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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short_stories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short_stories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Short stories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short_stories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films_and_TV_shows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films_and_TV_shows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Films and TV shows</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films_and_TV_shows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anime_/_manga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anime_/_manga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Anime / manga</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anime_/_manga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Video games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D8%B9%D8%A8" title="خيال علمي صعب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خيال علمي صعب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Твърда научна фантастика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Твърда научна фантастика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia-ficci%C3%B3_dura" title="Ciència-ficció dura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència-ficció dura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hard science fiction" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="تعاويد عيلمي حرش – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تعاويد عيلمي حرش" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-Fiction#Hard_Science-Fiction" title="Science-Fiction – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Science-Fiction" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_ficci%C3%B3n_dura" title="Ciencia ficción dura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia ficción dura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malmola_sciencfikcio" title="Malmola sciencfikcio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malmola sciencfikcio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C-%D8%AA%D8%AE%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%AA" title="علمی-تخیلی سخت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علمی-تخیلی سخت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science-fiction" title="Hard science-fiction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hard science-fiction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurde_science_fiction" title="Hurde science fiction – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hurde science fiction" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruafhicsean_eola%C3%ADochta" title="Cruafhicsean eolaíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cruafhicsean eolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_ficci%C3%B3n_dura" title="Ciencia ficción dura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencia ficción dura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EB%93%9C_SF" title="하드 SF – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하드 SF" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantascienza_hard" title="Fantascienza hard – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fantascienza hard" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2_%D7%91%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%94" title="מדע בדיוני קשה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדע בדיוני קשה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hard science fiction" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Тешка научна фантастика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Тешка научна фантастика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harde_sciencefiction" title="Harde sciencefiction – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Harde sciencefiction" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89SF" title="ハードSF – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハードSF" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hard science fiction" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fic%C3%A7%C3%A3o_cient%C3%ADfica_hard" title="Ficção científica hard – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ficção científica hard" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Hard science fiction" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B2%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Твёрдая научная фантастика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Твёрдая научная фантастика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AE%D8%AA" title="خەیاڵی زانستیی سەخت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەیاڵی زانستیی سەخت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kova_tieteiskirjallisuus" title="Kova tieteiskirjallisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kova tieteiskirjallisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5rd_science_fiction" title="Hård science fiction – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hård science fiction" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sert_bilimkurgu" title="Sert bilimkurgu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sert bilimkurgu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Жорстка наукова фантастика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жорстка наукова фантастика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc_vi%E1%BB%85n_t%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Fng_n%E1%BA%B7ng" title="Khoa học viễn tưởng nặng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoa học viễn tưởng nặng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AC%E7%A7%91%E5%B9%BB" title="硬科幻 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="硬科幻" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AC%E7%A7%91%E5%B9%BB" title="硬科幻 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="硬科幻" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q725757#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Science fiction with concern for scientific accuracy</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clarke_sm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a man sitting in a chair." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/220px-Clarke_sm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/330px-Clarke_sm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clarke_sm.jpg/440px-Clarke_sm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a>, one of the most significant writers of hard science fiction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poul_anderson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photograph of a man, in the foreground, sitting at a table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Poul_anderson.jpg/220px-Poul_anderson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Poul_anderson.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Poul_Anderson" title="Poul Anderson">Poul Anderson</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Tau_Zero" title="Tau Zero">Tau Zero</a></i>, <i>Kyrie</i> and others</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Hard science fiction</b> is a category of <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> characterized by concern for scientific accuracy and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nicholls1993_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls1993-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wolfe1986_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolfe1986-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was first used in print in 1957 by <a href="/wiki/P._Schuyler_Miller" title="P. Schuyler Miller">P. Schuyler Miller</a> in a review of <a href="/wiki/John_W._Campbell" title="John W. Campbell">John W. Campbell</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Space" title="Islands of Space">Islands of Space</a></i> in the November issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Astounding Science Fiction">Astounding Science Fiction</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jesse2005_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jesse2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hartwell2002intro_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell2002intro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complementary term <a href="/wiki/Soft_science_fiction" title="Soft science fiction">soft science fiction</a>, formed by analogy to the popular distinction between the "hard" (<a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a>) and "soft" (<a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a>) sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-jesse2005b_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jesse2005b-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first appeared in the late 1970s. Though there are examples generally considered as "hard" science fiction such as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Foundation_(book_series)" title="Foundation (book series)"><i>Foundation</i> series</a>, built on <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">mathematical sociology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> science fiction critic <a href="/wiki/Gary_Westfahl" title="Gary Westfahl">Gary Westfahl</a> argues that while neither term is part of a rigorous <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a>, they are approximate ways of characterizing stories that reviewers and commentators have found useful.<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg/220px-Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg/330px-Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Science_fiction_plus_195312.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frank_R._Paul" title="Frank R. Paul">Frank R. Paul</a>'s cover for the last issue (December 1953) of <i><a href="/wiki/Science-Fiction_Plus" title="Science-Fiction Plus">Science-Fiction Plus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Stories revolving around scientific and technical consistency were written as early as the 1870s with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Thousand_Leagues_Under_the_Seas" title="Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas">Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas</a></i> in 1870, among other stories. The attention to detail in Verne's work became an inspiration for many future scientists and explorers, although Verne himself denied writing as a scientist or seriously predicting machines and technology of the future.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback" title="Hugo Gernsback">Hugo Gernsback</a> believed from the beginning of his involvement with science fiction in the 1920s that the stories should be instructive,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it was not long before he found it necessary to print fantastical and unscientific fiction in <i><a href="/wiki/Amazing_Stories" title="Amazing Stories">Amazing Stories</a></i> to attract readers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Gernsback's long absence from science fiction (SF) publishing, from 1936 to 1953, the field evolved away from his focus on facts and education.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction" title="Golden Age of Science Fiction">Golden Age of Science Fiction</a> is generally considered to have started in the late 1930s and lasted until the mid-1940s, bringing with it "a quantum jump in quality, perhaps the greatest in the history of the genre", according to science fiction historians <a href="/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)" title="Peter Nicholls (writer)">Peter Nicholls</a> and Mike Ashley.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Gernsback's views were unchanged. In his editorial in the first issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Science-Fiction_Plus" title="Science-Fiction Plus">Science-Fiction Plus</a></i>, he gave his view of the modern SF story: "the fairy tale brand, the weird or fantastic type of what mistakenly masquerades under the name of Science-Fiction today!" and he stated his preference for "truly scientific, prophetic Science-Fiction with the full accent on SCIENCE".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same editorial, Gernsback called for <a href="/wiki/United_States_patent_law" title="United States patent law">patent reform</a> to give <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_authors" class="mw-redirect" title="Science fiction authors">science fiction authors</a> the right to create patents for ideas without having <a href="/wiki/Patent_model" title="Patent model">patent models</a> because many of their ideas predated the technical progress needed to develop <a href="/wiki/Specifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Specifications">specifications</a> for their ideas. The introduction referenced the numerous <a href="/wiki/Precognition" title="Precognition">prescient</a> technologies described throughout <i><a href="/wiki/Ralph_124C_41%2B" title="Ralph 124C 41+">Ralph 124C 41+</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The heart of the "hard science fiction" designation is the relationship of the science content and attitude to the rest of the narrative, and (for some readers, at least) the "hardness" or rigor of the science itself.<sup id="cite_ref-samuelson1993_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-samuelson1993-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One requirement for hard SF is procedural or intentional: a story should try to be accurate, logical, credible and rigorous in its use of current scientific and technical knowledge about which technology, phenomena, scenarios and situations that are practically or theoretically possible. For example, the development of concrete proposals for spaceships, space stations, space missions, and a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">US space program</a> in the 1950s and 1960s influenced a widespread proliferation of "hard" space stories.<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl993_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl993-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later discoveries do not necessarily invalidate the label of hard SF, as evidenced by <a href="/wiki/P._Schuyler_Miller" title="P. Schuyler Miller">P. Schuyler Miller</a>, who called <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a>'s 1961 novel <i><a href="/wiki/A_Fall_of_Moondust" title="A Fall of Moondust">A Fall of Moondust</a></i> hard SF,<sup id="cite_ref-jesse2005_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jesse2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the designation remains valid even though a crucial plot element, the existence of deep pockets of "moondust" in lunar craters, is now known to be incorrect. </p><p>There is a degree of flexibility in how far from "real science" a story can stray before it leaves the realm of hard SF.<sup id="cite_ref-Westfahl1993CloselyReasoned_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westfahl1993CloselyReasoned-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hard science fiction authors only include more controversial devices when the ideas draw from well-known scientific and mathematical principles. In contrast, authors writing <a href="/wiki/Soft_science_fiction" title="Soft science fiction">softer SF</a> use such devices without a scientific basis (sometimes referred to as "enabling devices", since they allow the story to take place).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Readers of "hard SF" often try to find inaccuracies in stories. For example, a group at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> concluded that the planet <a href="/wiki/Mesklin" title="Mesklin">Mesklin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hal_Clement" title="Hal Clement">Hal Clement</a>'s 1953 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Mission_of_Gravity" title="Mission of Gravity">Mission of Gravity</a></i> would have had a sharp edge at the equator, and a Florida high school class calculated that in <a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a>'s 1970 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Ringworld" title="Ringworld">Ringworld</a></i> the topsoil would have slid into the seas in a few thousand years.<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl2008_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Niven fixed these errors in his sequel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ringworld_Engineers" title="The Ringworld Engineers">The Ringworld Engineers</a></i>, and noted them in the <a href="/wiki/Foreword" title="Foreword">foreword</a>. </p><p>Films set in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> that aspire to the hard SF label try to minimize the <a href="/wiki/Artistic_license" title="Artistic license">artistic liberties</a> taken for the sake of practicality of effect. Such considerations to be made when shooting may include: </p> <ul><li>How the film accounts for <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">weightlessness</a> in space.</li> <li>How the film depicts sound despite the vacuum of space.</li> <li>Whether telecommunications are instant or are limited by the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soft_science_fiction#Films_set_in_outer_space" title="Soft science fiction">Outer space in soft science fiction films</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representative_works">Representative works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Representative works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a man sitting in a chair." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg/220px-Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg/330px-Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg/440px-Larry_Niven_-_Utopiales_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Ringworld" title="Ringworld">Ringworld</a></i>, "<a href="/wiki/Inconstant_Moon" title="Inconstant Moon">Inconstant Moon</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_Hole_Man" title="The Hole Man">The Hole Man</a>" and others.</figcaption></figure> <p>Arranged chronologically by publication year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthologies">Anthologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anthologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_G._Hartwell" title="David G. Hartwell">David G. Hartwell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Cramer" title="Kathryn Cramer">Kathryn Cramer</a> (eds.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ascent_of_Wonder:_The_Evolution_of_Hard_SF" title="The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard SF">The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard SF</a></i> (1994)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>David G. Hartwell and Kathryn Cramer (eds.), <i>The Hard SF Renaissance: An Anthology</i> (2002)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell2002-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bova" title="Ben Bova">Ben Bova</a> and Eric Choi (eds.), <i>Carbide-Tipped Pens: Seventeen Tales of Hard Science Fiction</i> (2014)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Wade Roush (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/twelve-tomorrows">Twelve Tomorrows</a></i> (MIT Press 2018)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short_stories">Short stories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Short stories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Heinlein" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Heinlein">Robert Heinlein</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Past_Through_Tomorrow" title="The Past Through Tomorrow">The Past Through Tomorrow</a></i> collection of stories (1939–1962)<sup id="cite_ref-Clayton_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayton-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Blish" title="James Blish">James Blish</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Surface_Tension_(short_story)" title="Surface Tension (short story)">Surface Tension</a>" (1952) (Book 3 of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seedling_Stars" title="The Seedling Stars">The Seedling Stars</a></i> (1957)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Blish" title="James Blish">James Blish</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Surface_Tension_(short_story)" title="Surface Tension (short story)">Surface Tension</a>" (1952) (Book 3 of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seedling_Stars" title="The Seedling Stars">The Seedling Stars</a></i> (1957)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>NB 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Godwin" title="Tom Godwin">Tom Godwin</a>, "<a href="/wiki/The_Cold_Equations" title="The Cold Equations">The Cold Equations</a>" (1954)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huntington_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huntington-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benford_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benford-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poul_Anderson" title="Poul Anderson">Poul Anderson</a>, "Kyrie" (1968)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Pohl" title="Frederik Pohl">Frederik Pohl</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Day_Million" title="Day Million">Day Million</a>" (1971)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Inconstant_Moon" title="Inconstant Moon">Inconstant Moon</a>" (1971) and "<a href="/wiki/The_Hole_Man" title="The Hole Man">The Hole Man</a>" (1974)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Bear" title="Greg Bear">Greg Bear</a>, "Tangents" (1986)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis" title="Geoffrey A. Landis">Geoffrey A. Landis</a>, "<a href="/wiki/A_Walk_in_the_Sun_(story)" class="mw-redirect" title="A Walk in the Sun (story)">A Walk in the Sun</a>" (1991)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell2002-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernor_Vinge" title="Vernor Vinge">Vernor Vinge</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Fast_Times_at_Fairmont_High" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast Times at Fairmont High">Fast Times at Fairmont High</a>" (2001)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell2002-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novels">Novels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Brave_New_World" title="Brave New World">Brave New World</a></i> (1932)<sup id="cite_ref-Brin_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_Clement" title="Hal Clement">Hal Clement</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mission_of_Gravity" title="Mission of Gravity">Mission of Gravity</a></i> (1953)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Cloud" title="The Black Cloud">The Black Cloud</a></i> (1957)<sup id="cite_ref-Benford_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benford-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Blish" title="James Blish">James Blish</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Case_of_Conscience" title="A Case of Conscience">A Case of Conscience</a></i> (1958)<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Vance" title="Jack Vance">Jack Vance</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Pao" title="The Languages of Pao">The Languages of Pao</a></i> (1958)<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_M._Miller_Jr." title="Walter M. Miller Jr.">Walter M. Miller Jr.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Canticle_for_Leibowitz" title="A Canticle for Leibowitz">A Canticle for Leibowitz</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Fall_of_Moondust" title="A Fall of Moondust">A Fall of Moondust</a></i> (1961)<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem" title="Stanisław Lem">Stanisław Lem</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Invincible" title="The Invincible">The Invincible</a></i> (1963)<sup id="cite_ref-niezwy_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-niezwy-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brunner_(novelist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brunner (novelist)">John Brunner</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stand_on_Zanzibar" title="Stand on Zanzibar">Stand on Zanzibar</a></i> (1968),<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jagged_Orbit" title="The Jagged Orbit">The Jagged Orbit</a></i> (1969),<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_Look_Up" title="The Sheep Look Up">The Sheep Look Up</a></i> (1972),<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shockwave_Rider" title="The Shockwave Rider">The Shockwave Rider</a></i> (1975)<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_K._Dick" title="Philip K. Dick">Philip K. Dick</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Do_Androids_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F" title="Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Crichton" title="Michael Crichton">Michael Crichton</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Andromeda_Strain" title="The Andromeda Strain">The Andromeda Strain</a></i> (1969),<sup id="cite_ref-Brin_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(novel)" title="Jurassic Park (novel)">Jurassic Park</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ringworld" title="Ringworld">Ringworld</a></i> (1970)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poul_Anderson" title="Poul Anderson">Poul Anderson</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tau_Zero" title="Tau Zero">Tau Zero</a></i> (1970)<sup id="cite_ref-Benford_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benford-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (writer)">James Gunn</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Listeners_(novel)" title="The Listeners (novel)">The Listeners</a></i> (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-Benford_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benford-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Pournelle" title="Jerry Pournelle">Jerry Pournelle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mote_in_God%27s_Eye" title="The Mote in God's Eye">The Mote in God's Eye</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Shaw" title="Bob Shaw">Bob Shaw</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Orbitsville" title="Orbitsville">Orbitsville</a></i> (1975)<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Hogan_(writer)" title="James P. Hogan (writer)">James P. Hogan</a>, <i>The Two Faces of Tomorrow</i> (1979)<sup id="cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westfahl1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Forward" title="Robert L. Forward">Robert L. Forward</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_Egg" title="Dragon's Egg">Dragon's Egg</a></i> (1980)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its sequel <i><a href="/wiki/Starquake_(novel)" title="Starquake (novel)">Starquake</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Barnes" title="Steven Barnes">Steven Barnes</a> and Larry Niven, <i>The Descent of Anansi</i> (1982)<sup id="cite_ref-Brin_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Contact_(novel)" title="Contact (novel)">Contact </a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stanley_Robinson" title="Kim Stanley Robinson">Kim Stanley Robinson</a>, The <i><a href="/wiki/Mars_trilogy" title="Mars trilogy">Mars trilogy</a></i> (<i>Red Mars</i> (1992), <i>Green Mars</i> (1993), <i>Blue Mars</i> (1996))<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Kress" title="Nancy Kress">Nancy Kress</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Beggars_in_Spain" title="Beggars in Spain">Beggars in Spain</a></i> (1993)<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell2002-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sheffield" title="Charles Sheffield">Charles Sheffield</a>, <i>Georgia on My Mind, and Other Places</i> (1995)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Steele" title="Allen Steele">Allen Steele</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tranquillity_Alternative" title="The Tranquillity Alternative">The Tranquillity Alternative</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Egan" title="Greg Egan">Greg Egan</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Schild%27s_Ladder" title="Schild's Ladder">Schild's Ladder</a></i> (2002)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alastair_Reynolds" title="Alastair Reynolds">Alastair Reynolds</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pushing_Ice" title="Pushing Ice">Pushing Ice</a></i> (2005)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Cixin" title="Liu Cixin">Cixin Liu</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Remembrance_of_Earth%27s_Past" title="Remembrance of Earth's Past">Remembrance of Earth's Past</a></i> (trilogy, 2006-2016)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Weir" title="Andy Weir">Andy Weir</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Martian_(Weir_novel)" title="The Martian (Weir novel)">The Martian</a></i> (2011),<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Project_Hail_Mary" title="Project Hail Mary">Project Hail Mary</a></i> (2021)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clyde_Desouza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clyde Desouza (page does not exist)">Clyde Desouza</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Memories_with_Maya" title="Memories with Maya">Memories with Maya</a></i> (2013)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films_and_TV_shows">Films and TV shows</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Films and TV shows"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Destination_Moon_(film)" title="Destination Moon (film)">Destination Moon</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="2001: A Space Odyssey (film)">2001: A Space Odyssey</a></i> (1968)<sup id="cite_ref-tor.com_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tor.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colossus:_The_Forbin_Project" title="Colossus: The Forbin Project">Colossus: The Forbin Project</a></i> (1970)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Andromeda_Strain_(film)" title="The Andromeda Strain (film)">The Andromeda Strain</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silent_Running" title="Silent Running">Silent Running</a></i> (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-tor.com_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tor.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blade_Runner" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a></i> (1982)<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Abyss" title="The Abyss">The Abyss</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contact_(1997_American_film)" title="Contact (1997 American film)">Contact</a></i> (1997)<sup id="cite_ref-tor.com_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tor.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gattaca" title="Gattaca">Gattaca</a></i> (1997)<sup id="cite_ref-tor.com_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tor.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primer_(film)" title="Primer (film)">Primer</a></i> (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-economictimes_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economictimes-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moon_(2009_film)" title="Moon (2009 film)">Moon</a></i> (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-tor.com_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tor.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Europa_Report" title="Europa Report">Europa Report</a></i> (2013)<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Her_(film)" title="Her (film)">Her</a></i> (2013)<sup id="cite_ref-theportalist_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theportalist-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_(2013_film)" title="Gravity (2013 film)"><i>Gravity</i></a> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_Machina_(film)" title="Ex Machina (film)">Ex Machina</a></i> (2014)<sup id="cite_ref-whatculture_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatculture-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Martian_(film)" title="The Martian (film)">The Martian</a></i> (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-theportalist_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theportalist-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arrival_(film)" title="Arrival (film)">Arrival</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/For_All_Mankind_(TV_series)" title="For All Mankind (TV series)">For All Mankind</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Away_(TV_series)" title="Away (TV series)"><i>Away</i></a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Expanse_(TV_series)" title="The Expanse (TV series)">The Expanse (2015-2022)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anime_/_manga"><span id="Anime_.2F_manga"></span>Anime / manga</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Anime / manga"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patlabor" title="Patlabor">Patlabor</a></i> (1988–present)<sup id="cite_ref-Ruh_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruh-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_Shell" title="Ghost in the Shell">Ghost in the Shell</a></i> (1989–present)<sup id="cite_ref-Ruh_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruh-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planetes" title="Planetes">Planetes</a></i> (1999, 2004)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Girls" title="Rocket Girls">Rocket Girls</a></i> (2007)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revisions_(TV_series)" title="Revisions (TV series)">Revisions</a></i> (2018-2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Space_Brothers_(manga)" title="Space Brothers (manga)">Space Brothers/Uchuu Kyoudai</a></i> (2007–present, 2012–2014)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_games">Video games</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Video games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_(video_game)" title="Marathon (video game)"><i>Marathon</i></a> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Policenauts" title="Policenauts">Policenauts</a></i> (1994)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sid_Meier%27s_Alpha_Centauri" title="Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri">Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri</a></i> (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kerbal_Space_Program" title="Kerbal Space Program">Kerbal Space Program</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_Invicta" title="Terra Invicta">Terra Invicta</a></i> (2022)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_fantasy" title="Hard fantasy">Hard fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_technology" title="Hypothetical technology">Hypothetical technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundane_science_fiction" title="Mundane science fiction">Mundane science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-thriller" title="Techno-thriller">Techno-thriller</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The short story "Surface Tension" has also been described as an exemplar of soft science fiction. (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcGuirk1992" class="citation book cs1">McGuirk, Carol (1992). "The 'New' Romancers". In Slusser, George Edgar; Shippey, T. A. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fiction2000cyber0000unse/page/109"><i>Fiction 2000</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fiction2000cyber0000unse/page/109">109–125</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820314495" title="Special:BookSources/9780820314495"><bdi>9780820314495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%27New%27+Romancers&rft.btitle=Fiction+2000&rft.pages=109-125&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780820314495&rft.aulast=McGuirk&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffiction2000cyber0000unse%2Fpage%2F109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span>)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-westfahl1996-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl1996_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfahl1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Westfahl" title="Gary Westfahl">Westfahl, Gary</a> (1996). "Introduction". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmicengineerss0000west"><i>Cosmic Engineers: A Study of Hard Science Fiction</i></a></span>. Greenwood Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmicengineerss0000west/page/2">2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29727-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29727-4"><bdi>0-313-29727-4</bdi></a>. <q><i>hard science fiction</i> ... the term was first used by P. Schuyler Miller in 1957</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Engineers%3A+A+Study+of+Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-313-29727-4&rft.aulast=Westfahl&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmicengineerss0000west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nicholls1993-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nicholls1993_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholls1995" class="citation book cs1">Nicholls, Peter (1995). Clute, John; Nicholls, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NcwnQAAACAAJ"><i>The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction</i></a>. St. Martin's Griffin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-13486-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-13486-0"><bdi>978-0-312-13486-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Science+Fiction&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Griffin&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-312-13486-0&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNcwnQAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wolfe1986-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wolfe1986_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_K._Wolfe" title="Gary K. Wolfe">Wolfe, Gary K.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=StxZAAAAMAAJ"><i>Critical terms for science fiction and fantasy: a glossary and guide to scholarship</i></a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-22981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-22981-7"><bdi>978-0-313-22981-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+terms+for+science+fiction+and+fantasy%3A+a+glossary+and+guide+to+scholarship&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-313-22981-7&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Gary+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DStxZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jesse2005-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jesse2005_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jesse2005_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927003457/http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/1674">"hard science fiction n."</a> <i>Science fiction citations</i>. Jesse's word. 2005-07-25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/1674">the original</a> on 2007-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-07</span></span>. <q>Earliest cite: P. Schuyler Miller in Astounding Science Fiction ... he called <i>A Fall of Moondust</i> "hard" science fiction</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+fiction+citations&rft.atitle=hard+science+fiction+n.&rft.date=2005-07-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jessesword.com%2Fsf%2Fview%2F1674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hartwell2002intro-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hartwell2002intro_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwellCramer2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_G._Hartwell" title="David G. Hartwell">Hartwell, David G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Cramer" title="Kathryn Cramer">Cramer, Kathryn</a> (2003). "Introduction: New People, New Places, New Politics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2XHHpukOfYC"><i>The Hard SF Renaissance: An Anthology</i></a>. Tom Doherty Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-7517-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-7517-9"><bdi>978-1-4299-7517-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+New+People%2C+New+Places%2C+New+Politics&rft.btitle=The+Hard+SF+Renaissance%3A+An+Anthology&rft.pub=Tom+Doherty+Associates&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4299-7517-9&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Cramer%2C+Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ2XHHpukOfYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jesse2005b-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jesse2005b_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/1843">"soft science fiction n."</a> <i>Science fiction citations</i>. Jesse's word. 2005-07-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-07</span></span>. <q><i>Soft science fiction</i>, probably a back-formation from Hard Science Fiction</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+fiction+citations&rft.atitle=soft+science+fiction+n.&rft.date=2005-07-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jessesword.com%2Fsf%2Fview%2F1843&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1986" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, David (1986). "What Makes Hard Science Fiction "Hard"?". In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 58–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Makes+Hard+Science+Fiction+%22Hard%22%3F&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=58-69&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-westfahl2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl2008_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-westfahl2008_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfahl2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Westfahl" title="Gary Westfahl">Westfahl, Gary</a> (June 9, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PiphRocVYRwC&pg=PA187">"Hard Science Fiction"</a>. In Seed, David (ed.). <i>A Companion to Science Fiction</i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 195–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-79701-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-79701-3"><bdi>978-0-470-79701-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=195-8&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-06-09&rft.isbn=978-0-470-79701-3&rft.aulast=Westfahl&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPiphRocVYRwC%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley (2005), p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley (2000), p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley (2000), p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley (2004), p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawler (1985), pp. 541–545.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichollsAshley2015" class="citation web cs1">Nicholls, Peter; Ashley, Mike (April 9, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/golden_age_of_sf">"Golden Age of SF"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction" title="The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction">The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction</a></i>. Gollancz<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Science+Fiction&rft.atitle=Golden+Age+of+SF&rft.date=2015-04-09&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Ashley%2C+Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsf-encyclopedia.com%2Fentry%2Fgolden_age_of_sf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Science_Fiction_Plus_v01n01_1953-03_Gorgon776">"Science Fiction Plus v01n01"</a>. March 1953.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+Fiction+Plus+v01n01&rft.date=1953-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FScience_Fiction_Plus_v01n01_1953-03_Gorgon776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-samuelson1993-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-samuelson1993_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuelson1993" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Samuelson, David N. (July 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/abstracts/a60.htm">"Modes of Extrapolation: The Formulas of Hard Science Fiction"</a>. <i>Science Fiction Studies</i>. 20. part 2 (60)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Fiction+Studies&rft.atitle=Modes+of+Extrapolation%3A+The+Formulas+of+Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.volume=part+2&rft.issue=60&rft.date=1993-07&rft.aulast=Samuelson&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.depauw.edu%2Fsfs%2Fabstracts%2Fa60.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-westfahl993-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-westfahl993_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfahl1993" class="citation journal cs1">Westfahl, Gary (July 1993). "The Closely Reasoned Technological Story: The Critical History of Hard Science Fiction". <i>Science Fiction Studies</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 141–142.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Fiction+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Closely+Reasoned+Technological+Story%3A+The+Critical+History+of+Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=141-142&rft.date=1993-07&rft.aulast=Westfahl&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westfahl1993CloselyReasoned-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Westfahl1993CloselyReasoned_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfahl1993" class="citation journal cs1">Westfahl, G. (July 1993). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Closely Reasoned Technological Story': The Critical History of Hard Science Fiction". <i>Science Fiction Studies</i>. <b>20</b> (2). SF-TH Inc: 157–175. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4240246">4240246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Fiction+Studies&rft.atitle=%27The+Closely+Reasoned+Technological+Story%27%3A+The+Critical+History+of+Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-175&rft.date=1993-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4240246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Westfahl&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiang2009" class="citation web cs1">Chiang, Ted (April 15, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090422143721/http://www.sfsignal.com/archives/2009/04/mind-meld-time-travel/">"MIND MELD: The Tricky Trope of Time Travel"</a>. <i>SF Signal</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfsignal.com/archives/2009/04/mind-meld-time-travel/">the original</a> on April 22, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SF+Signal&rft.atitle=MIND+MELD%3A+The+Tricky+Trope+of+Time+Travel&rft.date=2009-04-15&rft.aulast=Chiang&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfsignal.com%2Farchives%2F2009%2F04%2Fmind-meld-time-travel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hartwell1997-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell1997_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwellCramer1994" class="citation book cs1">Hartwell, David G.; Cramer, Kathryn, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509182634/http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/exper/kcramer/anth/Part1.html"><i>The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard SF</i></a>. New York: Published by Tom Doherty Associates, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-85509-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-85509-3"><bdi>978-0-312-85509-3</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/exper/kcramer/anth/Part1.html">the original</a> on 2008-05-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ascent+of+Wonder%3A+The+Evolution+of+Hard+SF&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Published+by+Tom+Doherty+Associates%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-312-85509-3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febbs.english.vt.edu%2Fexper%2Fkcramer%2Fanth%2FPart1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hartwell2002-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell2002_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwellCramer2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_G._Hartwell" title="David G. Hartwell">Hartwell, David G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Cramer" title="Kathryn Cramer">Cramer, Kathryn</a> (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardsfrenaissanc0000unse"><i>The Hard SF Renaissance</i></a></span>. New York: Tor. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-87635-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-87635-1"><bdi>0-312-87635-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hard+SF+Renaissance&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Tor&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-312-87635-1&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Cramer%2C+Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardsfrenaissanc0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/ben-bova/carbide-tipped-pens/">"Review, Carbide-Tipped Pens"</a>. Kirkus Reviews. October 15, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Review%2C+Carbide-Tipped+Pens&rft.date=2014-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirkusreviews.com%2Fbook-reviews%2Fben-bova%2Fcarbide-tipped-pens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">cite magazine</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite magazine requires <code class="cs1-code">|magazine=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBijman2019" class="citation web cs1">Bijman, M. (February 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sevencircumstances.com/2019/02/02/science-fiction-versus-hard-science-fiction-the-real-science-behind-the-twelve-tomorrows-anthology/">"Science Fiction versus HARD Science Fiction – The real science behind the Twelve Tomorrows Anthology"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+Fiction+versus+HARD+Science+Fiction+%E2%80%93+The+real+science+behind+the+Twelve+Tomorrows+Anthology&rft.date=2019-02-02&rft.aulast=Bijman&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsevencircumstances.com%2F2019%2F02%2F02%2Fscience-fiction-versus-hard-science-fiction-the-real-science-behind-the-twelve-tomorrows-anthology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clayton-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clayton_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1986" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, David (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/58">"What Makes Hard Science Fiction "Hard"?"</a>. In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/58">58–69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Makes+Hard+Science+Fiction+%22Hard%22%3F&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=58-69&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardscienceficti00slus%2Fpage%2F58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huntington-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Huntington_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntington1986" class="citation book cs1">Huntington, John (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/45">"Hard-Core Science Fiction and the Illusion of Science"</a>. In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/45">45–57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hard-Core+Science+Fiction+and+the+Illusion+of+Science&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=45-57&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Huntington&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardscienceficti00slus%2Fpage%2F45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benford-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benford_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benford_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benford_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benford_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenford1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Benford" title="Gregory Benford">Benford, Gregory</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/70">"Is There a Technological Fix for the Human Condition?"</a>. In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/70">70–81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+There+a+Technological+Fix+for+the+Human+Condition%3F&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=70-81&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Benford&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardscienceficti00slus%2Fpage%2F70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunn-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (writer)">Gunn, James</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/82">"The Readers of Hard Science Fiction"</a>. In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/82">82–98</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Readers+of+Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=82-98&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardscienceficti00slus%2Fpage%2F82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brin-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brin_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brin_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brin_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrin1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Brin" title="David Brin">Brin, David</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/8">"Running Out of Speculative Niches: A Crisis for Hard SF?"</a>. In Seiters, Dan (ed.). <i>Hard Science Fiction</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardscienceficti00slus/page/8">8–13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809312344" title="Special:BookSources/0809312344"><bdi>0809312344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Running+Out+of+Speculative+Niches%3A+A+Crisis+for+Hard+SF%3F&rft.btitle=Hard+Science+Fiction&rft.pages=8-13&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0809312344&rft.aulast=Brin&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhardscienceficti00slus%2Fpage%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-niezwy-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-niezwy_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://instytutksiazki.pl/en/news,2,the-book-institute-has-supported-the-portuguese-translation-of-stanislaw-lems-novel-%E2%80%9Cniezwyciezony%E2%80%9D,10287.html">"The Book Institute has supported the Portuguese translation of Stanislaw Lem's novel "Niezwyciężony"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>instytutksiazki.pl</i>. Instytut Książki. 2024-01-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-05</span></span>. <q>The novel 'The Invincible' can certainly be classed as one of Stanislaw Lem's most important works. It is also a rather special novel in his oeuvre - falling into the hard science fiction genre, where there is a strong emphasis on science and technology issues.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=instytutksiazki.pl&rft.atitle=The+Book+Institute+has+supported+the+Portuguese+translation+of+Stanislaw+Lem%27s+novel+%22Niezwyci%C4%99%C5%BCony%22&rft.date=2024-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finstytutksiazki.pl%2Fen%2Fnews%2C2%2Cthe-book-institute-has-supported-the-portuguese-translation-of-stanislaw-lems-novel-%25E2%2580%259Cniezwyciezony%25E2%2580%259D%2C10287.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131122052958/http://bestsciencefictionbooks.com/best-hard-science-fiction-books.php">"Top 25 Best Hard Science Fiction Books | Best Science Fiction Books"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/sciencefiction/books/dragons_egg_000330.html">the original</a> on 2008-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=The+Humans+Were+Flat+but+the+Cheela+Were+Charming+in+%27Dragon%27s+Egg%27&rft.aulast=Aylott&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fsciencefiction%2Fbooks%2Fdragons_egg_000330.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span> Some editions also include a preface by <a href="/wiki/Larry_Niven" title="Larry Niven">Larry Niven</a>, admitting that "I couldn't have written it; it required too much real physics"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlyott2000" class="citation web cs1">Alyott, Chris (2000-06-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000818141216/http://www.space.com/sciencefiction/mars_three_visions_991130.html">"The Vanishing Martian"</a>. SPACE.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/sciencefiction/mars_three_visions_991130.html">the original</a> on 2000-08-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vanishing+Martian&rft.pub=SPACE.com&rft.date=2000-06-20&rft.aulast=Alyott&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fsciencefiction%2Fmars_three_visions_991130.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorton1997" class="citation web cs1">Horton, Richard R. 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No. 177. <a href="/wiki/Ziff_Davis" title="Ziff Davis">Ziff Davis</a>. p. 208. <q>PROS: Wonderful "hard" sci-fi setting</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+Gaming+World&rft.atitle=Review+-+Sid+Meier%27s+Alpha+Centauri&rft.issue=177&rft.pages=208&rft.date=1999-04&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FComputer_Gaming_World_Issue_177%2Fpage%2Fn211%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCachinero-Gorman2017" class="citation web cs1">Cachinero-Gorman, Alex (4 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/sid-meiers-alpha-centauri/">"Alpha Centauri"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Hardcore_Gaming_101" title="Hardcore Gaming 101">Hardcore Gaming 101</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2023</span>. <q>[...] Reynolds and his team worked tirelessly to imbue every inch of their game with the cool, atmospheric melancholy so dear to hard sci-fi.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hardcore+Gaming+101&rft.atitle=Alpha+Centauri&rft.date=2017-05-04&rft.aulast=Cachinero-Gorman&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hardcoregaming101.net%2Fsid-meiers-alpha-centauri%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolding2022" class="citation web cs1">Bolding, Jon (2022-09-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ign.com/articles/terra-invicta-review">"Terra Invicta Early Access Review"</a>. <i>IGN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IGN&rft.atitle=Terra+Invicta+Early+Access+Review&rft.date=2022-09-26&rft.aulast=Bolding&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ign.com%2Farticles%2Fterra-invicta-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/abstracts/a60.htm">On Hard Science Fiction: A Bibliography</a>, originally published in <i>Science Fiction Studies</i> #60 (July 1993).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509054556/http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/exper/kcramer/anth/Hartwell.html">David G. Hartwell, "Hard Science Fiction"</a>, Introduction to <i>The Ascent of Wonder: The Evolution of Hard Science Fiction</i>, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-85509-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-85509-5">0-312-85509-5</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521816262_CCOL0521816262A018">Kathryn Cramer's chapter on hard science fiction in <i>The Cambridge Companion to SF</i></a>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Farah_Mendlesohn" title="Farah Mendlesohn">Farah Mendlesohn</a> & Edward James.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfahl1996" class="citation book cs1">Westfahl, Gary (1996-02-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmicengineerss0000west"><i>Cosmic Engineers: A Study of Hard Science Fiction (Contributions to the Study of Science Fiction and Fantasy)</i></a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29727-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29727-4"><bdi>0-313-29727-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Engineers%3A+A+Study+of+Hard+Science+Fiction+%28Contributions+to+the+Study+of+Science+Fiction+and+Fantasy%29&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996-02-28&rft.isbn=0-313-29727-4&rft.aulast=Westfahl&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmicengineerss0000west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHard+science+fiction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/sf-history.html">A Political History of SF</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric Raymond</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Science_in_Science_Fiction" title="The Science in Science Fiction">The Science in Science Fiction</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Brian_Stableford" title="Brian Stableford">Brian Stableford</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Langford" title="David Langford">David Langford</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)" title="Peter Nicholls (writer)">Peter Nicholls</a> (1982)</li> <li>David N. Samuelson, "Hard SF", pp. 194–200, <i>The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction</i>, 2009.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_science_fiction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090207221618/http://hardsciencefiction.rogerdeforest.com/">Hard Science Fiction Exclusive Interviews</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fraknoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Science-Fiction-with-Good-Astronomy-PDF.pdf">Science Fiction Stories with Good Astronomy & Physics: A Topical Index</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225145130/http://www.fraknoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Science-Fiction-with-Good-Astronomy-PDF.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828072213/http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/exper/kcramer/aow.html">The Ascent of Wonder</a> by David G. Hartwell & Kathryn Cramer. Story notes and introductions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/editors/26836/">The Ten Best Hard Science Fiction Books of all Time</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120412101141/http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/editors/26836/">Archived</a> 2012-04-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, selected by the editors of MIT's <i><a href="/wiki/Technology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology Review">Technology Review</a></i>, 2011</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dirrogate.com/low-level-science-fiction-sci-fi-with-hard-science-and-a-literary-slant/">"Low-Level Science fiction: Sci-fi with hard science and a literary slant"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/hard_sf">Hard SF</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction" title="The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction">The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction</a></i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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fiction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science_fiction" title="Outline of science fiction">Outline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science-fiction_authors" title="List of science-fiction authors">Authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_science_fiction" title="Definitions of science fiction">Definitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_science_fiction" title="Anthropological science fiction">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_romance" title="Scientific romance">Scientific romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_science_fiction" title="Soft science fiction">Soft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction" title="Golden Age of Science Fiction">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_fiction" title="History of science fiction">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Wave_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="New Wave science fiction">New Wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_fiction" title="Timeline of science fiction">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subgenres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_comedy" title="Science fiction comedy">Comedy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_sitcoms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of science fiction sitcoms">Sitcoms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimdark" title="Grimdark">Grimdark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_space_(science_fiction)" title="Inner space (science fiction)">Inner space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecha" title="Mecha">Mecha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecha_anime_and_manga" title="Mecha anime and manga">Anime and manga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundane_science_fiction" title="Mundane science fiction">Mundane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare_in_science_fiction" title="Space warfare in science fiction">Space warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_opera" title="Space opera">Space opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Western" title="Space Western">Space Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction" title="Parallel universes in fiction">Parallel universes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isekai" title="Isekai">Isekai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fantasy" title="Science fantasy">Science fantasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dying_Earth_(genre)" title="Dying Earth (genre)">Dying Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_romance" title="Planetary romance">Planetary romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhero_fiction" title="Superhero fiction">Superhero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sword_and_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sword and planet">Sword and planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science_fiction" title="Social science fiction">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_science_fiction" title="Christian science fiction">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_science_fiction" title="Libertarian science fiction">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction" title="Utopian and dystopian fiction">Utopian and dystopian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tech_noir" title="Tech noir">Tech noir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spy-Fi_(subgenre)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy-Fi (subgenre)">Spy-Fi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-thriller" title="Techno-thriller">Techno-thriller</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokusatsu" title="Tokusatsu">Tokusatsu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaiju" title="Kaiju">Kaiju</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_underwater_science_fiction_works" title="List of underwater science fiction works">Underwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyberpunk_derivatives" title="Cyberpunk derivatives">Cyberpunk derivatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberpunk" title="Cyberpunk">Cyberpunk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_cyberpunk" title="Japanese cyberpunk">Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopunk" title="Biopunk">Biopunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieselpunk" title="Dieselpunk">Dieselpunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopunk" title="Nanopunk">Nanopunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solarpunk" title="Solarpunk">Solarpunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steampunk" title="Steampunk">Steampunk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_convention" title="Science fiction convention">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom" title="Science fiction fandom">Fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science-fiction_fanzine" title="Science-fiction fanzine">Fanzines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Speculative_Fiction_Database" title="Internet Speculative Fiction Database">ISFDB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_libraries_and_museums" title="Science fiction libraries and museums">Libraries and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMP_Museum#Science_Fiction_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="EMP Museum">Science Fiction Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_studies" title="Science fiction studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Women in SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldcon" title="Worldcon">Worldcon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_science_fiction" title="Australian science fiction">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_science_fiction" title="Bengali science fiction">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_science_fiction" title="Brazilian science fiction">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_science_fiction" title="Canadian science fiction">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_science_fiction" title="Chilean science fiction">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_science_fiction" title="Chinese science fiction">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_science_fiction" title="Croatian science fiction">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_science_fiction_and_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech science fiction and fantasy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_science_fiction" title="Estonian science fiction">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_science_fiction" title="French science fiction">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_science_fiction" title="Hungarian science fiction">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_science_fiction" title="Japanese science fiction">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_science_fiction" title="Norwegian science fiction">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_and_fantasy_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Science fiction and fantasy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_science_fiction" title="Romanian science fiction">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_science_fiction_and_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian science fiction and fantasy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_science_fiction" title="Serbian science fiction">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_science_fiction" title="Spanish science fiction">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_science_fiction" title="Yugoslav science fiction">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cinematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne_Awards" title="Jules Verne Awards">Jules Verne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_Awards" title="Saturn Awards">Saturn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary, art,<br />and audio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astounding_Award_for_Best_New_Writer" title="Astounding Award for Best New Writer">Astounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurealis_Award" title="Aurealis Award">Aurealis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSFA_Award" title="BSFA Award">BSFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Campbell_Memorial_Award_for_Best_Science_Fiction_Novel" title="John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel">Campbell Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chesley_Awards" title="Chesley Awards">Chesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke_Award" title="Arthur C. Clarke Award">Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compton_Crook_Award" title="Compton Crook Award">Crook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Science_Fiction_Preis" title="Deutscher Science Fiction Preis">Deutscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_K._Dick_Award" title="Philip K. Dick Award">Dick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditmar_Award" title="Ditmar Award">Ditmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endeavour_Award" title="Endeavour Award">Endeavor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FantLab%27s_Book_of_the_Year_Award" title="FantLab's Book of the Year Award">FantLab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Award_(China)" title="Galaxy Award (China)">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Gaughan_Award" title="Jack Gaughan Award">Gaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geffen_Award" title="Geffen Award">Geffen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Duck_Award" title="Golden Duck Award">Golden Duck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_Knight_Memorial_Grand_Master_Award" title="Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award">Grand Master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_prix_de_l%27Imaginaire" title="Grand prix de l'Imaginaire">Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Harland_Prize" title="Paul Harland Prize">Harland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Heinlein_Award" title="Robert A. Heinlein Award">Heinlein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premio_Ignotus" title="Premio Ignotus">Ignotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitschies" title="Kitschies">Kitschies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Lambda_Literary_Awards_winners_and_nominees_for_science_fiction,_fantasy_and_horror" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Lambda Literary Awards winners and nominees for science fiction, fantasy and horror">Lambda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurd_La%C3%9Fwitz_Award" title="Kurd Laßwitz Award">Laßwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_Award" title="Locus Award">Locus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Award" title="Nautilus Award">Nautilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebula_Award" title="Nebula Award">Nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nommo_Awards" title="Nommo Awards">Nommo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Norton_Award" title="Andre Norton Award">Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsec_Awards" title="Parsec Awards">Parsec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Award" title="Prometheus Award">Prometheus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhysling_Award" title="Rhysling Award">Rhysling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SFERA_Award" title="SFERA Award">SFERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidewise_Award_for_Alternate_History" title="Sidewise Award for Alternate History">Sidewise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Smith_Memorial_Award" title="Edward E. Smith Memorial Award">Skylark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Sturgeon_Award" title="Theodore Sturgeon Award">Sturgeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunburst_Award" title="Sunburst Award">Sunburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A4htivaeltaja_Award" title="Tähtivaeltaja Award">Tähtivaeltaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TBD_Science_Fiction_Story_Award" title="TBD Science Fiction Story Award">TBD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr._Award" class="mw-redirect" title="James Tiptree Jr. Award">Tiptree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prix_Apollo_Award" title="Prix Apollo Award">Tour-Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_Fiction_%26_Fantasy_Translation_Awards" title="Science Fiction & Fantasy Translation Awards">Translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urania_Award" title="Urania Award">Urania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Julius_Vogel_Award" title="Sir Julius Vogel Award">Vogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writers_of_the_Future" class="mw-redirect" title="Writers of the Future">Writers and Illustrators of the Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_A._Zajdel_Award" title="Janusz A. Zajdel Award">Zajdel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_Awards" title="Aurora Awards">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandler_Award" title="Chandler Award">Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Awards" title="Dragon Awards">Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Award" title="Hugo Award">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiun_Award" title="Seiun Award">Seiun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaylactic_Spectrum_Awards" title="Gaylactic Spectrum Awards">Spectrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_film" title="Science fiction film">Film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_fiction_films" title="History of science fiction films">Film history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_science_fiction_films" title="Lists of science fiction films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_films_in_India" title="Science fiction films in India">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_science_fiction" title="Japanese science fiction">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_anime" title="List of science fiction anime">Anime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokusatsu" title="Tokusatsu">Tokusatsu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_comics" title="Science fiction comics">Comics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_magazine" title="Science fiction magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_novels" title="List of science fiction novels">Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_publishers" title="List of science fiction publishers">Publishers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_short_stories" title="List of science fiction short stories">Short stories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_opera" title="Science fiction opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_theatre" title="Science fiction theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_on_television" title="Science fiction on television">Television</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_television_programs" title="List of science fiction television programs">List of TV shows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_science_fiction_television" title="Australian science fiction television">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_television_science_fiction" title="British television science fiction">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_science_fiction_television" title="Canadian science fiction television">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_on_television#Continental_European_science_fiction_series" title="Science fiction on television">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_science_fiction" title="Japanese science fiction">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_anime" title="List of science fiction anime">Anime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokusatsu" title="Tokusatsu">Live-action</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._television_science_fiction" title="U.S. television science fiction">U.S.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_themes" title="List of science fiction themes">Themes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Architectural</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyson_sphere" title="Dyson sphere">Dyson sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrioshka_brain" title="Matrioshka brain">Matrioshka brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_stations_and_habitats_in_fiction" title="Space stations and habitats in fiction">Space stations and habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_engine" title="Stellar engine">Stellar engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_in_popular_culture" title="Terraforming in popular culture">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology_in_fiction" title="Biology in fiction">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare_in_popular_culture" title="Biological warfare in popular culture">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_being" title="Energy being">Energy being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_in_fiction" title="Evolution in fiction">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrials_in_fiction" title="Extraterrestrials in fiction">Extraterrestrials</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_fictional_extraterrestrials" title="Lists of fictional extraterrestrials">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_speculative_fiction" title="Gender in speculative fiction">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in science fiction">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisibility_in_fiction" title="Invisibility in fiction">Invisibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction" title="Nanotechnology in fiction">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_fiction" title="Organ transplantation in fiction">Organ transplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasites_in_fiction" title="Parasites in fiction">Parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosthetics_in_fiction" title="Prosthetics in fiction">Prosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_sexuality_in_speculative_fiction" title="Sex and sexuality in speculative fiction">Sex and sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis_in_fiction" title="Symbiosis in fiction">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansible" title="Ansible">Ansible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_holes_in_fiction" title="Black holes in fiction">Black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planets_in_fiction" title="Extrasolar planets in fiction">Extrasolar planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_field_(technology)" title="Force field (technology)">Force field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperspace" title="Hyperspace">Hyperspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertialess_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertialess drive">Inertialess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">Multiverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction" title="Parallel universes in fiction">Parallel universes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_hole" title="Portable hole">Portable hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_travel_in_science_fiction" title="Space travel in science fiction">Space travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stargate_(device)" title="Stargate (device)">Stargate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stars_in_fiction" title="Stars in fiction">Stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation_in_fiction" title="Teleportation in fiction">Teleportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel_in_fiction" title="Time travel in fiction">Time travel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Time_viewer" title="Time viewer">Viewer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warp_drive" title="Warp drive">Warp drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wormholes_in_fiction" title="Wormholes in fiction">Wormhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_mind_(science_fiction)" title="Group mind (science fiction)">Group mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading_in_fiction" title="Mind uploading in fiction">Mind uploading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psionics" title="Psionics">Psionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulated_consciousness_in_fiction" title="Simulated consciousness in fiction">Simulated consciousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_language" title="Alien language">Alien language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts_in_popular_culture" title="Ancient astronauts in popular culture">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_science_fiction" title="Black science fiction">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_corporation" title="Evil corporation">Evil corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_contact_(science_fiction)" title="First contact (science fiction)">First contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein_complex" title="Frankenstein complex">Frankenstein complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_empire" title="Galactic empire">Galactic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_themes_in_speculative_fiction" title="LGBT themes in speculative fiction">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Message_from_space_(science_fiction)" title="Message from space (science fiction)">Message from space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism_in_fiction" title="Transhumanism in fiction">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uplift_(science_fiction)" title="Uplift (science fiction)">Uplift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenoarchaeology" title="Xenoarchaeology">Xenoarchaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction" title="Artificial intelligence in fiction">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover_in_popular_culture" title="AI takeover in popular culture">AI takeover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_engineering" title="Astronomical engineering">Astroengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography_in_fiction" title="Holography in fiction">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_robots_and_androids" title="List of fictional robots and androids">Robots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyborgs_in_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyborgs in fiction">Cyborgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_machines_in_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-replicating machines in fiction">Self-replicating machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulated_reality" title="Simulated reality">Simulated reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_spacecraft" title="List of fictional spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyons_in_fiction" title="Tachyons in fiction">Tachyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_in_science_fiction" title="Weapons in science fiction">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_science_fiction" title="Christian science fiction">Christian science fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_history" title="Alternate history">Alternate history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_fictional_astronauts" title="Lists of fictional astronauts">Fictional astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional technology">Fictional technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_history" title="Future history">Future history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">Horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">Magic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_Fiction" title="Museum of Science Fiction">Museum of Science Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_science" title="Rubber science">Rubber science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_wonder" title="Sense of wonder">Sense of wonder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_fiction" title="Supernatural fiction">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">Technology and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weird_fiction" title="Weird fiction">Weird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_fiction" title="Category:Science fiction">Category</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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