Improving human forensics through advances in genetics, genomics and molecular biology

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</svg> </li><li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb3" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <span itemprop="name">article</span><meta itemprop="position" content="4"></li> </ol> </div> </nav> </div> <div class="u-container u-mt-32 u-mb-32 u-clearfix" id="content" data-component="article-container" data-container-type="article"> <main class="c-article-main-column u-float-left js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-identifiers" data-test="article-identifier"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category">Review Article</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item">Published: <time datetime="2011-02-18">18 February 2011</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Improving human forensics through advances in genetics, genomics and molecular biology</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Manfred-Kayser-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Manfred-Kayser-Aff1" data-author-search="Kayser, Manfred" data-corresp-id="c1">Manfred Kayser<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Peter-de_Knijff-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Peter-de_Knijff-Aff2" data-author-search="de Knijff, Peter">Peter de Knijff</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> </li></ul> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/nrg" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature Reviews Genetics</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 12</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">pages </span>179–192 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2011</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">10k <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">315 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">27 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/nrg2952/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/genetic-techniques" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Genetic techniques</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/molecular-biology" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Molecular biology</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/social-sciences" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Social sciences</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mb-8 c-status-message c-status-message--boxed c-status-message--info"> <span class="c-status-message__icon"> <svg class="u-icon" width="18" height="18" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-info-filled-medium"></use> </svg> </span> <p class="u-mt-0">A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3327" class="relation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view linked article" data-track-label="link">Corrigendum</a> to this article was published on 29 August 2012</p> </div> <div class="u-mb-8 c-status-message c-status-message--boxed c-status-message--info"> <span class="c-status-message__icon"> <svg class="u-icon" width="18" height="18" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-info-filled-medium"></use> </svg> </span> <p class="u-mt-0">This article has been <a href="#change-history">updated</a></p> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Key Points" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Key Points</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"> <ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>Forensic DNA profiling based on short tandem repeat (STR) markers currently allows the identification of persons already known to the investigating authorities. This technology has recently been improved in terms of the ability to analyse degraded DNA and low amounts of DNA, and has increased discrimination power.</p> </li> <li> <p>There are still some technical limitations to STR profiling, some of which can be overcome by using SNPs, which are more suitable for dealing with highly degraded DNA. Although the existing STR-based forensic DNA databases make it unlikely that SNPs will replace STRs for universal identification, SNPs are likely to improve human identification in disaster victim identification and in kinship analysis.</p> </li> <li> <p>The limitation of currently used Y-chromosomal STRs (Y-STRs) for male identification from male/female mixed samples is that it only allows the identification of groups of paternally related males. This can be overcome by applying rapidly mutating Y-STRs that provide male relative differentiation in many cases, allowing individual male identification via Y chromosome analysis.</p> </li> <li> <p>STR or SNP profiling can only identify persons previously known to the investigating authorities, a limitation that could be solved by forensic DNA phenotyping; that is, the inference of externally visible traits and biogeographic ancestry from crime scene DNA to provide intelligence leads for a police investigation that is searching for unknown persons.</p> </li> <li> <p>DNA-based biogeographic ancestry inferences are already possible on the level of at least larger geographic regions such as continents, and partly on subregional levels, using suitable SNPs that also allow the reconstruction of mixed ancestry. DNA-based inferences with a resolution of single countries are unlikely to ever become available.</p> </li> <li> <p>Current DNA-based appearance prediction includes group-specific traits such as eye colour, hair colour and age with categorical prediction accuracies suitable for practical applications, and additional group-specific traits such as skin colour, hair morphology or baldness may follow. Individual-specific DNA-based facial morphology prediction would be most appreciated for finding unknown persons, but is currently beyond our level of genetic knowledge.</p> </li> <li> <p>mRNA-based determination of the cellular origin of a crime scene sample, as is now possible for most relevant tissues in forensic practice, including skin, provides more accuracy than previously used presumptive methods. The use of DNA methylation markers for this purpose appears promising.</p> </li> <li> <p>Estimating the deposition time of a crime scene blood sample by using circadian biomarkers has become possible, although more markers are needed for detailed timing. Furthermore, estimating sample age based on differential RNA degradation appears promising.</p> </li> <li> <p>Future prospects include using next-generation (PCR-free) sequencing technologies to improve human identification in heavily degraded and mixed samples, more detailed DNA reconstruction of human appearance to allow stringent concentration of police investigation in the search for unknown suspects, and more detailed molecular approaches for crime scene reconstruction, such as in sample deposition timing and perhaps in the reconstruction of the physiological conditions of victims and perpetrators during criminal acts.</p> </li> </ul> </div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="Abs3" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs3">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs3-content"><p>Forensic DNA profiling currently allows the identification of persons already known to investigating authorities. Recent advances have produced new types of genetic markers with the potential to overcome some important limitations of current DNA profiling methods. Moreover, other developments are enabling completely new kinds of forensically relevant information to be extracted from biological samples. These include new molecular approaches for finding individuals previously unknown to investigators, and new molecular methods to support links between forensic sample donors and criminal acts. 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id="change-history-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="change-history">Change history</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="change-history-content"><ul class="c-article-change-list"><li class="c-article-change-list__item u-mb-24" id="chg1"><ins datetime="2012-08-29"><h3 class="c-article-change-list__heading u-h3 u-pr-8 u-display-inline">29 August 2012</h3><div class="c-article-change-list__details"><p>In Figure 3 of this article, the red box surrounding the second, third and fourth eyes in the third column was incorrectly positioned. The box should surround the third, fourth and fifth eyes in the third column. The authors and editors apologize for the error.</p></div></ins></li></ul></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Jobling, M. A. & Gill, P. Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis. <i>Nature Rev. 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Sankar and B.-J. Koops to box 2 on ethical aspects, and box 3 on legal implications of forensic DNA phenotyping, respectively. We are also very grateful to A. Pakstis and K. K. Kidd for providing data used in figure 1. We thank O. Lao, D. Zubakov, R. Koppenol and S. Walsh for preparing figures, as well as K. Ballantyne for help in literature survey. K. Ballantyne, P. Schneider and R. van Oorschot are gratefully acknowledged for valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. We apologize to those colleagues whose work we were unable to cite owing to space restrictions. The work of the authors is supported by the Netherlands Forensic Institute, the Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam (M.K.), the Leiden University Medical Center (P.d.K.), and additionally by a grant from the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) within the framework of the Forensic Genomics Consortium Netherlands (FGCN).</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Forensic Molecular Biology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, 3000, CA, The Netherlands</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Manfred Kayser</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Human and Clinical Genetics, Forensic Laboratory for DNA Research, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2300, RC, The Netherlands</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Peter de Knijff</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Manfred-Kayser-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Manfred Kayser</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Manfred%20Kayser" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Manfred%20Kayser" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Manfred%20Kayser%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Peter-de_Knijff-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Peter de Knijff</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Peter%20de%20Knijff" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Peter%20de%20Knijff" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Peter%20de%20Knijff%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:m.kayser@erasmusmc.nl">Manfred Kayser</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing financial interests.</p> </div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="appendices"><div class="c-article-section" id="appendices-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="appendices">Related links</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="appendices-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading u-visually-hidden" id="App1">Related links</h3><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">FURTHER INFORMATION</h3><p> <a href="http://www.erasmusmc.nl/fmb">Manfred Kayser's homepage</a> </p><p> <a href="https://www.23andme.com">23andMe</a> </p><p> <a href="http://www.cephb.fr/en/cephdb/">Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) Database</a> </p><p> <a href="http://www.decodeme.com">deCODEme</a> </p><p> <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/morrinst/hgdp.html">Human Genome Diversity Project</a> </p><p> <a href="http://www.yhrd.org">Y Chromosome Haplotype Reference Database</a> </p></div></div></section><section data-title="Glossary"><div class="c-article-section" id="glossary-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="glossary">Glossary</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="glossary-content"><dl class="c-description-list"><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos1">Short tandem repeat</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A DNA sequence containing a variable number (typically ≤50) of tandemly repeated short (2–6 bp) sequence motifs, such as (GATA)<i>n</i>. Forensically used STRs are usually tetranucleotide repeats, which have few stutter artefacts (see below).</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos2">Forensic DNA databases</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>National databases held by the police or the justice system of defined short tandem repeat profiles, usually from persons convicted of a defined crime.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos3">Single nucleotide polymorphisms</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>DNA sequence variation concerning a single site (base pair) in the genome. The polymorphism is usually a substitution, but can sometimes be a single base pair insertion or deletion.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos4">Biogeographic ancestry</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A concept of lineage that looks at kinship and descent based on biogeography, a combination of biology and geography.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos5">Low template DNA</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The availability of just a few DNA molecules for DNA profiling.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos6">Allele drop-in</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Addition of (typically) one or two alleles to a DNA profile, owing to contamination.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos7">Allele drop-out</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Loss of one or both alleles in a DNA profile, owing to stochastic failure of PCR amplification, usually when the number of template molecules is small.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos8">Heterozygote peak imbalance</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The proportion of the two alleles of a heterozygote genotype, expressed as the area of the smaller peak divided by the area of the larger peak in an electropherogram.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos9">PCR amplicon</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>DNA that is generated by PCR amplification.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos10">Stutter artefacts</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Artefacts that occur by DNA-replication slippage during the PCR amplification of STRs. Most stutter artefacts seen with fluorescence-based STR analysis are one repeat shorter than the true allele.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos11">Multiplex genotyping</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Simultaneous analysis of multiple genetic loci.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos12">Match probability</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The chance of two unrelated individuals sharing a DNA profile.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos13">Population differentiation</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Populations that differ to a certain extent in their genetic characteristics.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos14">Haplotype</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A specific Y chromosome or mitochondrial (mt) type defined by the combination of genotypes of more rapidly evolving markers, usually STRs on the Y chromosome for Y haplotypes, and the mtDNA sequences — including rapidly and slowly evolving sites — for mtDNA haplotypes.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos15">Bottleneck event</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A marked reduction in population size followed by the survival and expansion of a small, random sample of the original population. It often results in the loss of genetic variation and more frequent matings among closely related individuals.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos16">Founder event</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A situation in which a new population is founded by a small number of incoming individuals. Similar to a bottleneck, the founder effect severely reduces genetic diversity, increasing the effect of random drift.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos17">Genetic clusters and clines</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Populations in close geographic proximity that have similar genetic characteristics (clusters), or populations that show a genetic frequency gradient that correlates with the geographic distances separating them (clines).</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos18">Effective population size</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The number of breeding individuals of an idealized population that has the same properties with respect to genetic drift as does the actual population in question.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos19">Genetic drift</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The stochastic fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population owing to chance variations in the contribution of each individual to the next generation.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos20">Residence pattern</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Referring to conventional rules or patterns of behaviour concerning the place a couple lives after marriage.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos21">Haplogroup</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A specific Y chromosome or mitochondrial type defined by the combination of genotypes of slowly evolving binary markers usually SNPs on the Y chromosome or mtDNA, respectively.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos22">Hypervariable region</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Part of mitochondrial DNA that is non-coding and therefore accumulates variation more than the coding parts.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos23">Intelligence-led policing</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A strategic, future-oriented and targeted approach to crime control, focusing upon the identification, analysis and 'management' of persisting and developing 'problems' or 'risks'.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos24">Genetic admixture</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The process of mixing of two or more groups whose ancestors had been separated (usually long before).</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos25">Genetic population substructure</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The absence of random mating within a population, leading to allele frequency differences among subpopulations.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos26">Ancestry-informative or ancestry-sensitive DNA markers</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>DNA markers that show marked allele frequency differences between populations from different geographic regions, and are therefore useful for determining the probable biogeographic ancestry of an individual.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos27">Principle component analysis</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A multivariate analysis that provides a new coordinate system, the axes of which (the principal components) successively account for the maximum amount of variance and are uncorrelated with each other.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos28">Laplacian eigenvector</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>An analysis which — compared with, for example, principal component analysis (PCA) — is a statistical tool one can use to achieve dimension reduction of highly complex sets of (genetic) data. It has a major advantage over PCA in that it compares each individual only with its close neighbours, rather than with all other individuals (here, closeness refers to genetic relatedness, not geographic distance).</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos29">Multidimensional scaling analysis</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A dimensionality reduction technique, similar to principal component analysis, in which points in a high-dimensional space are projected into a lower-dimensional space while approximately preserving the distance between points.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos30">Genetic distance matrices</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A matrix of values expressing the degree of genetic differentiation between two or more populations (or individuals).</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos31">Bayesian cluster algorithms</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A probabilistic technique for evaluating the grouping of individuals or populations. Hypotheses are evaluated by their posterior probabilities.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos32">Relative admixture proportions</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>The relative contribution of two or more parental populations to a hybrid population.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos33">Genome-wide association studies</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Analysis across the genome using association models to identify regions that contribute to genetic variation in a phenotype. These studies typically analyse data from high-density SNP arrays.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos34">Skin reflectance</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>Measurable light reflectance of the skin, which depends (among other things) on skin pigmentation.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos35">DNA methylation</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A DNA modification in which a methyl group is added to cytosine. Methylation inhibits gene expression and is maintained through DNA replication and cell division.</p> </dd><dt class="c-description-list__term u-text-bold" id="Glos36">TaqMan RT-PCR</dt><dd class="c-description-list__description u-pl-32"> <p>A proprietary system (developed by Applied Biosystems) that allows the progression of a PCR reaction to be monitored in real time.</p> </dd></dl></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=Improving%20human%20forensics%20through%20advances%20in%20genetics%2C%20genomics%20and%20molecular%20biology&author=Manfred%20Kayser%20et%20al&contentID=10.1038%2Fnrg2952&copyright=Springer%20Nature%20Limited&publication=1471-0056&publicationDate=2011-02-18&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="c-bibliographic-information__column"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Kayser, M., de Knijff, P. Improving human forensics through advances in genetics, genomics and molecular biology. <i>Nat Rev Genet</i> <b>12</b>, 179–192 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2952</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/nrg2952?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2011-02-18">18 February 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