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href="#Amphibians_and_reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Amphibians and reptiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphibians_and_reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Facilitation_of_poaching_of_flora_and_fauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Facilitation_of_poaching_of_flora_and_fauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Facilitation of poaching of flora and fauna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Facilitation_of_poaching_of_flora_and_fauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_efforts" 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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Road permeability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Road_permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitat_construction_and_planting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat_construction_and_planting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Habitat construction and planting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_construction_and_planting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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issue">ecological effects</a> (both positive and negative) of <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a> and <a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highways</a> (public roads). These effects may include local effects, such as on <a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">noise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>/disturbance and local <a href="/wiki/Air_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Air quality">air quality</a>; and the wider <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">environmental effects of transport</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>, ecosystem degradation, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> from vehicle emissions. </p><p>The design, construction and management of <a href="/wiki/Roads" class="mw-redirect" title="Roads">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parking" title="Parking">parking</a> and other related facilities as well as the design and regulation of <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> can change their effect. Roads are known to cause significant <a href="/wiki/Forest_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest destruction">damage to forests</a>, prairies, streams and <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Forman_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the direct habitat loss due to the road itself, and the <a href="/wiki/Roadkill" title="Roadkill">roadkill</a> of animal species, roads alter water-flow patterns, increase <a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">noise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, create disturbance that alters the <a href="/wiki/Species_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Species composition">species composition</a> of nearby vegetation thereby reducing habitat for local native animals, and act as barriers to animal movements. Roads are a form of <a href="/wiki/Linear_infrastructure_intrusions" title="Linear infrastructure intrusions">linear infrastructure intrusion</a> that has some effects similar to infrastructure such as railroads, power lines, and canals, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Road ecology is practiced as a field of inquiry by a variety of ecologists, biologists, <a href="/wiki/Hydrologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrologist">hydrologists</a>, engineers, and other scientists. There are several global centers for the study of road ecology: 1) The Road Ecology Center <sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the University of California, Davis, which was the first of its kind in the world; 2) the Centro Brasileiro de Estudos em Ecologia de Estradas at the Federal University of Lavras, Brazil;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 3) The Center for Transportation and the Environment, North Carolina State University;<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 4) the Road Ecology Program at the Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also several important global conferences for road ecology research: 1) Infra-Eco Network Europe (IENE),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is international, but focused primarily on Europe; 2) International Conference on Ecology and Transportation (ICOET),<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is also global in scope, but primarily focused on the US; 3) Australasian Network for Ecology & Transportation (ANET),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which focuses on the Australasian (sub)continent; and 4) a potential Southern African road ecology conference, being considered by the Endangered Wildlife Trust.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_quality">Air quality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Air quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg/220px-Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg/330px-Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg/440px-Aab_Pasadena_Highway_Los_Angeles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Air pollution along Pasadena Highway in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Roads can have both negative and positive effects on air quality. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a> from fossil (and some biofuel) powered vehicles can occur wherever vehicles are used and are of particular concern in congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Emissions, also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a>, include <a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">particulate</a> emissions from <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/NOx#Health_effects" title="NOx">NO<sub><i>x</i></sub></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a><sup id="cite_ref-Toxicology2002-omaye_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toxicology2002-omaye-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and various other hazardous air pollutants including <a href="/wiki/Benzene#Health_effects" title="Benzene">benzene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse <a href="/wiki/Respiratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory">respiratory</a> health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.<sup id="cite_ref-carbonblack_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carbonblack-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Road_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Road dust">Road dust</a> kicked up by vehicles may trigger <a href="/wiki/Allergic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergic">allergic</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> is non-toxic to humans but is a major <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> and motor vehicle emissions are an important contributor to the growth of CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations in the atmosphere and therefore to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. </p><p>The construction of new roads which divert traffic from populated areas can deliver a perceived improvement in air quality in the original area. However, new roads will typically lead to <i>more</i> overall emissions due to <a href="/wiki/Induced_demand" title="Induced demand">induced demand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Study</i> carried out for the development of the Tirana Outer Ring Road estimated that it would result in improved air quality in Tirana city center.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new section of road being built near <a href="/wiki/Hindhead" title="Hindhead">Hindhead</a>, UK, to replace a four-mile section of the <a href="/wiki/A3_road" title="A3 road">A3 road</a>, and which includes the new <a href="/wiki/Hindhead_Tunnel" title="Hindhead Tunnel">Hindhead Tunnel</a>, is expected by the government to deliver environmental benefits to the immediate area including the removal of daily congestion, the elimination of air pollution in Hindhead caused by the congestion, and the removal of an existing road which crosses the environmentally sensitive <a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Punchbowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Devil's Punchbowl">Devil's Punchbowl</a> area.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title=" (October 2020)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrology">Hydrology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hydrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a> from roads and other <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">impervious surfaces</a> is a major source of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rainwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainwater">Rainwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snowmelt" title="Snowmelt">snowmelt</a> running off of roads tends to pick up <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_oil" title="Motor oil">motor oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">trash</a> and other pollutants. Road runoff is a major source of <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs), which are created as <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> byproducts of gasoline and other <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/De-icing" class="mw-redirect" title="De-icing">De-icing</a> chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, contaminate <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and pollute <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface waters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Road_salt" title="Road salt">Road salts</a> (primarily <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chlorides</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>) can be <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a> to sensitive plants and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sand can alter <a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">stream bed</a> environments, causing stress for the plants and animals that live there. Several studies have found a definite difference in physical properties of waters between catchments or hydric systems immediately adjacent to roads compared with those in environments further away from the studied roads.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De-icing chemicals, salt, chlorides and the nutrients brought by particulate pollution such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen</a> (N) and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> (P) can trigger <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascades</a> in adjacent waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De-icing_chemicals">De-icing chemicals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: De-icing chemicals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The chemicals applied to roads along with grit for <a href="/wiki/De-ice" class="mw-redirect" title="De-ice">de-icing</a> are primarily <a href="/wiki/Road_salt" title="Road salt">Salt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramakrishna_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramakrishna-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> are also used.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramakrishna_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramakrishna-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chemicals leave the road surface either in water runoff or in water spray. Apart from <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulation</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in adjacent plants, vegetation can be damaged by salt as far as 100 m (110 yd) from the road.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have found negative effects on <a href="/wiki/Wood_frog" title="Wood frog">wood frog</a> population dynamics when <a href="/wiki/Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpoles</a> were raised in presence of most de-icing chemicals, such as decreased tadpole survival rates and modified sex ratios at maturity.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An increased level of chloride in water due to salt application to roads can be widespread in waterways, rather than a local phenomenon of the road edge itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramakrishna_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramakrishna-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Noise">Noise</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg/220px-Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg/330px-Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg/440px-Cyclists_at_red_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1777" /></a><figcaption>Conversation with other traffic users is possible with low traffic noise</figcaption></figure> <p>Motor vehicle traffic on roads will generate <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, in a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">frequencies</a> which can affect both humans and animals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_effects">Negative effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Negative effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise pollution</a> is a factor of environmental degradation that is often overlooked and typically seen as not having a significant effect, though traffic noise can contribute to numerous disturbances for wildlife. An increasing number of studies have been done on the effects of noise on wildlife. Both the sounds made by motors and the wind over moving vehicle structures, and the ultrasonic vibrations transmitted through the air and ground from vehicle passage can overlap with the frequency ranges and amplitudes used by animals for <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">communication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several studies revealed that noise can have a negative effect, particularly on birds. Noise from major roads can interrupt or interfere with the calls of song birds, and their instinctive calls associated with mating, communication, migration, and other purposes are hindered by noise from roads. Birds in cities that are exposed to traffic noise sing higher-frequency songs which increases the amplitude of their songs so that they are more likely to be heard over the noise.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study did not necessarily directly provide a fatal effect for the tested birds, but the study showed that <a href="/wiki/Species_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Species abundance">species abundance</a> declined around major roads due to noise.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noise effects may also modify the behaviour of certain species, such as birds and their feeding behaviours. Birds may spend an increasing amount of time using visual scanning to spot predators as a result of auditory cues and alarm signals from other species being masked by noise pollution. A decreased amount of time spent feeding may lower the mean body weight of birds living near roads, which directly affects their survival rates in a negative fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chronic traffic noise exposure hinders a bird's ability to respond to other common stress cues by lowering levels of stress-induced corticosterone (a measure of how strongly an organism responds to a stressor).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be life-threatening if birds are not able to respond appropriately to a stress cue, such as a predator. In noisy environments, nestlings are less likely to beg when their parents arrive because traffic noise masks the sounds of their parents' arrival.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect can lower rates of feeding, which leads to a reduction in nestling body size and chance of post-fledgling survival. Nestlings exposed to noise may also suffer from reduced immune function.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Road noise can be a nuisance if it impinges on population centres, especially for roads at higher operating speeds, near intersections and on uphill sections. <a href="/wiki/Noise_health_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Noise health effects">Noise health effects</a> can be expected in such locations from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. <a href="/wiki/Noise_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Noise mitigation">Noise mitigation</a> strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">acoustical engineering</a> considerations first arose about 1973.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Speed_bumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Speed bumps">Speed bumps</a>, which are usually deployed in built-up areas, can increase <a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">noise pollution</a>. This is especially the case if large vehicles use the road and particularly at night. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_effects">Positive effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Positive effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>New roads can divert traffic away from population centres thus relieving the <a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">noise pollution</a>. A new road scheme planned in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>, UK promises to reduce traffic noise in <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a> town centre. In areas where most native forest has been cleared, roads can make it easier to move crops to market and import fertilizers. This can increase farm yields and profits. <sup id="cite_ref-shrop_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrop-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title=" (October 2020)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_wildlife">Effects on wildlife</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects on wildlife"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Habitat fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barrier_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrier effect">Barrier effect</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg/220px-Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg/330px-Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg/440px-Indian_Giant_Squirrel_Ratufa_indica_malabar_giant_squirrel_roadkill_anaimalai_hills.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Indian_giant_squirrel" title="Indian giant squirrel">Indian giant squirrel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arboreal animal">tree dweller</a>, killed on a road that has disrupted the rainforest canopy</figcaption></figure> <p>Roads can act as barriers or filters to animal movement and lead to <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RMEE_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RMEE-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species will not cross the open space created by a road due to the threat of <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a><sup id="cite_ref-PRI_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRI-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and roads also cause increased animal mortality from traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-MELES_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MELES-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This barrier effect can prevent species from <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migrating</a> and recolonising areas where the species has gone locally <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> as well as restricting access to seasonally available or widely scattered resources.<sup id="cite_ref-PRI_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRI-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Habitat fragmentation may also divide large continuous populations into smaller more isolated populations.<sup id="cite_ref-RMEE_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RMEE-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These smaller populations are more vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a> and an increased risk of population decline and extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-PRI_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRI-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether or not this effect is observed depends greatly on the size and mobility of the species in question and the spatial scale at which the fragmentation occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fragmentation does not affect all species in the same way. </p><p>The presence of roads also decreases the amount of habitat accessible to species. This is to say that it decreases the amount of usable habitat available to organisms without crossing a road. That being said, whether a habitat on the other side of the road becomes inaccessible to an organism or not varies between species. Roads are a permeable barrier to some organisms and impermeable to others.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amphibians_and_reptiles">Amphibians and reptiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Amphibians and reptiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common-snapping-turtle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Common-snapping-turtle.jpg/220px-Common-snapping-turtle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Common-snapping-turtle.jpg/330px-Common-snapping-turtle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Common-snapping-turtle.jpg/440px-Common-snapping-turtle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Common_snapping_turtle" title="Common snapping turtle">Snapping turtle</a> (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>) crossing a road</figcaption></figure> <p>Roads can be particularly hazardous to populations of amphibians and reptiles that migrate to vernal pools,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to the gravel on road verges that several species try to use as nest sites.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reptiles' instinctive activities can lead them towards roads and lead to an increase in mortality rates: snakes, for example, may use roads as a source of heat for thermoregulation. Also some turtles have been noted to lay their eggs on road shoulders. Migratory patterns from season to season can also bring frogs and snakes into contact with roads and lead to an increase in their mortality rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds">Birds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The traffic load near large cities may show dramatic cyclical changes induced by weekend tourism, and this could induce cyclical changes in the activity patterns of birds.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Road implantation may also lead birds to avoid certain sites, as they are seen as being less habitable (because of increases in noise and chemical pollution). Certain bird populations may then become confined into smaller habitable sites, leading to an increase in possibility of extinction caused by illness or habitat perturbation.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Facilitation_of_poaching_of_flora_and_fauna">Facilitation of poaching of flora and fauna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Facilitation of poaching of flora and fauna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bush_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bush meat">Bush meat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_trade" title="Wildlife trade">Wildlife trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></div> <p>Roads that run through forests that house edible animals may encourage or facilitate <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a>. Especially in poor areas, the construction of roads has promoted not only poaching for personal consumption but also for sale (for consumption or as a pet) to third parties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Similarly, the construction of roads in forested areas has also promoted illegal logging as it becomes easier for illegal loggers to transport the wood.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_efforts">Mitigation efforts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mitigation efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awareness">Awareness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Awareness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Awareness needs to be spread among drivers particularly those driving on forest road on maintaining speed limits and being vigilant. <a href="/wiki/Environment_Conservation_Group" title="Environment Conservation Group">Environment Conservation Group</a> had initiated an awareness drive named PATH an acronym for Provide Animals safe Transit on Highways<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> covering more than 17,000 km in India to highlighting the importance of safe driving on forest roads.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Road_permeability">Road permeability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Road permeability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_crossings" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife crossings">Wildlife crossings</a> that allow <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> to safely cross human-made barriers such as roads, are intended not only to reduce roadkill, but ideally to provide connectivity of habitat areas, combating <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Forman_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wildlife crossings may include: <a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">underpass tunnels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viaduct" title="Viaduct">viaducts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Overpass" title="Overpass">overpasses</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_construction_and_planting">Habitat construction and planting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Habitat construction and planting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Washington County, North Carolina, along Highway 64, a study was conducted to analyze the effects of wildlife underpasses on the local wildlife. Three wildlife underpasses were built with fencing around the highway in the study zones. The study showed that deer used the underpasses the most and made up 93% of all crossings. Mortality rates were calculated and showed that the numbers of deaths were lower near underpasses. This cannot be said about all animals. Some have smaller home ranges so they were not inclined to travel to underpasses to cross the road. Underpass would most likely benefit larger mammals such as bears, deer, and cougars. Underpasses were seen to lower mortality rates and increase local species ability to adapt to a habitat along a major road.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structural elements such as fencing or walls along road bridges can encourage birds and bats to fly higher over roads or underneath bridges, which lowers the chances of vehicle collisions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some animals, such as birds, are more vulnerable to disturbances during certain periods of the year, such as the breeding season.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recycling">Recycling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Materials removed from a road can be reused in construction within the same project<sup id="cite_ref-SCS_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCS-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in other locations. Road construction can also use waste materials from other industries. </p><p>Asphalt pavement is one of the most recycled materials in the United States. It is estimated that over 80% of asphalt pavement removed from roadways is reused as <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">construction aggregate</a>. It can be mixed into new pavement or used as a subbase or fill material. Similarly, concrete from road or building demolition can be an excellent source of aggregate.<sup id="cite_ref-waste_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waste-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common examples of waste products used in road building include coal <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a> (used to make concrete stronger), asphalt shingles and shredded <a href="/wiki/Waste_tire" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste tire">tires</a> (used in asphalt pavement), ground glass and steel mill <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> (used as aggregates).<sup id="cite_ref-waste_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waste-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, US asphalt plants used an estimated 68.3 million tons of reclaimed asphalt pavement, 1.86 million tons of recycled asphalt shingles, and over 1 million tons of other recycled materials to produce new asphalt.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">Congestion pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car#Environmental_effects" title="Car">Environmental effects of cars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Environmental effects of transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truck#Environmental_effects" title="Truck">Environmental effects of trucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-emission_zone" title="Low-emission zone">Low-emission zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Roads as extraction route for mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_fragmentation" title="Population fragmentation">Population fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles#Second-hand_vehicle_dumping" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Second-hand vehicle dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad_ecology" title="Railroad ecology">Railroad ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">Rubberized asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synanthrope" title="Synanthrope">Synanthrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_ecology" title="Transport ecology">Transport ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_and_the_environment#Mitigation_of_environmental_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport and the environment">Transport and the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_crossing" title="Wildlife crossing">Wildlife crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland-urban_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland-urban interface">Wildland-urban interface</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_ecology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Forman-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forman_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forman_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFForman,_R.T.T.Sperling,_D.Bissonette,_J.A.Clevenger,_A.P.2002" class="citation book 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