies (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>), through which disinformation circulates as rhetorical ammunition for never-ending arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As disinformation entangles with <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>, identity-driven controversies constitute a vehicle through which disinformation disseminates on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. This means that disinformation thrives, not despite raucous grudges but because of them. The reason is that controversies provide fertile ground for never-ending debates that solidify points of view.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars have pointed out that disinformation is not only a foreign threat as domestic purveyors of disinformation are also leveraging traditional media outlets such as newspapers, radio stations, and television news media to disseminate false information.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current research suggests right-wing online political <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activists</a> in the United States may be more likely to use disinformation as a strategy and tactic.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governments have responded with a wide range of policies to address concerns about the potential threats that disinformation poses to democracy, however, there is little agreement in elite policy discourse or academic literature as to what it means for disinformation to threaten democracy, and how different policies might help to counter its negative implications.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online">Consequences of exposure to disinformation online</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Consequences of exposure to disinformation online"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a broad consensus amongst scholars that there is a high degree of disinformation, misinformation, and propaganda online; however, it is unclear to what extent such disinformation has on political attitudes in the public and, therefore, political outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">conventional wisdom</a> has come mostly from investigative journalists, with a particular rise during the 2016 U.S. election: some of the earliest work came from Craig Silverman at Buzzfeed News.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cass Sunstein supported this in <i>#Republic,</i> arguing that the internet would become rife with <a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">echo chambers</a> and informational cascades of misinformation leading to a highly polarized and ill-informed society.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research after the 2016 election found: (1) for 14 percent of Americans social media was their "most important" source of election news; 2) known false news stories "favoring Trump were shared a total of 30 million times on Facebook, while those favoring Clinton were shared 8 million times"; 3) the average American adult saw fake news stories, "with just over half of those who recalled seeing them believing them"; and 4) people are more likely to "believe stories that favor their preferred candidate, especially if they have ideologically segregated social media networks."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correspondingly, whilst there is wide agreement that the digital spread and uptake of disinformation during the 2016 election was massive and very likely facilitated by foreign agents, there is an ongoing debate on whether all this had any actual effect on the election. For example, a double blind randomized-control experiment by researchers from the London School of Economics (LSE), found that exposure to online fake news about either Trump or Clinton had no significant effect on intentions to vote for those candidates. Researchers who examined the influence of Russian disinformation on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential campaign found that exposure to disinformation was (1) concentrated among a tiny group of users, (2) primarily among Republicans, and (3) eclipsed by exposure to legitimate political news media and politicians. Finally, they find "no evidence of a meaningful relationship between exposure to the Russian foreign influence campaign and changes in attitudes, polarization, or voting behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, despite its mass dissemination during the 2016 Presidential Elections, online fake news or disinformation probably did not cost Hillary Clinton the votes needed to secure the presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on this topic remains inconclusive, for example, misinformation appears not to significantly change political knowledge of those exposed to it.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There seems to be a higher level of diversity of news sources that users are exposed to on Facebook and Twitter than conventional wisdom would dictate, as well as a higher frequency of cross-spectrum discussion.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other evidence has found that disinformation campaigns rarely succeed in altering the foreign policies of the targeted states.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research is also challenging because disinformation is meant to be difficult to detect and some social media companies have discouraged outside research efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, researchers found disinformation made "existing detection algorithms from traditional news media ineffective or not applicable...[because disinformation] is intentionally written to mislead readers...[and] users' social engagements with fake news produce data that is big, incomplete, unstructured, and noisy."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facebook, the largest social media company, has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Analytic_journalism" title="Analytic journalism">analytical journalists</a> and scholars for preventing outside research of disinformation.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques">Alternative perspectives and critiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alternative perspectives and critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers have criticized the framing of disinformation as being limited to technology platforms, removed from its wider political context and inaccurately implying that the media landscape was otherwise well-functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The field possesses a simplistic understanding of the effects of media technologies; overemphasizes platforms and underemphasizes politics; focuses too much on the United States and Anglocentric analysis; has a shallow understanding of political culture and culture in general; lacks analysis of race, class, gender, and sexuality as well as status, inequality, social structure, and power; has a thin understanding of journalistic processes; and, has progressed more through the exigencies of grant funding than the development of theory and empirical findings."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternative perspectives have been proposed: </p> <ol><li>Moving beyond <i><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">fact-checking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">media literacy</a></i> to study a pervasive phenomenon as something that involves more than news consumption.</li> <li>Moving beyond <i>technical solutions</i> including AI-enhanced fact checking to understand the systemic basis of disinformation.</li> <li>Develop a theory that goes beyond <i><a href="/wiki/Americentrism" title="Americentrism">Americentrism</a></i> to develop a global perspective, understand cultural imperialism and Third World dependency on Western news<i>,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> and understand disinformation in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Develop <i>market-oriented disinformation research</i> that examines the financial incentives and <a href="/wiki/Business_model" title="Business model">business models</a> that nudge content creators and <a href="/wiki/Digital_platform_(infrastructure)" title="Digital platform (infrastructure)">digital platforms</a> to circulate disinformation online.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-:7_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Include a multidisciplinary approach</i>, involving <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist studies">feminist studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a>.</li> <li>Develop understandings of <i>Gendered-based disinformation (GBD)</i> defined as "the dissemination of false or misleading information attacking women (especially political leaders, journalists and public figures), basing the attack on their identity as women."<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation">Strategies for spreading disinformation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Strategies for spreading disinformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disinformation_attack">Disinformation attack</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Disinformation attack"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></div> <p>The research literature on how disinformation spreads is growing.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that disinformation spread in social media can be classified into two broad stages: seeding and echoing.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Seeding," when malicious actors strategically insert deceptions, like fake news, into a social media ecosystem, and "echoing" is when the audience disseminates disinformation argumentatively as their own opinions often by incorporating disinformation into a confrontational fantasy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_manipulation">Internet manipulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Internet manipulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_manipulation&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a> is the co-optation of <a href="/wiki/Online_and_offline" title="Online and offline">online</a> digital technologies, including algorithms, <a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">social bots</a>, and automated scripts, for commercial, social, military, or political purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internet and social media manipulation are the prime vehicles for spreading disinformation due to the importance of <a href="/wiki/Platforms_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Platforms (computing)">digital platforms</a> for <a href="/wiki/Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">media consumption</a> and everyday <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When employed for political purposes, internet manipulation may be used to steer <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">public opinion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> polarise citizens,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> circulate <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_manipulation_:0_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet_manipulation_:0-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and silence <a href="/wiki/Political_dissidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Political dissidents">political dissidents</a>. Internet manipulation can also be done for profit, for instance, to harm corporate or political adversaries and improve <a href="/wiki/Brand" title="Brand">brand</a> reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internet manipulation is sometimes also used to describe the selective enforcement of <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or selective violations of <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <p>Studies show four main methods of seeding disinformation online:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Selective censorship</li> <li>Manipulation of search rankings</li> <li>Hacking and releasing</li> <li>Directly Sharing Disinformation</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies">Exploiting online advertising technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Exploiting online advertising technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disinformation is amplified online due to malpractice concerning <a href="/wiki/Online_advertising" title="Online advertising">online advertising</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Machine_to_machine" title="Machine to machine">machine-to-machine</a> interactions of <a href="/wiki/Real-time_bidding" title="Real-time bidding">real-time bidding</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Online advertising technologies have been used to amplify disinformation due to the financial incentives and <a href="/wiki/Monetization" title="Monetization">monetization</a> of <a href="/wiki/User-generated_content" title="User-generated content">user-generated content</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lax oversight over the online advertising market can be used to amplify disinformation, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Dark_money" title="Dark money">dark money</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Social_media_use_in_politics" title="Social media use in politics">political advertising</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agitprop" title="Agitprop">Agitprop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_elections" title="Artificial intelligence and elections">Artificial intelligence and elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">Black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations and information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">Deepfakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoralization_(warfare)" title="Demoralization (warfare)">Demoralization (warfare)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_and_deception" title="Denial and deception">Denial and deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty_and_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fear, uncertainty and doubt">Fear, uncertainty and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_falsification" title="Knowledge falsification">Knowledge falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kompromat" title="Kompromat">Kompromat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_Consent" title="Manufacturing Consent">Manufacturing Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_power" title="Sharp power">Sharp power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering (political science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bittman1985-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBittman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Martin-Bittman" title="Lawrence Martin-Bittman">Bittman, Ladislav</a> (1985), <a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation"><i>The KGB and Soviet Disinformation: An Insider's View</i></a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, pp. 49–50, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0"><bdi>978-0-08-031572-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+KGB+and+Soviet+Disinformation%3A+An+Insider%27s+View&rft.pages=49-50&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-08-031572-0&rft.aulast=Bittman&rft.aufirst=Ladislav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shultzgodson-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shultzgodson_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultzGodson1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Shultz" title="Richard H. Shultz">Shultz, Richard H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Godson" title="Roy Godson">Godson, Roy</a> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)"><i>Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</i></a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dezinformatsiaac0000shul/page/37">37–38</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031573-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031573-7"><bdi>978-0-08-031573-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dezinformatsia%3A+Active+Measures+in+Soviet+Strategy&rft.pages=37-38&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-08-031573-7&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Godson%2C+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Commission2022" class="citation web cs1">European Commission (16 June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation">"The Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation 2022"</a>. <i>digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu</i>. p. 1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu&rft.atitle=The+Strengthened+Code+of+Practice+on+Disinformation+2022&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2022-06-16&rft.au=European+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital-strategy.ec.europa.eu%2Fen%2Flibrary%2F2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_Ruiz2023" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231207644">"Disinformation on digital media platforms: A market-shaping approach"</a>. <i>New Media & Society</i>. Online first: 1–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231207644">10.1177/14614448231207644</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264816011">264816011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Disinformation+on+digital+media+platforms%3A+A+market-shaping+approach&rft.volume=Online+first&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14614448231207644&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264816011%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14614448231207644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span><i><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/80px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/120px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/160px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="80" data-file-height="15" /></a></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the <a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="extiw" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> license.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_RuizNilsson2022" class="citation journal cs1">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos; Nilsson, Tomas (16 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852">"Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates in Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Policy & Marketing</i>. <b>42</b>: 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07439156221103852">10.1177/07439156221103852</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248934562">248934562</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220620070343/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Policy+%26+Marketing&rft.atitle=Disinformation+and+Echo+Chambers%3A+How+Disinformation+Circulates+in+Social+Media+Through+Identity-Driven+Controversies&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=2022-05-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248934562%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft.au=Nilsson%2C+Tomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265552">"Ireton, C & Posetti, J (2018) "Journalism, fake news & disinformation: handbook for journalism education and training" UNESCO"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163611/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265552">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ireton%2C+C+%26+Posetti%2C+J+%282018%29+%22Journalism%2C+fake+news+%26+disinformation%3A+handbook+for+journalism+education+and+training%22+UNESCO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000265552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-golbeck-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-golbeck_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolbeck2008" class="citation cs2">Golbeck, Jennifer, ed. (2008), <i>Computing with Social Trust</i>, Human-Computer Interaction Series, Springer, pp. 19–20, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-355-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-355-2"><bdi>978-1-84800-355-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computing+with+Social+Trust&rft.series=Human-Computer+Interaction+Series&rft.pages=19-20&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84800-355-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreelonWells2020" class="citation journal cs1">Freelon, Deen; Wells, Chris (3 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755">"Disinformation as Political Communication"</a>. <i>Political Communication</i>. <b>37</b> (2): 145–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1723755">10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-4609">1058-4609</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212897113">212897113</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230717173304/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Communication&rft.atitle=Disinformation+as+Political+Communication&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-156&rft.date=2020-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212897113%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1058-4609&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1723755&rft.aulast=Freelon&rft.aufirst=Deen&rft.au=Wells%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1723755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2022" class="citation journal cs1">Newman, Hadley (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27199985">"Information Warfare: Leveraging the DMMI Matrix Cube for Risk Assessment"</a>. <i>Journal of Information Warfare</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 84–102. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1445-3312">1445-3312</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27199985">27199985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Information+Warfare&rft.atitle=Information+Warfare%3A+Leveraging+the+DMMI+Matrix+Cube+for+Risk+Assessment&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=84-102&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27199985%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1445-3312&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Hadley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27199985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHadley2022" class="citation web cs1">Hadley, Newman (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jinfowar.com/authors/hadley-newman">"Author"</a>. <i>Journal of Information Warfare</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228134920/https://www.jinfowar.com/authors/hadley-newman">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2022</span>. <q>Strategic communications advisor working across a broad range of policy areas for public and multilateral organisations. Counter-disinformation specialist and published author on foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Information+Warfare&rft.atitle=Author&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Hadley&rft.aufirst=Newman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jinfowar.com%2Fauthors%2Fhadley-newman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7726932/early-use-of-the-word-disinformation/">"City & County Cullings (Early use of the word "disinformation" 1887)"</a>. <i>Medicine Lodge Cresset</i>. 17 February 1887. p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524135425/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7726932/early-use-of-the-word-disinformation/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicine+Lodge+Cresset&rft.atitle=City+%26+County+Cullings+%28Early+use+of+the+word+%22disinformation%22+1887%29&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1887-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F7726932%2Fearly-use-of-the-word-disinformation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7729235/professor-young-on-mars-and/">"Professor Young on Mars and disinformation (1892)"</a>. <i>The Salt Lake Herald</i>. 18 August 1892. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524135429/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7729235/professor-young-on-mars-and/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Salt+Lake+Herald&rft.atitle=Professor+Young+on+Mars+and+disinformation+%281892%29&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1892-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F7729235%2Fprofessor-young-on-mars-and%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7729323/pure-nonsense-early-use-of-the-word/">"Pure nonsense (early use of the word disinformation) (1907)"</a>. <i>The San Bernardino County Sun</i>. 26 September 1907. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524135452/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7729323/pure-nonsense-early-use-of-the-word/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+San+Bernardino+County+Sun&rft.atitle=Pure+nonsense+%28early+use+of+the+word+disinformation%29+%281907%29&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1907-09-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F7729323%2Fpure-nonsense-early-use-of-the-word%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7818737/support-for-red-cross-helps-us-boys/">"Support for Red Cross helps U.S. boys abroad, Rotary Club is told (1917)"</a>. <i>The Sheboygan Press</i>. 18 December 1917. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524135431/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7818737/support-for-red-cross-helps-us-boys/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sheboygan+Press&rft.atitle=Support+for+Red+Cross+helps+U.S.+boys+abroad%2C+Rotary+Club+is+told+%281917%29&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1917-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F7818737%2Fsupport-for-red-cross-helps-us-boys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pacepa-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pacepa_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pacepa_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pacepa_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIon_Mihai_Pacepa_and_Ronald_J._Rychlak2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa" title="Ion Mihai Pacepa">Ion Mihai Pacepa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Rychlak" title="Ronald J. Rychlak">Ronald J. Rychlak</a> (2013), <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)"><i>Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism</i></a>, WND Books, pp. 4–6, 34–39, 75, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5"><bdi>978-1-936488-60-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disinformation%3A+Former+Spy+Chief+Reveals+Secret+Strategies+for+Undermining+Freedom%2C+Attacking+Religion%2C+and+Promoting+Terrorism&rft.pages=4-6%2C+34-39%2C+75&rft.pub=WND+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-936488-60-5&rft.au=Ion+Mihai+Pacepa+and+Ronald+J.+Rychlak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jowett-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jowett_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarth_JowettVictoria_O'Donnell2005" class="citation cs2">Garth Jowett; <a href="/wiki/Victoria_O%27Donnell" title="Victoria O'Donnell">Victoria O'Donnell</a> (2005), "What Is Propaganda, and How Does It Differ From Persuasion?", <i>Propaganda and Persuasion</i>, Sage Publications, pp. 21–23, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0898-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0898-6"><bdi>978-1-4129-0898-6</bdi></a>, <q>In fact, the word disinformation is a cognate for the Russian dezinformatsia, taken from the name of a division of the KGB devoted to black propaganda.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Propaganda%2C+and+How+Does+It+Differ+From+Persuasion%3F&rft.btitle=Propaganda+and+Persuasion&rft.pages=21-23&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-0898-6&rft.au=Garth+Jowett&rft.au=Victoria+O%27Donnell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adamtaylor-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adamtaylor_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2016" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Adam (26 November 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation">"Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514041408/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation/">archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Before+%27fake+news%2C%27+there+was+Soviet+%27disinformation%27&rft.date=2016-11-26&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2016%2F11%2F26%2Fbefore-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ned-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ned_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ned_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2018" class="citation cs2">Jackson, Dean (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Distinguishing-Disinformation-from-Propaganda.pdf"><i>Distinguishing Disinformation from Propaganda, Misinformation, and 'Fake News'<span></span></i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy" title="National Endowment for Democracy">National Endowment for Democracy</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407003326/https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Distinguishing-Disinformation-from-Propaganda.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distinguishing+Disinformation+from+Propaganda%2C+Misinformation%2C+and+%27Fake+News%27&rft.pub=National+Endowment+for+Democracy&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Dean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ned.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F06%2FDistinguishing-Disinformation-from-Propaganda.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bittman1988-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bittman1988_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Martin-Bittman" title="Lawrence Martin-Bittman">Bittman, Ladislav</a> (1988), <i>The New Image-Makers: Soviet Propaganda & Disinformation Today</i>, Brassey's Inc, pp. 7, 24, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-034939-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-034939-8"><bdi>978-0-08-034939-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Image-Makers%3A+Soviet+Propaganda+%26+Disinformation+Today&rft.pages=7%2C+24&rft.pub=Brassey%27s+Inc&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-08-034939-8&rft.aulast=Bittman&rft.aufirst=Ladislav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davidmartin-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-davidmartin_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1990" class="citation cs2">Martin, David (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/webofdisinformat0000mart/page/"><i>The Web of Disinformation: Churchill's Yugoslav Blunder</i></a>, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/webofdisinformat0000mart/page/">xx</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-180704-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-180704-8"><bdi>978-0-15-180704-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Web+of+Disinformation%3A+Churchill%27s+Yugoslav+Blunder&rft.pages=xx&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-15-180704-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwebofdisinformat0000mart%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-heinemann-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-heinemann_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2001" class="citation cs2">Barton, Geoff (2001), <i>Developing Media Skills</i>, Heinemann, p. 124, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-10960-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-10960-8"><bdi>978-0-435-10960-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Developing+Media+Skills&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-435-10960-8&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cunningham-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cunningham_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2002" class="citation cs2">Cunningham, Stanley B. (2002), "Disinformation (Russian: <i>dezinformatsiya</i>)", <i>The Idea of Propaganda: A Reconstruction</i>, Praeger, pp. 67–68, 110, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97445-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97445-9"><bdi>978-0-275-97445-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation+%28Russian%3A+dezinformatsiya%29&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Propaganda%3A+A+Reconstruction&rft.pages=67-68%2C+110&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97445-9&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Stanley+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shorensteincenter.org/research-initiatives/disinformation/">"Disinformation"</a>. <i>Shorenstein Center</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231030110857/https://shorensteincenter.org/research-initiatives/disinformation/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shorenstein+Center&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshorensteincenter.org%2Fresearch-initiatives%2Fdisinformation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Center for Internet Security. (3 October 2022). "Essential Guide to Election Security:Managing Mis-, Dis-, and Malinformation". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://essentialguide.docs.cisecurity.org/en/latest/bp/mdm_info.html">CIS website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231218162438/https://essentialguide.docs.cisecurity.org/en/latest/bp/mdm_info.html">Archived</a> 18 December 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 18 December 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBainesElliott2020" class="citation journal cs1">Baines, Darrin; Elliott, Robert J. R. (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org//p/bir/birmec/20-06.html">"Defining misinformation, disinformation and malinformation: An urgent need for clarity during the COVID-19 infodemic"</a>. <i>Discussion Papers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214124131/https://ideas.repec.org//p/bir/birmec/20-06.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discussion+Papers&rft.atitle=Defining+misinformation%2C+disinformation+and+malinformation%3A+An+urgent+need+for+clarity+during+the+COVID-19+infodemic&rft.date=2020-04&rft.aulast=Baines&rft.aufirst=Darrin&rft.au=Elliott%2C+Robert+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2F%2Fp%2Fbir%2Fbirmec%2F20-06.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edoc.coe.int/en/media/7495-information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-research-and-policy-making.html">"Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making"</a>. <i>Council of Europe Publishing</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214125635/https://edoc.coe.int/en/media/7495-information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-research-and-policy-making.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Council+of+Europe+Publishing&rft.atitle=Information+disorder%3A+Toward+an+interdisciplinary+framework+for+research+and+policy+making&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedoc.coe.int%2Fen%2Fmedia%2F7495-information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-research-and-policy-making.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman" class="citation journal cs1">Newman, Hadley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/39289/html/">"Understanding the Differences Between Disinformation, Misinformation, Malinformation and Information – Presenting the DMMI Matrix"</a>. <i>Draft Online Safety Bill (Joint Committee)</i>. UK: UK Government. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230104112358/https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/39289/html/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Draft+Online+Safety+Bill+%28Joint+Committee%29&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Differences+Between+Disinformation%2C+Misinformation%2C+Malinformation+and+Information+%E2%80%93+Presenting+the+DMMI+Matrix&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Hadley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommittees.parliament.uk%2Fwrittenevidence%2F39289%2Fhtml%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois2019" class="citation web cs1">François, Camille (20 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230321071912/https://docs.house.gov/meetings/SY/SY21/20190926/109980/HHRG-116-SY21-Wstate-FrancoisC-20190926-SD001.pdf">"Actors, Behaviors, Content: A Disinformation ABC – Highlighting Three Vectors of Viral Deception to Guide Industry & Regulatory Responses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.house.gov/meetings/SY/SY21/20190926/109980/HHRG-116-SY21-Wstate-FrancoisC-20190926-SD001.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Actors%2C+Behaviors%2C+Content%3A+A+Disinformation+ABC+%E2%80%93+Highlighting+Three+Vectors+of+Viral+Deception+to+Guide+Industry+%26+Regulatory+Responses&rft.date=2019-09-20&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.aufirst=Camille&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.house.gov%2Fmeetings%2FSY%2FSY21%2F20190926%2F109980%2FHHRG-116-SY21-Wstate-FrancoisC-20190926-SD001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlaphilippe2020" class="citation web cs1">Alaphilippe, Alexandre (27 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231027042531/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/adding-a-d-to-the-abc-disinformation-framework/">"Adding a 'D' to the ABC disinformation framework"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/adding-a-d-to-the-abc-disinformation-framework/">the original</a> on 27 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brookings+Institution&rft.atitle=Adding+a+%27D%27+to+the+ABC+disinformation+framework&rft.date=2020-04-27&rft.aulast=Alaphilippe&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Farticles%2Fadding-a-d-to-the-abc-disinformation-framework%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPamment2020" class="citation report cs1">Pamment, James (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240318053702/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Pamment_-_Crafting_Disinformation_1.pdf">The ABCDE Framework</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a>. pp. 5–9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26180.6">the original</a> on 18 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+ABCDE+Framework&rft.pages=5-9&rft.pub=Carnegie+Endowment+for+International+Peace&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Pamment&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep26180.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330160444/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271028.pdf"><i>Can public diplomacy survive the internet?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, May 2017, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271028.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 30 March 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Can+public+diplomacy+survive+the+internet%3F&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Fdocuments%2Forganization%2F271028.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190203160823/https://www.interpretermag.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/The_Menace_of_Unreality_Final.pdf"><i>The Menace of Unreality: How the Kremlin Weaponizes Information, Culture and Money</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Institute of Modern Russia, 2014, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interpretermag.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/The_Menace_of_Unreality_Final.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 February 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Menace+of+Unreality%3A+How+the+Kremlin+Weaponizes+Information%2C+Culture+and+Money&rft.pub=Institute+of+Modern+Russia&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.interpretermag.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F11%2FThe_Menace_of_Unreality_Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2022" class="citation book cs1">Newman, Hadley (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/foreign-information-manipulation-and-interference-defence-standards-test-for-rapid-adoption-of-the-common-language-and-framework-disarm-prepared-in-cooperation-with-hybrid-coe/253"><i>Foreign information manipulation and interference defence standards: Test for rapid adoption of the common language and framework 'DISARM'<span></span></i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence. Latvia. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-7472-46-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-952-7472-46-0"><bdi>978-952-7472-46-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228165610/https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/foreign-information-manipulation-and-interference-defence-standards-test-for-rapid-adoption-of-the-common-language-and-framework-disarm-prepared-in-cooperation-with-hybrid-coe/253">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2022</span> – via European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+information+manipulation+and+interference+defence+standards%3A+Test+for+rapid+adoption+of+the+common+language+and+framework+%27DISARM%27&rft.place=Latvia&rft.series=NATO+Strategic+Communications+Centre+of+Excellence&rft.pages=60&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-952-7472-46-0&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Hadley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstratcomcoe.org%2Fpublications%2Fforeign-information-manipulation-and-interference-defence-standards-test-for-rapid-adoption-of-the-common-language-and-framework-disarm-prepared-in-cooperation-with-hybrid-coe%2F253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Extrernal_Action_Service_(EEAS)2021" class="citation web cs1">European Extrernal Action Service (EEAS) (27 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/tacklingdisinformation-foreign-information-manipulation-interference_en.">"Tackling Disinformation, Foreign Information Manipulation & Interference"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tackling+Disinformation%2C+Foreign+Information+Manipulation+%26+Interference&rft.date=2021-10-27&rft.au=European+Extrernal+Action+Service+%28EEAS%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eeas.europa.eu%2Feeas%2Ftacklingdisinformation-foreign-information-manipulation-interference_en.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jangoldman-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jangoldman_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman2006" class="citation cs2">Goldman, Jan (2006), "Disinformation", <i>Words of Intelligence: A Dictionary</i>, Scarecrow Press, p. 43, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5641-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5641-7"><bdi>978-0-8108-5641-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft.btitle=Words+of+Intelligence%3A+A+Dictionary&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5641-7&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eugeneasamier-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eugeneasamier_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eugeneasamier_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamier2014" class="citation cs2">Samier, Eugene A. (2014), <i>Secrecy and Tradecraft in Educational Administration: The Covert Side of Educational Life</i>, Routledge Research in Education, Routledge, p. 176, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-81681-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-81681-6"><bdi>978-0-415-81681-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secrecy+and+Tradecraft+in+Educational+Administration%3A+The+Covert+Side+of+Educational+Life&rft.series=Routledge+Research+in+Education&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-81681-6&rft.aulast=Samier&rft.aufirst=Eugene+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTandocLimLing2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tandoc, Edson C; Lim, Darren; Ling, Rich (7 August 2019). "Diffusion of disinformation: How social media users respond to fake news and why". <i>Journalism</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 381–398. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1464884919868325">10.1177/1464884919868325</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1464-8849">1464-8849</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202281476">202281476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journalism&rft.atitle=Diffusion+of+disinformation%3A+How+social+media+users+respond+to+fake+news+and+why&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=381-398&rft.date=2019-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202281476%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1464-8849&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1464884919868325&rft.aulast=Tandoc&rft.aufirst=Edson+C&rft.au=Lim%2C+Darren&rft.au=Ling%2C+Rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_adamtaylor-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_adamtaylor_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2016" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Adam (26 November 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation">"Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Before+%27fake+news%2C%27+there+was+Soviet+%27disinformation%27&rft.date=2016-11-26&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2016%2F11%2F26%2Fbefore-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_manningromerstein-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_manningromerstein_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_J._ManningHerbert_Romerstein2004" class="citation cs2">Martin J. Manning; Herbert Romerstein (2004), "Disinformation", <i>Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda</i>, Greenwood, pp. 82–83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29605-5"><bdi>978-0-313-29605-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+American+Propaganda&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29605-5&rft.au=Martin+J.+Manning&rft.au=Herbert+Romerstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_nicholasjohncull-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_disinformation_nicholasjohncull_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_John_CullDavid_Holbrook_CulbertDavid_Welch2003" class="citation cs2">Nicholas John Cull; David Holbrook Culbert; David Welch (2003), "Disinformation", <i>Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present</i>, <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>, p. 104, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610690713" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610690713"><bdi>978-1610690713</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft.btitle=Propaganda+and+Mass+Persuasion%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia%2C+1500+to+the+Present&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1610690713&rft.au=Nicholas+John+Cull&rft.au=David+Holbrook+Culbert&rft.au=David+Welch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Botter_2022-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Botter_2022_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStukalSanovichBonneauTucker2022" class="citation journal cs1">Stukal, Denis; Sanovich, Sergey; Bonneau, Richard; Tucker, Joshua A. (February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D8A8A74976408CF7EC329827AFFFD3FC/S0003055421001507a.pdf/div-class-title-why-botter-how-pro-government-bots-fight-opposition-in-russia-div.pdf">"Why Botter: How Pro-Government Bots Fight Opposition in Russia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review" title="American Political Science Review">American Political Science Review</a></i>. <b>116</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>: 843–857. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055421001507">10.1017/S0003055421001507</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-5943">1537-5943</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/08009025">08009025</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/805068983">805068983</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247038589">247038589</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Botter%3A+How+Pro-Government+Bots+Fight+Opposition+in+Russia&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=843-857&rft.date=2022-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247038589%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003055421001507&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F805068983&rft.issn=1537-5943&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F08009025&rft.aulast=Stukal&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft.au=Sanovich%2C+Sergey&rft.au=Bonneau%2C+Richard&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Joshua+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2FD8A8A74976408CF7EC329827AFFFD3FC%2FS0003055421001507a.pdf%2Fdiv-class-title-why-botter-how-pro-government-bots-fight-opposition-in-russia-div.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_ACI_2019-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_ACI_2019_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSultan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Sultan, Oz (Spring 2019). "Tackling Disinformation, Online Terrorism, and Cyber Risks into the 2020s". <i>The Cyber Defense Review</i>. <b>4</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/West_Point,_New_York" title="West Point, New York">West Point, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">Army Cyber Institute</a>: 43–60. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2474-2120">2474-2120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26623066">26623066</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cyber+Defense+Review&rft.atitle=Tackling+Disinformation%2C+Online+Terrorism%2C+and+Cyber+Risks+into+the+2020s&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-60&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26623066%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2474-2120&rft.aulast=Sultan&rft.aufirst=Oz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_WaPo2016-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_WaPo2016_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_ApplebaumEdward_Lucas2016" class="citation cs2">Anne Applebaum; Edward Lucas (6 May 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-danger-of-russian-disinformation/2016/05/06/b31d9718-12d5-11e6-8967-7ac733c56f12_story.html">"The danger of Russian disinformation"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+danger+of+Russian+disinformation&rft.date=2016-05-06&rft.au=Anne+Applebaum&rft.au=Edward+Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Fthe-danger-of-russian-disinformation%2F2016%2F05%2F06%2Fb31d9718-12d5-11e6-8967-7ac733c56f12_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_zois-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_zois_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.zois-berlin.de/publications/russian-state-sponsored-media-and-disinformation-on-twitter">"Russian state-sponsored media and disinformation on Twitter"</a>. ZOiS Spotlight<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian+state-sponsored+media+and+disinformation+on+Twitter&rft.pub=ZOiS+Spotlight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.zois-berlin.de%2Fpublications%2Frussian-state-sponsored-media-and-disinformation-on-twitter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Cigi2021-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Cigi2021_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cigionline.org/articles/russian-disinformation-is-taking-hold-in-africa/">"Russian Disinformation Is Taking Hold in Africa"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation" title="Centre for International Governance Innovation">CIGI</a>. 17 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>. <q>The Kremlin's effectiveness in seeding its preferred vaccine narratives among African audiences underscores its wider concerted effort to undermine and discredit Western powers by pushing or tapping into anti-Western sentiment across the continent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian+Disinformation+Is+Taking+Hold+in+Africa&rft.pub=CIGI&rft.date=2021-11-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cigionline.org%2Farticles%2Frussian-disinformation-is-taking-hold-in-africa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Guardian2019-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_Guardian2019_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/11/leaked-documents-reveal-russian-effort-to-exert-influence-in-africa">"Leaked documents reveal Russian effort to exert influence in Africa"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 11 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>. <q>The mission to increase Russian influence on the continent is being led by Yevgeny Prigozhin, a businessman based in St Petersburg who is a close ally of the Russian president, Vladimir Putin. One aim is to 'strong-arm' the US and the former colonial powers the UK and France out of the region. Another is to see off 'pro-western' uprisings, the documents say.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Leaked+documents+reveal+Russian+effort+to+exert+influence+in+Africa&rft.date=2019-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Fjun%2F11%2Fleaked-documents-reveal-russian-effort-to-exert-influence-in-africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_powerfulrussian-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_powerfulrussian_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFarquharaug2016" class="citation cs2">MacFarquharaug, Neil (28 August 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/29/world/europe/russia-sweden-disinformation.html">"A Powerful Russian Weapon: The Spread of False Stories"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, p. A1<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2016</span>, <q>Moscow adamantly denies using disinformation to influence Western public opinion and tends to label accusations of either overt or covert threats as 'Russophobia.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Powerful+Russian+Weapon%3A+The+Spread+of+False+Stories&rft.pages=A1&rft.date=2016-08-28&rft.aulast=MacFarquharaug&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F08%2F29%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Frussia-sweden-disinformation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:1-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:1_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/how-russia-s-disinformation-campaign-seeps-into-us-views-/7566503.html">"How Russia's disinformation campaign seeps into US views"</a>. <i>Voice of America</i>. 11 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voice+of+America&rft.atitle=How+Russia%27s+disinformation+campaign+seeps+into+US+views&rft.date=2024-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fhow-russia-s-disinformation-campaign-seeps-into-us-views-%2F7566503.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:0-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:0_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelton2024" class="citation news cs1">Belton, Catherine (17 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/04/17/russia-foreign-policy-us-weaken/">"Secret Russian foreign policy document urges action to weaken the U.S."</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Secret+Russian+foreign+policy+document+urges+action+to+weaken+the+U.S.&rft.date=2024-04-17&rft.aulast=Belton&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2F2024%2F04%2F17%2Frussia-foreign-policy-us-weaken%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:2-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russian_disinformation_:2_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2023" class="citation news cs1">Stone, Peter (16 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/16/russia-disinformation-us-far-right-republicans-ukraine">"Russia disinformation looks to US far right to weaken Ukraine support"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Russia+disinformation+looks+to+US+far+right+to+weaken+Ukraine+support&rft.date=2023-03-16&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2023%2Fmar%2F16%2Frussia-disinformation-us-far-right-republicans-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_:4-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:4_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBingPaulBing2024" class="citation news cs1">Bing, Christopher; Paul, Katie; Bing, Christopher (3 September 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-voters-targeted-by-chinese-influence-online-researchers-say-2024-09-03/">"US voters targeted by Chinese influence online, researchers say"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=US+voters+targeted+by+Chinese+influence+online%2C+researchers+say&rft.date=2024-09-03&rft.aulast=Bing&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Paul%2C+Katie&rft.au=Bing%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fus%2Fus-voters-targeted-by-chinese-influence-online-researchers-say-2024-09-03%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_CNN2023-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_CNN2023_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_CNN2023_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'SullivanDevineGordon2023" class="citation news cs1">O'Sullivan, Donie; Devine, Curt; Gordon, Allison (13 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/13/us/china-online-disinformation-invs/index.html">"China is using the world's largest known online disinformation operation to harass Americans, a CNN review finds"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231114005321/https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/13/us/china-online-disinformation-invs/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=China+is+using+the+world%27s+largest+known+online+disinformation+operation+to+harass+Americans%2C+a+CNN+review+finds&rft.date=2023-11-13&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Donie&rft.au=Devine%2C+Curt&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2023%2F11%2F13%2Fus%2Fchina-online-disinformation-invs%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_MS_names_threat_actors-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_MS_names_threat_actors_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/defender-xdr/microsoft-threat-actor-naming">"How Microsoft names threat actors"</a>. <i>Microsoft Learn</i>. 17 October 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Learn&rft.atitle=How+Microsoft+names+threat+actors&rft.date=2024-10-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fdefender-xdr%2Fmicrosoft-threat-actor-naming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2024" class="citation magazine cs1">Gilbert, David (29 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/china-bad-at-disinformation/">"Why China Is So Bad at Disinformation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240509210920/https://www.wired.com/story/china-bad-at-disinformation/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Why+China+Is+So+Bad+at+Disinformation&rft.date=2024-04-29&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fchina-bad-at-disinformation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_:0-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:0_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:0_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilmo2024" class="citation news cs1">Milmo, Dan (5 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2024/apr/05/china-using-ai-disrupt-elections">"China will use AI to disrupt elections in the US, South Korea and India, Microsoft warns"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240525185211/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2024/apr/05/china-using-ai-disrupt-elections">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=China+will+use+AI+to+disrupt+elections+in+the+US%2C+South+Korea+and+India%2C+Microsoft+warns&rft.date=2024-04-05&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Milmo&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2024%2Fapr%2F05%2Fchina-using-ai-disrupt-elections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_:6-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:6_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/oct/24/taizi-flood-china-social-media-bots-marco-rubio-targeting-republicans">"China-linked bots targeting Republicans including Marco Rubio in run-up to election, Microsoft says"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>. 24 October 2024. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2024</span>. <q>The group allegedly responsible is known as Taizi Flood, which has been previously associated with China's Ministry of Public Security, researchers say.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=China-linked+bots+targeting+Republicans+including+Marco+Rubio+in+run-up+to+election%2C+Microsoft+says&rft.date=2024-10-24&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2024%2Foct%2F24%2Ftaizi-flood-china-social-media-bots-marco-rubio-targeting-republicans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_:1-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:1_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsuMyers2024" class="citation news cs1">Hsu, Tiffany; Myers, Steven Lee (1 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/01/business/media/china-online-disinformation-us-election.html">"China's Advancing Efforts to Influence the U.S. Election Raise Alarms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240403091121/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/01/business/media/china-online-disinformation-us-election.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2024</span>. <q>The accounts sometimes amplified or repeated content from the Chinese influence campaign Spamouflage, which was first identified in 2019 and linked to an arm of the Ministry of Public Security.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=China%27s+Advancing+Efforts+to+Influence+the+U.S.+Election+Raise+Alarms&rft.date=2024-04-01&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Tiffany&rft.au=Myers%2C+Steven+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2024%2F04%2F01%2Fbusiness%2Fmedia%2Fchina-online-disinformation-us-election.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_Yang2024-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_Yang2024_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_Yang2024_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2024" class="citation news cs1">Yang, Lin (8 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/chinese-nationalist-trolls-pretend-to-be-trump-supporters-ahead-of-us-elections-/7561907.html">"Chinese nationalist trolls pretend to be Trump supporters ahead of US elections"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240509205403/https://www.voanews.com/a/chinese-nationalist-trolls-pretend-to-be-trump-supporters-ahead-of-us-elections-/7561907.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voice+of+America&rft.atitle=Chinese+nationalist+trolls+pretend+to+be+Trump+supporters+ahead+of+US+elections&rft.date=2024-04-08&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fchinese-nationalist-trolls-pretend-to-be-trump-supporters-ahead-of-us-elections-%2F7561907.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_:2-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_:2_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilmoHawkins2024" class="citation news cs1">Milmo, Dan; Hawkins, Amy (18 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/article/2024/may/18/how-china-is-using-ai-news-anchors-to-deliver-its-propaganda">"How China is using AI news anchors to deliver its propaganda"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240525185211/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/article/2024/may/18/how-china-is-using-ai-news-anchors-to-deliver-its-propaganda">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=How+China+is+using+AI+news+anchors+to+deliver+its+propaganda&rft.date=2024-05-18&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Milmo&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Farticle%2F2024%2Fmay%2F18%2Fhow-china-is-using-ai-news-anchors-to-deliver-its-propaganda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spamouflage_Graphika2021-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spamouflage_Graphika2021_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimmoHubertYang2021" class="citation report cs1">Nimmo, Ben; Hubert, Ira; Yang, Cheng (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://public-assets.graphika.com/reports/graphika_report_spamouflage_breakout.pdf">Spamouflage Breakout: Chinese Spam Network Finally Starts to Gain Some Traction</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Graphika" title="Graphika">Graphika</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305022803/https://public-assets.graphika.com/reports/graphika_report_spamouflage_breakout.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Spamouflage+Breakout%3A+Chinese+Spam+Network+Finally+Starts+to+Gain+Some+Traction&rft.pub=Graphika&rft.date=2021-02&rft.aulast=Nimmo&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Hubert%2C+Ira&rft.au=Yang%2C+Cheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublic-assets.graphika.com%2Freports%2Fgraphika_report_spamouflage_breakout.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manningromerstein-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manningromerstein_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manningromerstein_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_J._ManningHerbert_Romerstein2004" class="citation cs2">Martin J. Manning; Herbert Romerstein (2004), "Disinformation", <i>Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda</i>, Greenwood, pp. 82–83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29605-5"><bdi>978-0-313-29605-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+American+Propaganda&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29605-5&rft.au=Martin+J.+Manning&rft.au=Herbert+Romerstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray-Smith1989" class="citation cs2">Murray-Smith, Stephen (1989), <i>Right Words</i>, Viking, p. 118, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82825-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82825-8"><bdi>978-0-670-82825-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Right+Words&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-670-82825-8&rft.aulast=Murray-Smith&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-biagi-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-biagi_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-biagi_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-biagi_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiagi2014" class="citation cs2">Biagi, Shirley (2014), "Disinformation", <i>Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media</i>, Cengage Learning, p. 328, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-31138-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-31138-6"><bdi>978-1-133-31138-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disinformation&rft.btitle=Media%2FImpact%3A+An+Introduction+to+Mass+Media&rft.pages=328&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-133-31138-6&rft.aulast=Biagi&rft.aufirst=Shirley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_64-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBingSchechtman2024" class="citation news cs1">Bing, Chris; Schechtman, Joel (14 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-covid-propaganda/">"Pentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China during Pandemic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Pentagon+Ran+Secret+Anti-Vax+Campaign+to+Undermine+China+during+Pandemic&rft.date=2024-06-14&rft.aulast=Bing&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Schechtman%2C+Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Finvestigates%2Fspecial-report%2Fusa-covid-propaganda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToropin2024" class="citation web cs1">Toropin, Konstantin (14 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.military.com/daily-news/2024/06/14/pentagon-stands-secret-anti-vaccination-disinformation-campaign-philippines-after-reuters-report.html">"Pentagon Stands by Secret Anti-Vaccination Disinformation Campaign in Philippines After Reuters Report"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Military.com" title="Military.com">Military.com</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240614223757/https://www.military.com/daily-news/2024/06/14/pentagon-stands-secret-anti-vaccination-disinformation-campaign-philippines-after-reuters-report.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military.com&rft.atitle=Pentagon+Stands+by+Secret+Anti-Vaccination+Disinformation+Campaign+in+Philippines+After+Reuters+Report&rft.date=2024-06-14&rft.aulast=Toropin&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.military.com%2Fdaily-news%2F2024%2F06%2F14%2Fpentagon-stands-secret-anti-vaccination-disinformation-campaign-philippines-after-reuters-report.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-popewarnsnyt-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-popewarnsnyt_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/12/07/world/europe/ap-eu-rel-vatican-fake-news.html">"Pope Warns About Fake News-From Experience"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>, 7 December 2016, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161207180844/http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/12/07/world/europe/ap-eu-rel-vatican-fake-news.html">archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Pope+Warns+About+Fake+News-From+Experience&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Faponline%2F2016%2F12%2F07%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fap-eu-rel-vatican-fake-news.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alyssanewcomb-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alyssanewcomb_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlyssa_Newcomb2016" class="citation cs2">Alyssa Newcomb (15 November 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-google-crack-down-fake-news-advertising-n684101">"Facebook, Google Crack Down on Fake News Advertising"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a></i>, NBC News, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406233151/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-google-crack-down-fake-news-advertising-n684101">archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Facebook%2C+Google+Crack+Down+on+Fake+News+Advertising&rft.date=2016-11-15&rft.au=Alyssa+Newcomb&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Ftech%2Ftech-news%2Ffacebook-google-crack-down-fake-news-advertising-n684101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-didthepope-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-didthepope_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaede2016" class="citation cs2">Schaede, Sydney (24 October 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.factcheck.org/2016/10/did-the-pope-endorse-trump/">"Did the Pope Endorse Trump?"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190419232025/https://www.factcheck.org/2016/10/did-the-pope-endorse-trump/">archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FactCheck.org&rft.atitle=Did+the+Pope+Endorse+Trump%3F&rft.date=2016-10-24&rft.aulast=Schaede&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.factcheck.org%2F2016%2F10%2Fdid-the-pope-endorse-trump%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-popewarnsreuters-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-popewarnsreuters_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullella2016" class="citation cs2">Pullella, Philip (7 December 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-media-idUSKBN13W1TU">"Pope warns media over 'sin' of spreading fake news, smearing politicians"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201123025949/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-media-idUSKBN13W1TU">archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Pope+warns+media+over+%27sin%27+of+spreading+fake+news%2C+smearing+politicians&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft.aulast=Pullella&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-pope-media-idUSKBN13W1TU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrietsherwood-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrietsherwood_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/07/pope-compares-fake-news-consumption-to-eating-faeces-coprophilia">"Pope Francis compares fake news consumption to eating faeces"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>, 7 December 2016, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307225737/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/07/pope-compares-fake-news-consumption-to-eating-faeces-coprophilia">archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Pope+Francis+compares+fake+news+consumption+to+eating+faeces&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fdec%2F07%2Fpope-compares-fake-news-consumption-to-eating-faeces-coprophilia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-popefranciscompares-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-popefranciscompares_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZauzmer2016" class="citation cs2">Zauzmer, Julie (7 December 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/12/07/pope-francis-compares-media-who-spread-fake-news-to-people-who-are-excited-by-feces">"Pope Francis compares media that spread fake news to people who are excited by feces"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204225913/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/12/07/pope-francis-compares-media-who-spread-fake-news-to-people-who-are-excited-by-feces/">archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Pope+Francis+compares+media+that+spread+fake+news+to+people+who+are+excited+by+feces&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft.aulast=Zauzmer&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Facts-of-faith%2Fwp%2F2016%2F12%2F07%2Fpope-francis-compares-media-who-spread-fake-news-to-people-who-are-excited-by-feces&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-andrewgriffin-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-andrewgriffin_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2016" class="citation cs2">Griffin, Andrew (7 December 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/pope-fake-news-francis-sexual-arousal-coprophilia-coprophagia-a7461331.html">"Pope Francis: Fake news is like getting sexually aroused by faeces"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126190844/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/pope-fake-news-francis-sexual-arousal-coprophilia-coprophagia-a7461331.html">archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Pope+Francis%3A+Fake+news+is+like+getting+sexually+aroused+by+faeces&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fpeople%2Fpope-fake-news-francis-sexual-arousal-coprophilia-coprophagia-a7461331.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daviddanks-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daviddanks_73-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanksDanks2014" class="citation cs2">Danks, David; Danks, Joseph H. (2014), "The Moral Responsibility of Automated Responses During Cyberwarfare", in Timothy J. Demy; George R. Lucas Jr.; Bradley J. Strawser (eds.), <i>Military Ethics and Emerging Technologies</i>, Routledge, pp. 223–224, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73710-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73710-4"><bdi>978-0-415-73710-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Moral+Responsibility+of+Automated+Responses+During+Cyberwarfare&rft.btitle=Military+Ethics+and+Emerging+Technologies&rft.pages=223-224&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-73710-4&rft.aulast=Danks&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Danks%2C+Joseph+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpies2019" class="citation web cs1">Spies, Samuel (14 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mediawell.ssrc.org/literature-reviews/defining-disinformation/versions/1-0/">"Defining "Disinformation", V1.0"</a>. <i>MediaWell, Social Science Research Council</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030094140/https://mediawell.ssrc.org/literature-reviews/defining-disinformation/versions/1-0/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MediaWell%2C+Social+Science+Research+Council&rft.atitle=Defining+%22Disinformation%22%2C+V1.0&rft.date=2019-08-14&rft.aulast=Spies&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmediawell.ssrc.org%2Fliterature-reviews%2Fdefining-disinformation%2Fversions%2F1-0%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTandoc2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tandoc, Edson C. (2019). "The facts of fake news: A research review". <i>Sociology Compass</i>. <b>13</b> (9): e12724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsoc4.12724">10.1111/soc4.12724</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1751-9020">1751-9020</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201392983">201392983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociology+Compass&rft.atitle=The+facts+of+fake+news%3A+A+research+review&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e12724&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201392983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1751-9020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fsoc4.12724&rft.aulast=Tandoc&rft.aufirst=Edson+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaramancion2020" class="citation book cs1">Caramancion, Kevin Matthe (2020). "An Exploration of Disinformation as a Cybersecurity Threat". <i>2020 3rd International Conference on Information and Computer Technologies (ICICT)</i>. pp. 440–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICICT50521.2020.00076">10.1109/ICICT50521.2020.00076</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-7283-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-7283-5"><bdi>978-1-7281-7283-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218651389">218651389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Exploration+of+Disinformation+as+a+Cybersecurity+Threat&rft.btitle=2020+3rd+International+Conference+on+Information+and+Computer+Technologies+%28ICICT%29&rft.pages=440-444&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218651389%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICICT50521.2020.00076&rft.isbn=978-1-7281-7283-5&rft.aulast=Caramancion&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Matthe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/93/2019/09/CyberTroop-Report19.pdf">"Samantha Bradshaw & Philip N. Howard. (2019) The Global Disinformation Disorder: 2019 Global Inventory of Organised Social Media Manipulation. Working Paper 2019.2. Oxford, UK: Project on Computational Propaganda"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220525105011/https://demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/93/2019/09/CyberTroop-Report19.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Samantha+Bradshaw+%26+Philip+N.+Howard.+%282019%29+The+Global+Disinformation+Disorder%3A+2019+Global+Inventory+of+Organised+Social+Media+Manipulation.+Working+Paper+2019.2.+Oxford%2C+UK%3A+Project+on+Computational+Propaganda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomprop.oii.ox.ac.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F93%2F2019%2F09%2FCyberTroop-Report19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerVaccari2020" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Michael L.; Vaccari, Cristian (July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161220922323">"Digital Threats to Democracy: Comparative Lessons and Possible Remedies"</a>. <i>The International Journal of Press/Politics</i>. <b>25</b> (3): 333–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1940161220922323">10.1177/1940161220922323</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1940-1612">1940-1612</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218962159">218962159</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214125205/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161220922323">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Press%2FPolitics&rft.atitle=Digital+Threats+to+Democracy%3A+Comparative+Lessons+and+Possible+Remedies&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=333-356&rft.date=2020-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218962159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1940-1612&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1940161220922323&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rft.au=Vaccari%2C+Cristian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1940161220922323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreelonMarwickKreiss2020" class="citation journal cs1">Freelon, Deen; Marwick, Alice; Kreiss, Daniel (4 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.abb2428">"False equivalencies: Online activism from left to right"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>369</b> (6508): 1197–1201. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Sci...369.1197F">2020Sci...369.1197F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abb2428">10.1126/science.abb2428</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32883863">32883863</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221471947">221471947</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021142705/https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.abb2428">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=False+equivalencies%3A+Online+activism+from+left+to+right&rft.volume=369&rft.issue=6508&rft.pages=1197-1201&rft.date=2020-09-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abb2428&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221471947%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32883863&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Sci...369.1197F&rft.aulast=Freelon&rft.aufirst=Deen&rft.au=Marwick%2C+Alice&rft.au=Kreiss%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abb2428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTenove2020" class="citation journal cs1">Tenove, Chris (July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161220918740">"Protecting Democracy from Disinformation: Normative Threats and Policy Responses"</a>. <i>The International Journal of Press/Politics</i>. <b>25</b> (3): 517–537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1940161220918740">10.1177/1940161220918740</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1940-1612">1940-1612</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219437151">219437151</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214125205/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161220918740">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Press%2FPolitics&rft.atitle=Protecting+Democracy+from+Disinformation%3A+Normative+Threats+and+Policy+Responses&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=517-537&rft.date=2020-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219437151%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1940-1612&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1940161220918740&rft.aulast=Tenove&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1940161220918740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_81-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerGuessBarberaVaccari2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tucker, Joshua; Guess, Andrew; Barbera, Pablo; Vaccari, Cristian; Siegel, Alexandra; Sanovich, Sergey; Stukal, Denis; Nyhan, Brendan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3144139">"Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature"</a>. <i>SSRN Working Paper Series</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3144139">10.2139/ssrn.3144139</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210221202942/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3144139">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Social+Media%2C+Political+Polarization%2C+and+Political+Disinformation%3A+A+Review+of+the+Scientific+Literature&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3144139&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft.au=Guess%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Barbera%2C+Pablo&rft.au=Vaccari%2C+Cristian&rft.au=Siegel%2C+Alexandra&rft.au=Sanovich%2C+Sergey&rft.au=Stukal%2C+Denis&rft.au=Nyhan%2C+Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D3144139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook">"This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake Election News Stories Outperformed Real News On Facebook"</a>. <i>BuzzFeed News</i>. 16 November 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180717155014/https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BuzzFeed+News&rft.atitle=This+Analysis+Shows+How+Viral+Fake+Election+News+Stories+Outperformed+Real+News+On+Facebook&rft.date=2016-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buzzfeednews.com%2Farticle%2Fcraigsilverman%2Fviral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunstein,_Cass_R.2017" class="citation book cs1">Sunstein, Cass R. (14 March 2017). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republi_sun_2017_00_0042"><i>#Republic : divided democracy in the age of social media</i></a></span>. Princeton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691175515" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691175515"><bdi>978-0691175515</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/958799819">958799819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%23Republic+%3A+divided+democracy+in+the+age+of+social+media&rft.place=Princeton&rft.date=2017-03-14&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F958799819&rft.isbn=978-0691175515&rft.au=Sunstein%2C+Cass+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepubli_sun_2017_00_0042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllcottGentzkow2017" class="citation journal cs1">Allcott, Hunt; Gentzkow, Matthew (May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211">"Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives</i>. <b>31</b> (2): 211–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211">10.1257/jep.31.2.211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0895-3309">0895-3309</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32730475">32730475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Social+Media+and+Fake+News+in+the+2016+Election&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-236&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32730475%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0895-3309&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211&rft.aulast=Allcott&rft.aufirst=Hunt&rft.au=Gentzkow%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.31.2.211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEadyPaskhalisZilinskyBonneau2023" class="citation journal cs1">Eady, Gregory; Paskhalis, Tom; Zilinsky, Jan; Bonneau, Richard; Nagler, Jonathan; Tucker, Joshua A. (9 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9829855">"Exposure to the Russian Internet Research Agency Foreign Influence Campaign on Twitter in the 2016 US Election and its Relationship to Attitudes and Voting Behavior"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>14</b> (62): 62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NatCo..14...62E">2023NatCo..14...62E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-022-35576-9">10.1038/s41467-022-35576-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9829855">9829855</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36624094">36624094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Exposure+to+the+Russian+Internet+Research+Agency+Foreign+Influence+Campaign+on+Twitter+in+the+2016+US+Election+and+its+Relationship+to+Attitudes+and+Voting+Behavior&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=62&rft.pages=62&rft.date=2023-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9829855%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36624094&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-022-35576-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023NatCo..14...62E&rft.aulast=Eady&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Paskhalis%2C+Tom&rft.au=Zilinsky%2C+Jan&rft.au=Bonneau%2C+Richard&rft.au=Nagler%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Joshua+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9829855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeyva2020" class="citation journal cs1">Leyva, Rodolfo (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00146-020-00980-6">"Testing and unpacking the effects of digital fake news: on presidential candidate evaluations and voter support"</a>. <i>AI & Society</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 970. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00146-020-00980-6">10.1007/s00146-020-00980-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218592685">218592685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Testing+and+unpacking+the+effects+of+digital+fake+news%3A+on+presidential+candidate+evaluations+and+voter+support&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=970&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00146-020-00980-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218592685%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Leyva&rft.aufirst=Rodolfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00146-020-00980-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllcottGentzkow2017" class="citation journal cs1">Allcott, Hunt; Gentzkow, Matthew (May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211">"Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives</i>. <b>31</b> (2): 211–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211">10.1257/jep.31.2.211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0895-3309">0895-3309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Social+Media+and+Fake+News+in+the+2016+Election&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-236&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.31.2.211&rft.issn=0895-3309&rft.aulast=Allcott&rft.aufirst=Hunt&rft.au=Gentzkow%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.31.2.211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakshyMessingAdamic2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bakshy, E.; Messing, S.; Adamic, L. A. (5 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa1160">"Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>348</b> (6239): 1130–1132. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Sci...348.1130B">2015Sci...348.1130B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa1160">10.1126/science.aaa1160</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25953820">25953820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206632821">206632821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Exposure+to+ideologically+diverse+news+and+opinion+on+Facebook&rft.volume=348&rft.issue=6239&rft.pages=1130-1132&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206632821%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...348.1130B&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa1160&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25953820&rft.aulast=Bakshy&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Messing%2C+S.&rft.au=Adamic%2C+L.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.aaa1160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWojcieszakMutz2009" class="citation journal cs1">Wojcieszak, Magdalena E.; Mutz, Diana C. (1 March 2009). "Online Groups and Political Discourse: Do Online Discussion Spaces Facilitate Exposure to Political Disagreement?". <i>Journal of Communication</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 40–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.2008.01403.x">10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01403.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9916">0021-9916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18865773">18865773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Online+Groups+and+Political+Discourse%3A+Do+Online+Discussion+Spaces+Facilitate+Exposure+to+Political+Disagreement%3F&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-56&rft.date=2009-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18865773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-9916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.2008.01403.x&rft.aulast=Wojcieszak&rft.aufirst=Magdalena+E.&rft.au=Mutz%2C+Diana+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanoszka2019" class="citation journal cs1">Lanoszka, Alexander (2019). "Disinformation in international politics". <i>European Journal of International Security</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 227–248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Feis.2019.6">10.1017/eis.2019.6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2057-5637">2057-5637</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211312944">211312944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Security&rft.atitle=Disinformation+in+international+politics&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=227-248&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211312944%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2057-5637&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Feis.2019.6&rft.aulast=Lanoszka&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShuSlivaWangTang2017" class="citation journal cs1">Shu, Kai; Sliva, Amy; Wang, Suhang; Tang, Jiliang; Liu, Huan (1 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3137597.3137600">"Fake News Detection on Social Media: A Data Mining Perspective"</a>. <i>ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 22–36. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.01967">1708.01967</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3137597.3137600">10.1145/3137597.3137600</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1931-0145">1931-0145</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207718082">207718082</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220205204457/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3137597.3137600">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGKDD+Explorations+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Fake+News+Detection+on+Social+Media%3A+A+Data+Mining+Perspective&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-36&rft.date=2017-09-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1708.01967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207718082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1931-0145&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3137597.3137600&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft.au=Sliva%2C+Amy&rft.au=Wang%2C+Suhang&rft.au=Tang%2C+Jiliang&rft.au=Liu%2C+Huan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%2F3137597.3137600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdelsonMcCoy" class="citation web cs1">Edelson, Laura; McCoy, Damon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-facebook-hinders-misinformation-research/">"How Facebook Hinders Misinformation Research"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202025821/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-facebook-hinders-misinformation-research/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=How+Facebook+Hinders+Misinformation+Research&rft.aulast=Edelson&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=McCoy%2C+Damon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-facebook-hinders-misinformation-research%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdelsonMcCoy2021" class="citation web cs1">Edelson, Laura; McCoy, Damon (14 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/aug/14/facebook-research-disinformation-politics">"Facebook shut down our research into its role in spreading disinformation"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324171518/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/aug/14/facebook-research-disinformation-politics">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Facebook+shut+down+our+research+into+its+role+in+spreading+disinformation&rft.date=2021-08-14&rft.aulast=Edelson&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=McCoy%2C+Damon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2021%2Faug%2F14%2Ffacebook-research-disinformation-politics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnanGuTrombleAbroms2021" class="citation journal cs1">Krishnan, Nandita; Gu, Jiayan; Tromble, Rebekah; Abroms, Lorien C. (15 December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/research-note-examining-how-various-social-media-platforms-have-responded-to-covid-19-misinformation/">"Research note: Examining how various social media platforms have responded to COVID-19 misinformation"</a>. <i>Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37016%2Fmr-2020-85">10.37016/mr-2020-85</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245256590">245256590</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220203040557/https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/research-note-examining-how-various-social-media-platforms-have-responded-to-covid-19-misinformation/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Kennedy+School+Misinformation+Review&rft.atitle=Research+note%3A+Examining+how+various+social+media+platforms+have+responded+to+COVID-19+misinformation&rft.date=2021-12-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.37016%2Fmr-2020-85&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245256590%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Krishnan&rft.aufirst=Nandita&rft.au=Gu%2C+Jiayan&rft.au=Tromble%2C+Rebekah&rft.au=Abroms%2C+Lorien+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmisinforeview.hks.harvard.edu%2Farticle%2Fresearch-note-examining-how-various-social-media-platforms-have-responded-to-covid-19-misinformation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/08/19/facebook-data-sharing-struggle/">"Only Facebook knows the extent of its misinformation problem. And it's not sharing, even with the White House"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220205042625/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/08/19/facebook-data-sharing-struggle/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Only+Facebook+knows+the+extent+of+its+misinformation+problem.+And+it%27s+not+sharing%2C+even+with+the+White+House.&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Ftechnology%2F2021%2F08%2F19%2Ffacebook-data-sharing-struggle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuoMarwick2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kuo, Rachel; Marwick, Alice (12 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231015223538/https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/critical-disinformation-studies-history-power-and-politics/">"Critical disinformation studies: History, power, and politics"</a>. <i>Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37016%2Fmr-2020-76">10.37016/mr-2020-76</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/critical-disinformation-studies-history-power-and-politics/">the original</a> on 15 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Kennedy+School+Misinformation+Review&rft.atitle=Critical+disinformation+studies%3A+History%2C+power%2C+and+politics&rft.date=2021-08-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.37016%2Fmr-2020-76&rft.aulast=Kuo&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.au=Marwick%2C+Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmisinforeview.hks.harvard.edu%2Farticle%2Fcritical-disinformation-studies-history-power-and-politics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230203095200/https://citap.unc.edu/ica-preconference-2022/">"What Comes After Disinformation Studies?"</a>. <i>Center for Information, Technology, & Public Life (CITAP), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citap.unc.edu/events/ica-preconference-2022/">the original</a> on 3 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Information%2C+Technology%2C+%26+Public+Life+%28CITAP%29%2C+University+of+North+Carolina+at+Chapel+Hill&rft.atitle=What+Comes+After+Disinformation+Studies%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcitap.unc.edu%2Fevents%2Fica-preconference-2022%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTworek2022" class="citation web cs1">Tworek, Heidi (2 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230601164258/https://www.cigionline.org/articles/can-we-move-beyond-disinformation-studies/">"Can We Move Beyond Disinformation Studies?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation" title="Centre for International Governance Innovation">Centre for International Governance Innovation</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cigionline.org/articles/can-we-move-beyond-disinformation-studies/">the original</a> on 1 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centre+for+International+Governance+Innovation&rft.atitle=Can+We+Move+Beyond+Disinformation+Studies%3F&rft.date=2022-08-02&rft.aulast=Tworek&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cigionline.org%2Farticles%2Fcan-we-move-beyond-disinformation-studies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWassermanMadrid-Morales2022" class="citation book cs1">Wasserman, Herman; Madrid-Morales, Dani, eds. (12 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119714491"><i>Disinformation in the Global South</i></a> (1 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119714491">10.1002/9781119714491</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-71444-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-71444-6"><bdi>978-1-119-71444-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240304064723/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119714491">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disinformation+in+the+Global+South&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2022-04-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119714491&rft.isbn=978-1-119-71444-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781119714491&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_Ruiz2024" class="citation journal cs1">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos A. (30 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0267257X.2024.2421860">"Disinformation and fake news as externalities of digital advertising: a close reading of sociotechnical imaginaries in programmatic advertising"</a>. <i>Journal of Marketing Management</i>: 1–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0267257X.2024.2421860">10.1080/0267257X.2024.2421860</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0267-257X">0267-257X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Marketing+Management&rft.atitle=Disinformation+and+fake+news+as+externalities+of+digital+advertising%3A+a+close+reading+of+sociotechnical+imaginaries+in+programmatic+advertising&rft.pages=1-23&rft.date=2024-10-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0267257X.2024.2421860&rft.issn=0267-257X&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F0267257X.2024.2421860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSessa2020" class="citation web cs1">Sessa, Maria Giovanna (4 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230919005420/https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/misogyny-and-misinformation:-an-analysis-of-gendered-disinformation-tactics-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/">"Misogyny and Misinformation: An analysis of gendered disinformation tactics during the COVID-19 pandemic"</a>. <i>EU DisinfoLab</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/misogyny-and-misinformation:-an-analysis-of-gendered-disinformation-tactics-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/">the original</a> on 19 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EU+DisinfoLab&rft.atitle=Misogyny+and+Misinformation%3A+An+analysis+of+gendered+disinformation+tactics+during+the+COVID-19+pandemic&rft.date=2020-12-04&rft.aulast=Sessa&rft.aufirst=Maria+Giovanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.disinfo.eu%2Fpublications%2Fmisogyny-and-misinformation%3A-an-analysis-of-gendered-disinformation-tactics-during-the-covid-19-pandemic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSessa2022" class="citation web cs1">Sessa, Maria Giovanna (26 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220721155302/https://il.boell.org/en/2022/01/26/what-gendered-disinformation">"What is Gendered Disinformation?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll_Foundation" title="Heinrich Böll Foundation">Heinrich Böll Foundation</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://il.boell.org/en/2022/01/26/what-gendered-disinformation">the original</a> on 21 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heinrich+B%C3%B6ll+Foundation&rft.atitle=What+is+Gendered+Disinformation%3F&rft.date=2022-01-26&rft.aulast=Sessa&rft.aufirst=Maria+Giovanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fil.boell.org%2Fen%2F2022%2F01%2F26%2Fwhat-gendered-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolleyHoward2019" class="citation book cs1">Woolley, Samuel; Howard, Philip N. (2019). <i>Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190931414" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190931414"><bdi>978-0190931414</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Propaganda%3A+Political+Parties%2C+Politicians%2C+and+Political+Manipulation+on+Social+Media&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0190931414&rft.aulast=Woolley&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Howard%2C+Philip+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_Ruiz2023" class="citation journal cs1">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos (30 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231207644">"Disinformation on digital media platforms: A market-shaping approach"</a>. <i>New Media & Society</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231207644">10.1177/14614448231207644</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-4448">1461-4448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264816011">264816011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Disinformation+on+digital+media+platforms%3A+A+market-shaping+approach&rft.date=2023-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264816011%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1461-4448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14614448231207644&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14614448231207644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchalNeudert2019" class="citation web cs1">Marchal, Nahema; Neudert, Lisa-Maria (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/634414/EPRS_STU(2019)634414_EN.pdf">"Polarisation and the use of technology in political campaigns and communication"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Parliamentary Research Service</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Parliamentary+Research+Service&rft.atitle=Polarisation+and+the+use+of+technology+in+political+campaigns+and+communication&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Marchal&rft.aufirst=Nahema&rft.au=Neudert%2C+Lisa-Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.europarl.europa.eu%2FRegData%2Fetudes%2FSTUD%2F2019%2F634414%2FEPRS_STU%282019%29634414_EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreissMcGregor2023" class="citation journal cs1">Kreiss, Daniel; McGregor, Shannon C (11 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231161880">"A review and provocation: On polarization and platforms"</a>. <i>New Media & Society</i>. <b>26</b>: 556–579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231161880">10.1177/14614448231161880</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-4448">1461-4448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258125103">258125103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=A+review+and+provocation%3A+On+polarization+and+platforms&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=556-579&rft.date=2023-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258125103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1461-4448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14614448231161880&rft.aulast=Kreiss&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=McGregor%2C+Shannon+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14614448231161880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Internet_manipulation_:0-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_manipulation_:0_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_RuizNilsson2023" class="citation journal cs1">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos; Nilsson, Tomas (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852">"Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Policy & Marketing</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07439156221103852">10.1177/07439156221103852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0743-9156">0743-9156</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248934562">248934562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Policy+%26+Marketing&rft.atitle=Disinformation+and+Echo+Chambers%3A+How+Disinformation+Circulates+on+Social+Media+Through+Identity-Driven+Controversies&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248934562%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0743-9156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft.au=Nilsson%2C+Tomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_DomenicoDing2023" class="citation journal cs1">Di Domenico, Giandomenico; Ding, Yu (23 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2023.101716">"Between Brand attacks and broader narratives: how direct and indirect misinformation erode consumer trust"</a>. <i>Current Opinion in Psychology</i>. <b>54</b>: 101716. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2023.101716">10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101716</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2352-250X">2352-250X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37952396">37952396</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264474368">264474368</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Between+Brand+attacks+and+broader+narratives%3A+how+direct+and+indirect+misinformation+erode+consumer+trust&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=101716&rft.date=2023-10-23&rft.issn=2352-250X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264474368%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37952396&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2023.101716&rft.aulast=Di+Domenico&rft.aufirst=Giandomenico&rft.au=Ding%2C+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.copsyc.2023.101716&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastells2015" class="citation book cs1">Castells, Manuel (4 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ETHOCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59"><i>Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745695792" title="Special:BookSources/9780745695792"><bdi>9780745695792</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networks+of+Outrage+and+Hope%3A+Social+Movements+in+the+Internet+Age&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-06-04&rft.isbn=9780745695792&rft.aulast=Castells&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DETHOCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/08dbe398-2abb-11e0-a2f3-00144feab49a">"Condemnation over Egypt's internet shutdown"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Condemnation+over+Egypt%27s+internet+shutdown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F08dbe398-2abb-11e0-a2f3-00144feab49a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zmescience.com/ecology/world-problems/net-neutrality-europe-31082016/">"Net neutrality wins in Europe – a victory for the internet as we know it"</a>. ZME Science. 31 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Net+neutrality+wins+in+Europe+%E2%80%93+a+victory+for+the+internet+as+we+know+it&rft.pub=ZME+Science&rft.date=2016-08-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmescience.com%2Fecology%2Fworld-problems%2Fnet-neutrality-europe-31082016%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraunEklund2019" class="citation journal cs1">Braun, Joshua A.; Eklund, Jessica L. (2 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314">"Fake News, Real Money: Ad Tech Platforms, Profit-Driven Hoaxes, and the Business of Journalism"</a>. <i>Digital Journalism</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 1–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21670811.2018.1556314">10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2167-0811">2167-0811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Journalism&rft.atitle=Fake+News%2C+Real+Money%3A+Ad+Tech+Platforms%2C+Profit-Driven+Hoaxes%2C+and+the+Business+of+Journalism&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-21&rft.date=2019-01-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21670811.2018.1556314&rft.issn=2167-0811&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Joshua+A.&rft.au=Eklund%2C+Jessica+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F21670811.2018.1556314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadlerDonovanCrane2018" class="citation web cs1">Nadler, Anthony; Donovan, Joan; Crane, Matthew (17 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datasociety.net/library/weaponizing-the-digital-influence-machine/">"Weaponizing the Digital Influence Machine"</a>. <i>Data & Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Data+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Weaponizing+the+Digital+Influence+Machine&rft.date=2018-10-17&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Donovan%2C+Joan&rft.au=Crane%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatasociety.net%2Flibrary%2Fweaponizing-the-digital-influence-machine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Disinformation</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Disinformation">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Disinformation&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Martin-Bittman" title="Lawrence Martin-Bittman">Bittman, Ladislav</a> (1985), <a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation"><i>The KGB and Soviet Disinformation: An Insider's View</i></a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0"><bdi>978-0-08-031572-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+KGB+and+Soviet+Disinformation%3A+An+Insider%27s+View&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-08-031572-0&rft.aulast=Bittman&rft.aufirst=Ladislav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoghardt2010" class="citation cs2">Boghardt, Thomas (26 January 2010), <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Operation_INFEKTION_-_Soviet_Bloc_Intelligence_and_Its_AIDS_Disinformation_Campaign.pdf">"Operation INFEKTION – Soviet Bloc Intelligence and Its AIDS Disinformation Campaign"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Studies_in_Intelligence" title="Studies in Intelligence">Studies in Intelligence</a></i>, <b>53</b> (4)<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Operation+INFEKTION+%E2%80%93+Soviet+Bloc+Intelligence+and+Its+AIDS+Disinformation+Campaign&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2010-01-26&rft.aulast=Boghardt&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AOperation_INFEKTION_-_Soviet_Bloc_Intelligence_and_Its_AIDS_Disinformation_Campaign.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolitsyn1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Anatoliy_Golitsyn" title="Anatoliy Golitsyn">Golitsyn, Anatoliy</a> (1984), <i>New Lies for Old: The Communist Strategy of Deception and Disinformation</i>, Dodd, Mead & Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-396-08194-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-396-08194-4"><bdi>978-0-396-08194-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Lies+for+Old%3A+The+Communist+Strategy+of+Deception+and+Disinformation&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+%26+Company&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-396-08194-4&rft.aulast=Golitsyn&rft.aufirst=Anatoliy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cailin_O%27Connor" title="Cailin O'Connor">O'Connor, Cailin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Owen_Weatherall" title="James Owen Weatherall">James Owen Weatherall</a>, "Why We Trust Lies: The most effective misinformation starts with seeds of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 321, no. 3 (September 2019), pp. 54–61.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIon_Mihai_Pacepa_and_Ronald_J._Rychlak2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa" title="Ion Mihai Pacepa">Ion Mihai Pacepa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Rychlak" title="Ronald J. Rychlak">Ronald J. Rychlak</a> (2013), <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)"><i>Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism</i></a>, WND Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5"><bdi>978-1-936488-60-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disinformation%3A+Former+Spy+Chief+Reveals+Secret+Strategies+for+Undermining+Freedom%2C+Attacking+Religion%2C+and+Promoting+Terrorism&rft.pub=WND+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-936488-60-5&rft.au=Ion+Mihai+Pacepa+and+Ronald+J.+Rychlak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher_SchoenChristopher_J._Lamb2012" class="citation cs2">Fletcher Schoen; Christopher J. Lamb (1 June 2012), <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deception,_Disinformation,_and_Strategic_Communications.pdf">"Deception, Disinformation, and Strategic. Communications: How One Interagency Group. Made a Major Difference"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Strategic Perspectives</i>, <b>11</b><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Strategic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Deception%2C+Disinformation%2C+and+Strategic.+Communications%3A+How+One+Interagency+Group.+Made+a+Major+Difference&rft.volume=11&rft.date=2012-06-01&rft.au=Fletcher+Schoen&rft.au=Christopher+J.+Lamb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ADeception%2C_Disinformation%2C_and_Strategic_Communications.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultzGodson1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Shultz" title="Richard H. Shultz">Shultz, Richard H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Godson" title="Roy Godson">Godson, Roy</a> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)"><i>Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</i></a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080315737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080315737"><bdi>978-0080315737</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dezinformatsia%3A+Active+Measures+in+Soviet+Strategy&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0080315737&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Godson%2C+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2016" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Adam (26 November 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation">"Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Before+%27fake+news%2C%27+there+was+Soviet+%27disinformation%27&rft.date=2016-11-26&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2016%2F11%2F26%2Fbefore-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggKerwin2018" class="citation cs2">Legg, Heidi; Kerwin, Joe (1 November 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shorensteincenter.org/the-fight-against-disinformation-in-the-u-s-a-landscape-analysis/"><i>The Fight Against Disinformation in the U.S.: A Landscape Analysis</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Shorenstein_Center_on_Media,_Politics_and_Public_Policy" title="Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy">Harvard Kennedy School, Shorenstein Center</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fight+Against+Disinformation+in+the+U.S.%3A+A+Landscape+Analysis&rft.pub=Harvard+Kennedy+School%2C+Shorenstein+Center&rft.date=2018-11-01&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft.au=Kerwin%2C+Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshorensteincenter.org%2Fthe-fight-against-disinformation-in-the-u-s-a-landscape-analysis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disinformation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:disinformation">disinformation</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Disinformation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Disinformation">Disinformation</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Disinformation" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Disinformation">Disinformation</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/disinfo/disinformation.html">Disinformation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025061754/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/disinfo/disinformation.html">Archived</a> 25 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – a learning resource from the British Library including an interactive movie and activities.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mediawell.ssrc.org/">MediaWell</a> – an initiative of the nonprofit <a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Council" title="Social Science Research Council">Social Science Research Council</a> seeking to track and curate disinformation, misinformation, and fake news research.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Misinformation" title="Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Misinformation" title="Template talk:Misinformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disinformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemistic_misspeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemistic misspeaking">Euphemistic misspeaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">list of websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery_as_covert_operation" title="Forgery as covert operation">Forgery as covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memetic_warfare" title="Memetic warfare">Memetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpropaganda" title="Counterpropaganda">counterpropaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quote mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">Scientific fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Books_and_documentaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Books and documentaries</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)"><i>Disinformation</i> by Ion Mihai Pacepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)"><i>Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_the_CIA" title="Who's Who in the CIA">Who's Who in the CIA</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/After_Truth:_Disinformation_and_the_Cost_of_Fake_News" title="After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News">After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Triangle" title="Bermuda Triangle">Bermuda Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war">Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_tension" title="Strategy of tension">Strategy of tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Health" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_5G_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misinformation related to 5G technology">5G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments" title="COVID-19 misinformation by governments">by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_denial" title="Mental illness denial">Mental illness denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation" title="Transgender health care misinformation">Transgender health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">COVID-19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operations_and_events_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Operations and events by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jihadunspun.com" title="Jihadunspun.com">Jihadunspun.com</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pink" title="Little Pink">Little Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Water_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Water Army">Internet Water Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechoslovakia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune_(espionage)" title="Operation Neptune (espionage)">Operation Neptune</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funkspiel" title="Funkspiel">Funkspiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">India</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godi-media" class="mw-redirect" title="Godi-media">Godi-media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_news_in_India" title="Paid news in India">Paid news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia" title="OpIndia">OpIndia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Team_Jorge" title="Team Jorge">Team Jorge</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Korea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Agency_Network_of_Korea" title="Voluntary Agency Network of Korea">Voluntary Agency Network of Korea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kuwait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fintas_Group" title="Fintas Group">Fintas Group</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabots</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philippines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_distortion_regarding_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos">Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russia</a> /<br />Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-1000_battleship" title="K-1000 battleship">K-1000 battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Toucan_(KGB)" title="Operation Toucan (KGB)">Operation Toucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_12" title="Seat 12">Seat 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Useful_idiot" title="Useful idiot">Useful idiot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_in_the_post-Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era">Post-Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia" title="Cyberwarfare by Russia">Cyberwarfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_cyberattacks_on_Estonia" title="2007 cyberattacks on Estonia">on Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks_during_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War">during the Russo-Georgian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_information_war_against_Ukraine" title="Russian information war against Ukraine">Information war against Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>On US elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum" title="Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Trolls from Olgino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_web_brigades" title="Russian web brigades">Web brigades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_censorship_and_disinformation_during_the_Gezi_Park_protests" title="Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests">Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AK_Trolls" title="AK Trolls">AK Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Pottinger" title="Bell Pottinger">Bell Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Cross_System" title="Double-Cross System">Double-Cross System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud"><i>Lancet</i> MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mass_Appeal" title="Operation Mass Appeal">Operation Mass Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Warfare_Division" title="Psychological Warfare Division">Psychological Warfare Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinoviev_letter" title="Zinoviev letter">Zinoviev letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_CIA_disinformation_controversy" title="1995 CIA disinformation controversy">1995 CIA disinformation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Attempts to overturn the 2020 election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA Kennedy assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">online</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Fighter%27s_Manual" title="The Freedom Fighter's Manual">The Freedom Fighter's Manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbush_letter" title="Habbush letter">Habbush letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_Roadmap" title="Information Operations Roadmap">Information Operations Roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">Litter boxes in schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atta%27s_alleged_Prague_connection" title="Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection">Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">Niger uranium forgeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venezuela</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Army_of_Trolls" title="Bolivarian Army of Trolls">Bolivarian Army of Trolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vietnam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_brigades" title="Public opinion brigades">Public opinion brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_47" class="mw-redirect" title="Force 47">Force 47</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Opposition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Opposition</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking_website" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-checking website">Fact-checking website</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_disinformation_unit" title="Counter disinformation unit">Counter disinformation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_Foreign_Propaganda_and_Disinformation_Act" title="Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act">Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Fact" title="Full Fact">Full Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logically_(company)" title="Logically (company)">Logically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsGuard" title="NewsGuard">NewsGuard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency" title="United States Information Agency">United States Information Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAFacts" title="USAFacts">USAFacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Propaganda_techniques" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Propaganda" title="Template:Propaganda"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Propaganda" title="Template talk:Propaganda"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Propaganda" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Propaganda"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Propaganda_techniques" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_techniques" title="Propaganda techniques">Propaganda techniques</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accusation_in_a_mirror" title="Accusation in a mirror">Accusation in a mirror</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Appeal to fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Appeal to emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_propaganda" title="Atrocity propaganda">Atrocity propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_advertising" title="Sex in advertising">Beautiful people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">Black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buzzword" title="Buzzword">Buzzword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartographic_propaganda" title="Cartographic propaganda">Cartographic propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonizing_the_enemy" title="Demonizing the enemy">Demonizing the enemy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotive_conjugation" title="Emotive conjugation">Emotive conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaggeration" title="Exaggeration">Exaggeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">Fake news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Flag-waving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gish_gallop" title="Gish gallop">Gish gallop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glittering_generality" title="Glittering generality">Glittering generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideograph_(rhetoric)" title="Ideograph (rhetoric)">Ideograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing the news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimisation_(psychology)" title="Minimisation (psychology)">Minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_propaganda" title="Monumental propaganda">Monumental propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obscurantism" title="Obscurantism">Obscurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_paralysis" title="Analysis paralysis">Overcomplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oversimplification" class="mw-redirect" title="Oversimplification">Oversimplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_folks" title="Plain folks">Plain folks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senbu" title="Senbu">Senbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_and_crying" title="Shooting and crying">Shooting and crying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slogan" title="Slogan">Slogan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weasel_word" title="Weasel word">Weasel word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_propaganda" title="White propaganda">White propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_culture" title="Template:Media culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_culture" title="Template talk:Media culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_news_cycle" title="24-hour news cycle">24-hour news cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_media" title="Independent media">Independent media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_media" title="Lost media">Lost media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">Mainstream media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_media" title="Mobile media">Mobile media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">News broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">News media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_media" title="Old media">Old media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_media" title="Physical media">Physical media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influencer" title="Influencer">Influencers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_media" title="State media">State media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_development" title="Media development">Media development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_policy" title="Media policy">Media policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Media independence">Media independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_pluralism" title="Media pluralism">Media pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_transparency" title="Media transparency">Media transparency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisanship_as_an_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisanship as an ideology">Bipartisanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pens%C3%A9e_unique" title="Pensée unique">Pensée unique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbing_down" title="Dumbing down">Dumbing down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_circus" title="Media circus">Media circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_event" title="Media event">Media event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotizing_dysfunction" title="Narcotizing dysfunction">Narcotizing dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperation_(politics)" title="Recuperation (politics)">Recuperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catch_and_kill" title="Catch and kill">Catch and kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing the news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bernays" title="Edward Bernays">Edward Bernays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Jacques Rancière</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-out_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-out culture">Call-out culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_(protest)" title="Occupation (protest)">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_satire" title="Political satire">Political satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_subculture" title="Punk subculture">Punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Review_bomb" title="Review bomb">Review bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Influence of mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediatization_(media)" title="Mediatization (media)">Mediatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_democracy" title="Semiotic democracy">Semiotic democracy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lonely_Crowd" title="The Lonely Crowd">The Lonely Crowd</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Concentration of media ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_women_in_mass_media" title="Exploitation of women in mass media">Exploitation of women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_transparency" title="Media transparency">Transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_violence_in_mass_media" title="Effects of violence in mass media">Violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synonyms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_franchise" title="Media franchise">Media franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Fordism" title="Post-Fordism">Post-Fordism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacle_(critical_theory)" title="Spectacle (critical theory)">Society of the Spectacle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_manipulation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_manipulation" title="Template:Media manipulation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_manipulation" title="Template talk:Media manipulation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_manipulation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media manipulation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_manipulation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Context</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbing_down" title="Dumbing down">Dumbing down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obfuscation" title="Obfuscation">Obfuscation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orwellian" title="Orwellian">Orwellian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy" title="Advocacy">Advocacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-out_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-out culture">Call-out culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">Grassroots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_communication" title="Guerrilla communication">Guerrilla communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_activism" title="Internet activism">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_activism" title="Media activism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_(protest)" title="Occupation (protest)">Occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">Petitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_activism" title="Youth activism">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billboard" title="Billboard">Billboards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_advertising" title="False advertising">False</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infomercial" title="Infomercial">Infomercials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_marketing" title="Mobile marketing">Mobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotional_model" title="Promotional model">Modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_advertisement" title="Radio advertisement">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_advertising" title="Sex in advertising">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_slogan" title="Advertising slogan">Slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimonial" title="Testimonial">Testimonials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_advertisement" title="Television advertisement">TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_advertising" title="Criticism of advertising">Criticism of advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annoyance_factor" title="Annoyance factor">Annoyance factor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_censorship" title="Book censorship">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_law" title="Broadcast law">Broadcast law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">Burying of scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catch_and_kill" title="Catch and kill">Catch and kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_censorship" title="Corporate censorship">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover-up" title="Cover-up">Cover-ups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_censorship" title="Film censorship">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_censorship" title="Political censorship">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoaxing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day" title="April Fools' Day">April Fools'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepfake" title="Deepfake">Deepfake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">websites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakelore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakelore">Fakelore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_document" title="False document">False document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_entry" title="Fictitious entry">Fictitious entries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">Forgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hoaxes" title="List of hoaxes">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_forgery" title="Literary forgery">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hoax" title="Racial hoax">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_hoax" title="Virus hoax">Virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_manipulation" title="Video manipulation">Video manipulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brand" title="Brand">Branding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty_marketing" title="Loyalty marketing">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_marketing" title="Product marketing">Product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_placement" title="Product placement">Product placement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publicity" title="Publicity">Publicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-of-mouth_marketing" title="Word-of-mouth marketing">Word of mouth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">News media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda-setting_theory" title="Agenda-setting theory">Agenda-setting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_circus" title="Media circus">Circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_news_cycle" title="24-hour news cycle">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotive_conjugation" title="Emotive conjugation">Emotive conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotizing_dysfunction" title="Narcotizing dysfunction">Narcotizing dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_event" title="Media event">Pseudo-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_scrum" title="Media scrum">Scrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_advertising" title="Campaign advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">Astroturfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_ad" title="Attack ad">Attack ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canvassing" title="Canvassing">Canvassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_assassination" title="Character assassination">Character assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_promise" title="Election promise">Election promises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawn_sign" title="Lawn sign">Lawn signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_platform" title="Party platform">Party platforms (or manifestos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_recognition" title="Name recognition">Name recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_campaigning" title="Negative campaigning">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_poll" title="Push poll">Push polling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smear campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_issue" title="Wedge issue">Wedge issue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_techniques" title="Propaganda techniques">Techniques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda" title="Airborne leaflet propaganda">Airborne leaflets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information (IT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_diplomacy" title="Public diplomacy">Public diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">Sedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-apology_apology" title="Non-apology apology">Non-apology apology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slogan" title="Slogan">Slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_bite" title="Sound bite">Sound bites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_(propaganda)" title="Transfer (propaganda)">Transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understatement" title="Understatement">Understatement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weasel_word" title="Weasel word">Weasel words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_propaganda" title="Corporate propaganda">Corporate propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_calling" title="Cold calling">Cold calling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Door-to-door" title="Door-to-door">Door-to-door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">Pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_demonstration" title="Product demonstration">Product demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_promotion" title="Sales promotion">Promotion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spaving" title="Spaving">Spaving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotional_merchandise" title="Promotional merchandise">Promotional merchandise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemarketing" title="Telemarketing">Telemarketing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influence-for-hire" title="Influence-for-hire">Influence-for-hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Media concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_democracy" title="Media democracy">Media democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_franchise" title="Media franchise">Media franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Media influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_proprietor" title="Media proprietor">Media proprietor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_deception" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_deception" title="Template:Military deception"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_deception" title="Template talk:Military deception"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_deception" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military deception"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_deception" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denial_and_deception" title="Denial and deception">Denial and deception</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information warfare</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Russian_military_deception" title="Russian military deception">Maskirovka</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Military camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">Ruse de guerre</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_dummy" title="Military dummy">Military dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoy" title="Decoy">Decoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-ship" title="Q-ship">Q-ship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bertram" title="Operation Bertram">Bertram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodyguard" title="Operation Bodyguard">Bodyguard</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189656#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189656#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189656#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4252093-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Disinformation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85038430">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11959113p">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11959113p">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="dezinformace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph138026&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000060287&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007557964705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640251">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=21273">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&oldid=1261657784">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&oldid=1261657784</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disinformation" title="Category:Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deception" title="Category:Deception">Deception</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_of_falsehoods" title="Category:Communication of falsehoods">Communication of falsehoods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Media_manipulation" title="Category:Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Propaganda_techniques" title="Category:Propaganda techniques">Propaganda techniques</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_propaganda" title="Category:Black propaganda">Black propaganda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1920s_neologisms" title="Category:1920s neologisms">1920s neologisms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russian_words_and_phrases" title="Category:Russian words and phrases">Russian words and phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychological_warfare_techniques" title="Category:Psychological warfare techniques">Psychological warfare techniques</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligence_operations_by_type" title="Category:Intelligence operations by type">Intelligence operations by type</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lying" title="Category:Lying">Lying</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">CS1 maint: date and year</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_imported_Creative_Commons_Attribution_4.0_text" title="Category:Articles with imported Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 text">Articles with imported Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2017" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2017">Use dmy dates from June 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Russian-language text">Articles containing Russian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_limited_geographic_scope_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from October 2023">Articles with limited geographic scope from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 December 2024, at 06:57<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5ccf8d5c58-xrkgk","wgBackendResponseTime":145,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.575","walltime":"1.843","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8973,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":442961,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2474,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":522877,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1531.794 1 -total"," 42.23% 646.933 2 Template:Reflist"," 18.52% 283.737 4 Template:Excerpt"," 15.21% 233.037 39 Template:Citation"," 9.97% 152.739 30 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.15% 94.223 26 Template:Cite_web"," 5.56% 85.198 4 Template:Side_box"," 5.55% 85.013 3 Template:Lang"," 5.41% 82.855 1 Template:War"," 5.30% 81.230 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.087","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16973026,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","20.0"],["?","180","16.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","9.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","9.1"],["type","80","7.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","7.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","5.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","5.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.6"],["select","20","1.8"],["[others]","160","14.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-956887888-55xsq","timestamp":"20241211050251","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Disinformation","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disinformation","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q189656","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q189656","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-10-31T17:22:59Z","dateModified":"2024-12-07T06:57:18Z","headline":"false or misleading information that is spread deliberately to deceive and manipulate"}</script> </body> </html>