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<li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Navigation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Navigation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Basic concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Basic concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Latitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Latitude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Longitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Longitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Longitude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Longitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loxodrome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loxodrome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Loxodrome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loxodrome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methods of navigation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_navigation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods of navigation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mental_navigation_checks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_navigation_checks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Mental navigation checks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_navigation_checks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piloting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piloting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Piloting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piloting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celestial_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celestial_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Celestial navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celestial_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_chronometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_chronometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Marine chronometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_chronometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_marine_sextant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_marine_sextant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>The marine sextant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_marine_sextant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inertial_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inertial_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Inertial navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inertial_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Space_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Space navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Electronic navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Radio navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radar_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Radar navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Satellite navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acoustic_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acoustic_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.4</span> <span>Acoustic navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acoustic_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navigation_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navigation_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Navigation processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Navigation_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Navigation processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Navigation_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ships_and_similar_vessels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ships_and_similar_vessels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ships and similar vessels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ships_and_similar_vessels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-One_day's_work_in_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One_day's_work_in_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>One day's work in navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One_day's_work_in_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passage_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passage_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Passage planning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passage_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_bridge_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_bridge_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Integrated bridge systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_bridge_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Land navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underwater_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underwater_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Underwater navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underwater_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards,_training_and_organisations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards,_training_and_organisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Standards, training and organisations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Standards,_training_and_organisations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Standards, training and organisations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Standards,_training_and_organisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navigation_in_spatial_cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navigation_in_spatial_cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Navigation in spatial cognition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Navigation_in_spatial_cognition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Navigation in spatial cognition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Navigation_in_spatial_cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wayfinding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wayfinding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Wayfinding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wayfinding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Navigation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasie" title="Navigasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Navigasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9" title="ملاحة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملاحة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naviqasiya" title="Naviqasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Naviqasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="দিক নির্ণয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দিক নির্ণয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8D-h%C3%A2ng" title="Tō-hâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tō-hâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Навигация – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Навигация" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Навігацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навігацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Навігацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Навігацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabigasyon" title="Nabigasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Nabigasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Навигация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Навигация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merdeadurezh" title="Merdeadurezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Merdeadurezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navegaci%C3%B3" title="Navegació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Navegació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigace" title="Navigace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Navigace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordwyo" title="Mordwyo – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mordwyo" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Navigation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Navigation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatsioon" title="Navigatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Navigatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%90%CE%B1" title="Ναυσιπλοΐα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ναυσιπλοΐα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navegaci%C3%B3n" title="Navegación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Navegación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigado" title="Navigado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Navigado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabigazio" title="Nabigazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nabigazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ناوبری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناوبری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Navigation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loingseoireacht" title="Loingseoireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Loingseoireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EB%B2%95" title="항법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="दिक्चालन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दिक्चालन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigacija" title="Navigacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Navigacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasi" title="Navigasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Navigasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siglingafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Siglingafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Siglingafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigazione" title="Navigazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Navigazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%98" title="ניווט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ניווט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ನೌಕಾಯಾನ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನೌಕಾಯಾನ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Навигация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Навигация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasyon" title="Navigasyon – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Navigasyon" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Навигация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Навигация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_navigandi" title="Ars navigandi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars navigandi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navig%C4%81cija" title="Navigācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Navigācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatie" title="Navigatie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Navigatie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navig%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Navigáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Navigáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Навигација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Навигација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="ദിശാഗതികം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ദിശാഗതികം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasi" title="Navigasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Navigasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasi" title="Navigasi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Navigasi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatie" title="Navigatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Navigatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E6%B3%95" title="航法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="航法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasjon" title="Navigasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Navigasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigasjon" title="Navigasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Navigasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigacion" title="Navigacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Navigacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatsiya" title="Navigatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Navigatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਨੇਵੀਗੇਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੇਵੀਗੇਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatschoon" title="Navigatschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Navigatschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawigacja" title="Nawigacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nawigacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navega%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Navegação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Navegação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naviga%C8%9Bie" title="Navigație – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Navigație" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Навигация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Навигация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigimi" title="Navigimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Navigimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Navigation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%DA%AF%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86" title="نيويگيشن – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نيويگيشن" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigacija" title="Navigacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Navigacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ڕێنیشاندەری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕێنیشاندەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Навигација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Навигација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigacija" title="Navigacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Navigacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigointi" title="Navigointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Navigointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Navigation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="నావిగేషన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నావిగేషన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD" title="การเดินเรือ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเดินเรือ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Новбарӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Новбарӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyir" title="Seyir – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Seyir" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Навігація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Навігація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="جہازرانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جہازرانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_h%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bng" title="Định hướng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Định hướng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%BC%E8%88%AA" title="导航 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="导航" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%92%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="נאוויגאציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="נאוויגאציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8E%E8%88%AA" title="導航 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="導航" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8E%E8%88%AA" title="導航 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="導航" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q102066#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" 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accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Navigation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Navigation (disambiguation)">Navigation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg/220px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg/330px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg/440px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A navigation system on an <a href="/wiki/Oil_tanker" title="Oil tanker">oil tanker</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Navigation</b><sup id="cite_ref-hofman_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hofman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the <a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">movement</a> of a craft or <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicle</a> from one place to another.<sup id="cite_ref-bow799_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow799-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">marine navigation</a>, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-hofman_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hofman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by <a href="/wiki/Navigator" title="Navigator">navigators</a> to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's <a href="/wiki/Position_(geometry)" title="Position (geometry)">position</a> compared to known locations or patterns. </p><p>Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and <a href="/wiki/Relative_direction" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative direction">direction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hofman_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hofman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, navigation includes <a href="/wiki/Orienteering" title="Orienteering">orienteering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedestrian" title="Pedestrian">pedestrian</a> navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-hofman_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hofman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History of navigation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geodesy" title="History of geodesy">History of geodesy</a></div> <p>In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of <i><a href="/wiki/Artes_mechanicae" title="Artes mechanicae">seven mechanical arts</a></i>, none of which were used for long voyages across open ocean. <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesian navigation</a> is probably the earliest form of open-ocean navigation; it was based on memory and observation recorded on scientific instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Marshall Islands Stick Charts of Ocean Swells</a>. Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">mariner's astrolabe</a> first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">land astrolabes</a> were invented in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and existed in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish people">Spanish</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a> dating from 1295.<sup id="cite_ref-oxfordShipsAndSea_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxfordShipsAndSea-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> navigators during early <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese discoveries</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ancruzeiros.pt_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ancruzeiros.pt-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Cort%C3%A9s_de_Albacar" title="Martín Cortés de Albacar">Martín Cortés de Albacar</a>'s <i>Arte de Navegar</i> (<i>The Art of Navigation</i>) published in 1551,<sup id="cite_ref-swanick_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swanick-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Archipendulum" title="Archipendulum">archipendulum</a> used in constructing the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>. </p><p>Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> from 1418, under the sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry</a>. In 1488 <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> reached the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> by this route. In 1492 the <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_and_Isabella" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand and Isabella">Spanish monarchs</a> funded <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s expedition to sail west to reach the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">Indies</a> by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the Americas">Discovery of the Americas</a>. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> reached <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>. Soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a> in 1512, landing in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> one year later. </p><p>The first circumnavigation of the earth was completed in 1522 with the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Magellan%27s_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation">Magellan-Elcano expedition</a>, a Spanish voyage of discovery led by Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and completed by Spanish navigator <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a> after the former's death in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in 1521. The fleet of seven ships sailed from <a href="/wiki/Sanl%C3%BAcar_de_Barrameda" title="Sanlúcar de Barrameda">Sanlúcar de Barrameda</a> in Southern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> making a number of discoveries including <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from the original seven. The <i>Victoria</i> led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The <i>Trinidad</i> sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a maritime path back to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, but was unsuccessful. The eastward route across the Pacific, also known as the <i>tornaviaje</i> (return trip) was only discovered forty years later, when Spanish cosmographer <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a> sailed from the Philippines, north to parallel 39°, and hit the eastward <a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Current</a> which took its galleon across the Pacific. He arrived in <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a> on October 8, 1565. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term stems from the 1530s, from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>navigationem</i> (nom. <i>navigatio</i>), from <i>navigatus</i>, pp. of <i>navigare</i> "to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from <i>navis</i> "ship" and the root of <i>agere</i> "to drive".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_concepts">Basic concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Basic concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/World_map_longlat.svg/275px-World_map_longlat.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/World_map_longlat.svg/413px-World_map_longlat.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/World_map_longlat.svg/550px-World_map_longlat.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="684" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a> of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbffee; text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">Longitude</a> (λ)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;"> Lines of longitude appear <a href="/wiki/Vertical_direction" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical direction">vertical</a> with varying curvature in this projection, but are actually halves of great ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude.</td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbffee; text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">Latitude</a> (φ)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;"> Lines of latitude appear <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal plane">horizontal</a> with varying curvature in this projection; but are actually circular with different radii. All locations with a given latitude are collectively referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">circle of latitude</a>.</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;;padding-bottom:0;"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World_map_with_equator.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/World_map_with_equator.svg/80px-World_map_with_equator.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/World_map_with_equator.svg/120px-World_map_with_equator.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/World_map_with_equator.svg/160px-World_map_with_equator.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> The <b><a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a></b> divides the planet into a <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>, and has a latitude of 0°.</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Longlat" title="Template:Longlat"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Longlat" title="Template talk:Longlat"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Longlat" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Longlat"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latitude">Latitude</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Latitude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">Latitude</a></div> <p>Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bow4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latitude is usually expressed in <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degrees</a> (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a> to 90° at the North and South poles.<sup id="cite_ref-bow4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latitude of the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a> is 90° N, and the latitude of the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> is 90° S.<sup id="cite_ref-bow4_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polaris" title="Polaris">Polaris</a>) with a <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> and using sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Longitude">Longitude</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Longitude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">Longitude</a></div> <p>Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">prime meridian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwich meridian">Greenwich meridian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bow4_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Longitude is usually expressed in <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degrees</a> (marked with °) ranging from <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">0°</a> at the Greenwich meridian to <a href="/wiki/180th_meridian" title="180th meridian">180°</a> east and west. <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, for example, has a longitude of about <a href="/wiki/151st_meridian_east" title="151st meridian east">151° east</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> has a longitude of <a href="/wiki/74th_meridian_west" title="74th meridian west">74° west</a>. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> to take a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_distance_(navigation)" title="Lunar distance (navigation)">lunar distance</a> (also called <i>the lunar observation</i>, or "lunar" for short) that, with a <a href="/wiki/Nautical_almanac" title="Nautical almanac">nautical almanac</a>, can be used to calculate the time at zero longitude (see <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time" title="Greenwich Mean Time">Greenwich Mean Time</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Norie_1828_pg_222_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norie_1828_pg_222-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reliable <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine chronometers</a> were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Norie_1828_pg_221_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norie_1828_pg_221-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_1851_pg_195_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_1851_pg_195-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Watchmakers_and_their_Work,_pg_230_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watchmakers_and_their_Work,_pg_230-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For about a hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with a chronometer could check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time.<sup id="cite_ref-Norie_1828_pg_221_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norie_1828_pg_221-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roberts_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loxodrome">Loxodrome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Loxodrome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rhumb_line" title="Rhumb line">Rhumb line</a></div> <p>In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or magnetic north. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_navigation">Methods of navigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Methods of navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Navigation_system" title="Navigation system">modern navigation</a> relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on finding intersecting <a href="/wiki/Line_of_position" class="mw-redirect" title="Line of position">lines of position</a> or LOP.<sup id="cite_ref-mal615_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A line of position can refer to two different things, either a line on a chart or a line between the observer and an object in real life.<sup id="cite_ref-mal614_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal614-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object.<sup id="cite_ref-mal614_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal614-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a <a href="/wiki/Nautical_chart" title="Nautical chart">nautical chart</a> and the navigator will be somewhere on that bearing line on the chart.<sup id="cite_ref-mal614_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal614-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects.<sup id="cite_ref-mal615_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position.<sup id="cite_ref-mal615_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position. </p><p>If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position.<sup id="cite_ref-mal615_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Fix_(position)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fix (position)">fix</a> is the intersection of two or more LOPs.<sup id="cite_ref-mal615_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a> position to establish an estimated position.<sup id="cite_ref-mal618_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal618-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources: </p> <ul><li>celestial observation (a short segment of the <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_equal_altitude" title="Circle of equal altitude">circle of equal altitude</a>, but generally represented as a line),</li> <li>terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other,<sup id="cite_ref-mal622_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mal622-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>compass bearing to a charted object,</li> <li>radar range to a charted object,</li> <li>on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from <a href="/wiki/Fathometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Fathometer">echo sounder</a> or hand <a href="/wiki/Sounding_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Sounding line">lead line</a>.</li></ul> <p>There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse. </p><p>Methods of navigation have changed through history.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each new method has enhanced the mariner's ability to complete his voyage.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some types of navigation are depicted in the table. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Illustration</th> <th>Description</th> <th>Application </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th colspan="3">Traditional navigation methods include: </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg/100px-Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg/150px-Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg/200px-Cruising_sailor_navigating.jpg 2x" data-file-width="733" data-file-height="591" /></a></span> </td> <td>In marine navigation, <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a> or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for <a href="/wiki/Leeway" title="Leeway">leeway</a>, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An <a href="/wiki/Inertial_guidance_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial guidance system">inertial navigator</a> develops an extremely accurate EP.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Used at all times. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SplitPointLighthouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/SplitPointLighthouse.jpg/100px-SplitPointLighthouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/SplitPointLighthouse.jpg/150px-SplitPointLighthouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/SplitPointLighthouse.jpg/200px-SplitPointLighthouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="576" /></a></span> </td> <td>In marine navigation, <a href="/wiki/Pilotage" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilotage">pilotage</a> involves navigating in restricted/coastal waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>When within sight of land. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orienteering_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Orienteering_map.jpg/100px-Orienteering_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Orienteering_map.jpg/150px-Orienteering_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Orienteering_map.jpg/200px-Orienteering_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="840" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Land_navigation" title="Land navigation">Land navigation</a> is the discipline of following a route through terrain on foot or by vehicle, using maps with reference to terrain, a compass, and other basic navigational tools and/or using landmarks and signs. <a href="/wiki/Wayfinding" title="Wayfinding">Wayfinding</a> is the more basic form. </td> <td>Used at all times. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg/100px-Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg/150px-Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg/200px-Moon-Mdf-2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial navigation</a> involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, <a href="/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry" title="Spherical trigonometry">spherical trigonometry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nautical_almanac" title="Nautical almanac">almanacs</a>. It is primarily used at sea but can also be used on land. </td> <td>Used primarily as a backup to <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">electronic systems</a> in the open ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_navigation" title="Electronic navigation">Electronic navigation</a> covers any method of <a href="/wiki/Position_fixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Position fixing">position fixing</a> using electronic means, including: </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg/100px-Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg/150px-Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg/200px-Decca_Navigator_Mk_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="899" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a> uses radio waves to determine position by either <a href="/wiki/Radio_direction_finder" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio direction finder">radio direction finding systems</a> or hyperbolic systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Decca_Navigator_System" title="Decca Navigator System">Decca</a>, <a href="/wiki/OMEGA_Navigation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="OMEGA Navigation System">Omega</a> and <a href="/wiki/LORAN-C" class="mw-redirect" title="LORAN-C">LORAN-C</a>. </td> <td>Availability has declined due to the development of accurate GNSS. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Radar_screen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Radar_screen.JPG/100px-Radar_screen.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Radar_screen.JPG/150px-Radar_screen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Radar_screen.JPG/200px-Radar_screen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radar_navigation" title="Radar navigation">Radar navigation</a> uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar's use as a collision avoidance system.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Primarily when within radar range of land. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/100px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/150px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/200px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="806" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a> uses a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) to determine position.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Used in all situations. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_navigation_checks">Mental navigation checks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mental navigation checks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By mental navigation checks, a pilot or a navigator estimates tracks, distances, and altitudes which will then help the pilot avoid gross navigation errors.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piloting">Piloting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Piloting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pilotage" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilotage">Pilotage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navigatie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Navigatie.jpg/220px-Navigatie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Navigatie.jpg/330px-Navigatie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Navigatie.jpg/440px-Navigatie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Manual navigation through Dutch airspace</figcaption></figure> <p>Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating an aircraft by visual reference to landmarks,<sup id="cite_ref-14cfr1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14cfr1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a water vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As pilotage takes place in <a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">shallow waters</a>, it typically involves following courses to ensure sufficient <a href="/wiki/Under_keel_clearance" title="Under keel clearance">under keel clearance</a>, ensuring a sufficient depth of water below the <a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">hull</a> as well as a consideration for <a href="/wiki/Squat_effect" title="Squat effect">squat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also involve navigating a ship within a river, <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channel</a> in close proximity to land.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while the civilian navigator on a merchant ship or leisure craft must often take and plot their position themselves, typically with the aid of electronic position fixing.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the ship is equipped with an <a href="/wiki/ECDIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ECDIS">ECDIS</a>, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a <a href="/wiki/Harbour_pilot" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbour pilot">pilot</a> is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-bow105_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Celestial_navigation">Celestial navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Celestial navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial navigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun-Moon_path.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sun-Moon_path.PNG/260px-Sun-Moon_path.PNG" decoding="async" width="260" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sun-Moon_path.PNG/390px-Sun-Moon_path.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sun-Moon_path.PNG/520px-Sun-Moon_path.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>A celestial fix will be at the intersection of two or more circles.</figcaption></figure> <p>Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_selected_stars_for_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of selected stars for navigation">navigational stars</a>. Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2024)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Navigation#Dubious" title="Talk:Navigation">discuss</a></i>]</sup> navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating Earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A <a href="/wiki/Nautical_almanac" title="Nautical almanac">nautical almanac</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine chronometer</a> are used to compute the subpoint on Earth a celestial body is over, and a <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The Moon and Sun may also be used. The Sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_chronometer">Marine chronometer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Marine chronometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">Marine chronometer</a></div> <p>In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .25 of a nautical mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation. </p><p>The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to compensate for temperature variations.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Quartz_clock#Accuracy_enhancement" title="Quartz clock">Quartz crystal marine chronometers</a> have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset electrically.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of one year on a single set of batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observations may be timed and ship's clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as <a href="/wiki/Radio_Navigational_Aids" title="Radio Navigational Aids">Radio Navigational Aids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bow269_25-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_marine_sextant">The marine sextant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The marine sextant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_sextant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Marine_sextant.svg/260px-Marine_sextant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Marine_sextant.svg/390px-Marine_sextant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Marine_sextant.svg/520px-Marine_sextant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1311" /></a><figcaption>The marine <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">Sextant</a></div> <p>The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude"). </p><p>The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass. </p><p>Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inertial_navigation">Inertial navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Inertial navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">Inertial navigation system</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">Inertial navigation system</a> (INS) is a <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a> type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Before actually navigating, the initial latitude and longitude and the INS's physical orientation relative to the Earth (e.g., north and level) are established. After alignment, an INS receives impulses from motion detectors that measure (a) the acceleration along three axes (accelerometers), and (b) rate of rotation about three orthogonal axes (gyroscopes). These enable an INS to continually and accurately calculate its current latitude and longitude (and often velocity). </p><p>Advantages over other navigation systems are that, once aligned, an INS does not require outside information. An INS is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions and motion sensors, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system. </p><p>The first inertial system is considered to be the V-2 guidance system deployed by the Germans in 1942. However, inertial sensors are traced to the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Tazartes_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tazartes-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantages INSs led their use in aircraft, missiles, surface ships and submarines. For example, the U.S. Navy developed the Ships Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the <a href="/wiki/Polaris_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polaris missile">Polaris missile</a> program to ensure a reliable and accurate navigation system to initial its missile guidance systems. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a> systems (GPS) became available. INSs are still in common use on submarines (since GPS reception or other fix sources are not possible while submerged) and long-range missiles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Space_navigation">Space navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Space navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Not to be confused with satellite navigation, which depends upon satellites to function, space navigation refers to the navigation of spacecraft themselves. This has historically been achieved (during the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a>) via a <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer" title="Apollo Guidance Computer">navigational computer</a>, an Inertial navigation system, and via celestial inputs entered by astronauts which were recorded by sextant and telescope. Space rated navigational computers, like those found on Apollo and later missions, are designed to be hardened against possible data corruption from radiation. </p><p>Another possibility that has been explored for deep space navigation is <a href="/wiki/Pulsar-based_navigation" title="Pulsar-based navigation">Pulsar navigation</a>, which compares the X-ray bursts from a collection of known pulsars in order to determine the position of a spacecraft. This method has been tested by multiple space agencies, such as <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronic_navigation">Electronic navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electronic navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg/260px-Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg/390px-Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg/520px-Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_navigation">Radio navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Radio navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_direction_finder" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio direction finder">Radio direction finder</a></div> <p>A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land. </p><p>RDFs works by rotating a directional <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna (electronics)">antenna</a> and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a> aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. </p><p>In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of <i>radio beacons</i>, the radio version of a <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a>. The signal is typically a simple <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</a> broadcast of a <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">morse code</a> series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Decca_Navigator_System" title="Decca Navigator System">Decca</a>, <a href="/wiki/OMEGA_Navigation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="OMEGA Navigation System">OMEGA</a>, and <a href="/wiki/LORAN-C" class="mw-redirect" title="LORAN-C">LORAN-C</a> are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a <a href="/wiki/Hyperbola" title="Hyperbola">hyperbolic</a> <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">low frequency</a> <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> system (also known as <a href="/wiki/Multilateration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilateration">multilateration</a>) that was first deployed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with <a href="/wiki/Loran_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Loran C">Loran C</a>, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">oil platforms</a>. </p><p>The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> system for aircraft, operated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four-mile (6 km) accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the success of the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997, and all stations ceased operation. </p><p>LORAN is a terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Radio-navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-navigation">navigation</a> system using <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">low frequency</a> radio transmitters that use the time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">low frequency</a> portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">kHz</a>. Many nations are users of the system, including the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called <a href="/wiki/CHAYKA" title="CHAYKA">CHAYKA</a>. LORAN use is in steep decline, with <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radar_navigation">Radar navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Radar navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radar_navigation" title="Radar navigation">Radar navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doppler_radar#navigation" title="Doppler radar">Doppler radar § navigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg/220px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg/330px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg/440px-Navigation_system_on_a_merchant_ship_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Radar ranges and bearings can be used to determine a position.</figcaption></figure> <p>Radar is an effective aid to navigation because it provides ranges and bearings to objects within range of the radar scanner.<sup id="cite_ref-Anwar133_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anwar133-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a vessel (ship or boat) is within radar range of land or fixed objects (such as special radar aids to navigation and navigation marks) the navigator can take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart.<sup id="cite_ref-chap744_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chap744-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix.<sup id="cite_ref-bow816_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow816-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object,"<sup id="cite_ref-nima163_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima163-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "two or more bearings,"<sup id="cite_ref-nima163_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima163-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "tangent bearings,"<sup id="cite_ref-nima163_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima163-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "two or more ranges."<sup id="cite_ref-nima163_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima163-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radar can also be used with <a href="/wiki/ECDIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ECDIS">ECDIS</a> as a means of position fixing with the radar image or distance/bearing overlaid onto an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_navigational_chart" title="Electronic navigational chart">Electronic nautical chart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anwar133_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anwar133-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book <i>The Radar Observer's Handbook</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-nima169_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima169-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance.<sup id="cite_ref-nima169_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima169-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigational_hazard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Navigational hazard (page does not exist)">hazards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nima169_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima169-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The line on the radar screen is set to a specific distance and angle, then the ship's position relative to the parallel line is observed. This can provide an immediate reference to the navigator as to whether the ship is on or off its intended course for navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Victor_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Victor-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other techniques that are less used in general navigation have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position.<sup id="cite_ref-nima164_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima164-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course.<sup id="cite_ref-nima182_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima182-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line.<sup id="cite_ref-nima182_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nima182-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satellite_navigation">Satellite navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Satellite navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></div> <p>Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> receivers to determine their location (<a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a>) within a few meters using <a href="/wiki/Time_signal" title="Time signal">time signals</a> transmitted along a <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line of sight</a> by <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> from <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. </p><p>As of October 2011, only the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> NAVSTAR <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) and the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> <a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a> are fully globally operational GNSSs. The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo positioning system">Galileo positioning system</a> is a next generation GNSS in the final deployment phase, and became operational in 2016. <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> has indicated it may expand its regional <a href="/wiki/Beidou_navigation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Beidou navigation system">Beidou navigation system</a> into a global system. </p><p>More than two dozen GPS satellites are in <a href="/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">medium Earth orbit</a>, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to determine the receiver's <a href="/wiki/Geographic_location" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic location">location</a>, speed and direction. </p><p>Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to navigation around the world, and an important tool for <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">map-making</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">land surveying</a>. GPS also provides a precise <a href="/wiki/Time_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Time transfer">time reference</a> used in many applications including scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> of telecommunications networks. </p><p>Developed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The <a href="/wiki/Satellite_constellation" title="Satellite constellation">satellite constellation</a> is managed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/50th_Space_Wing" title="50th Space Wing">50th Space Wing</a>. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>750 million per year,<sup id="cite_ref-GPS_overview_from_JPO_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GPS_overview_from_JPO-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public good</a>. </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Smartphones" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartphones">smartphones</a> act as personal <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> navigators for civilians who own them. Overuse of these devices, whether in the vehicle or on foot, can lead to a relative inability to learn about navigated environments, resulting in sub-optimal navigation abilities when and if these devices become unavailable.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically a <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> is also provided to determine direction when not moving. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acoustic_navigation">Acoustic navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Acoustic navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_location" title="Acoustic location">Acoustic location</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Navigation_processes">Navigation processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Navigation processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ships_and_similar_vessels">Ships and similar vessels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ships and similar vessels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="One_day's_work_in_navigation"><span id="One_day.27s_work_in_navigation"></span>One day's work in navigation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: One day's work in navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but the traditional method takes a form resembling:<sup id="cite_ref-mmoh6-18_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmoh6-18-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Maintain a continuous dead reckoning plot.</li> <li>Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).</li> <li>Morning Sun observation. Can be taken on or near <a href="/wiki/Prime_vertical" title="Prime vertical">prime vertical</a> for longitude, or at any time for a line of position.</li> <li>Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.</li> <li>Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-meridian sights.</li> <li>Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the Sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with Venus line for noon fix.</li> <li>Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift.</li> <li>At least one afternoon Sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight.</li> <li>Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.</li> <li>Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).</li></ol> <p>Navigation on ships is usually always conducted on the <a href="/wiki/Bridge_(nautical)#Navigation_station" title="Bridge (nautical)">bridge</a>. It may also take place in adjacent space, where chart tables and publications are available. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passage_planning">Passage planning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Passage planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Passage_planning" title="Passage planning">Passage planning</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exval.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Exval.jpeg/220px-Exval.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Exval.jpeg/330px-Exval.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Exval.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>Poor passage planning and deviation from the plan can lead to groundings, ship damage and cargo loss.</figcaption></figure><p>Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor area, the en route portion of a voyage, approaching the destination, and <a href="/wiki/Mooring_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mooring (watercraft)">mooring</a>. According to international law, a vessel's <a href="/wiki/Captain_(nautical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain (nautical)">captain</a> is legally responsible for passage planning,<sup id="cite_ref-reg34_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg34-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's <a href="/wiki/Navigator" title="Navigator">navigator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-annex24_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annex24-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies show that <a href="/wiki/Human_error" title="Human error">human error</a> is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-annex24_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annex24-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on <a href="/wiki/Nautical_chart" title="Nautical chart">nautical charts</a> to a process of <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-annex24_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annex24-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Passage planning consists of four stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring,<sup id="cite_ref-annex24_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annex24-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are specified in <i><a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a> Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage Planning,</i><sup id="cite_ref-annex25_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annex25-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a>), and a number of professional books or publications. There are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel. </p><p>The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. This will involve considering the type of navigation required e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ice_navigation" title="Ice navigation">Ice navigation</a>, the region the ship will be passing through and the <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrographic</a> information on the route. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage of passage planning consists of monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen circumstances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Integrated_bridge_systems">Integrated bridge systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Integrated bridge systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg/220px-Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg/330px-Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg/440px-Integriertes_Br%C3%BCckensystem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Integrated Bridge System, integrated on an Offshore Service Ship</figcaption></figure> <p>Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.<sup id="cite_ref-bow1_20-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_navigation">Land navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Land navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Navigation for cars and other land-based travel typically uses <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landmark" title="Landmark">landmarks</a>, and in recent times <a href="/wiki/Navigation_system" title="Navigation system">computer navigation</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Satnav" class="mw-redirect" title="Satnav">satnav</a>", short for satellite navigation), as well as any means available on water. </p><p>Computerized navigation commonly relies on <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> for current location information, a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic map">navigational map database</a> of roads and navigable routes, and uses <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> related to the <a href="/wiki/Shortest_path_problem" title="Shortest path problem">shortest path problem</a> to identify optimal routes. </p><p>Pedestrian navigation is involved in <a href="/wiki/Orienteering" title="Orienteering">orienteering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_navigation" title="Land navigation">land navigation (military)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wayfinding" title="Wayfinding">wayfinding</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underwater_navigation">Underwater navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Underwater navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diver_navigation" title="Diver navigation">Diver navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Submarine_navigation" title="Submarine navigation">Submarine navigation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards,_training_and_organisations"><span id="Standards.2C_training_and_organisations"></span>Standards, training and organisations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Standards, training and organisations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Professional standards for navigation depend on the type of navigation and vary by country. For marine navigation, <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant Navy">Merchant Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Deck_department" title="Deck department">deck officers</a> are trained and internationally certified according to the <a href="/wiki/STCW_Convention" title="STCW Convention">STCW Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-STCW_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STCW-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leisure and amateur mariners may undertake lessons in navigation at local/regional training schools. <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Naval</a> officers receive navigation training as part of their naval training. </p><p>In land navigation, courses and training is often provided to young persons as part of general or extra-curricular education. Land navigation is also an essential part of army training. Additionally, organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/Scouting" title="Scouting">Scouts</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Duke_of_Edinburgh%27s_Award" title="The Duke of Edinburgh's Award">DoE programme</a> teach navigation to their students. <a href="/wiki/Orienteering" title="Orienteering">Orienteering</a> organisations are a type of sports that require navigational skills using a map and compass to navigate from point to point in diverse and usually unfamiliar terrain whilst moving at speed.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In aviation, pilots undertake <a href="/wiki/Air_navigation" title="Air navigation">air navigation</a> training as part of learning to fly. </p><p>Professional organisations also assist to encourage improvements in navigation or bring together navigators in learned environments. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_Navigation" title="Royal Institute of Navigation">Royal Institute of Navigation</a> (RIN) is a <a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">learned society</a> with charitable status, aimed at furthering the development of navigation on land and sea, in the air and in space. It was founded in 1947 as a forum for mariners, pilots, engineers and academics to compare their experiences and exchange information.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the US, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Navigation" title="Institute of Navigation">Institute of Navigation</a> (ION) is a non-profit professional organisation advancing the art and science of positioning, navigation and timing.<sup id="cite_ref-ION_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ION-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publications">Publications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg/220px-Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg/330px-Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg/440px-Bowditch_1910_Figure_2_Compass_Rose_navigatorpracti00bowdrich_0021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2261" data-file-height="2226" /></a><figcaption>An illustration showing a compass used for navigation from Bowditch's American Practical Navigator</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous <a href="/wiki/Nautical_publications" title="Nautical publications">nautical publications</a> are available on navigation, which are published by professional sources all over the world. In the UK, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Hydrographic_Office" title="United Kingdom Hydrographic Office">United Kingdom Hydrographic Office</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Witherby_Publishing_Group" title="Witherby Publishing Group">Witherby Publishing Group</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nautical_Institute" title="Nautical Institute">Nautical Institute</a> provide numerous navigational publications, including the comprehensive Admiralty Manual of Navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_of_Navigation_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual_of_Navigation-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Navigation,_Witherbys_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navigation,_Witherbys-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US, <a href="/wiki/Bowditch%27s_American_Practical_Navigator" title="Bowditch's American Practical Navigator">Bowditch's American Practical Navigator</a> is a free available encyclopedia of navigation issued by the US Government.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowditch1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowditch1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Navigation_in_spatial_cognition">Navigation in spatial cognition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Navigation in spatial cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Navigation is an essential everyday activity that involves a series of abilities that help humans and animals to locate, track, and follow paths in order to arrive at different destinations.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Navigation, in <a href="/wiki/Spatial_cognition" title="Spatial cognition">spatial cognition</a>, allows for acquiring information about the environment by using the body and <a href="/wiki/Landmark" title="Landmark">landmarks</a> of the environment as <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frames of references</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">mental representations</a> of our environment, also known as a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a>. Humans navigate by transitioning between different spaces and coordinating both <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">egocentric and allocentric frames of reference</a>. </p><p>Navigation can be distinguished into two sptial components: locomotion and wayfinding.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locomotion is the process of movement from one place to another, both in humans and in animals. Locomotion helps you understand an environment by moving through a space in order to create a mental representation of it.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wayfinding" title="Wayfinding">Wayfinding</a> is defined as an active process of following or deciding upon a path between one place to another through mental representations.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves processes such as representation, planning and decision which help to avoid obstacles, to stay on course or to regulate pace when approaching particular objects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Navigation and wayfinding can be approached in the <a href="/wiki/Spatial_cognition" title="Spatial cognition">environmental space</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Daniel_R._Montello" title="Daniel R. Montello">Dan Montello</a>’s <a href="/wiki/Spatial_cognition" title="Spatial cognition">space classification</a>, there are four levels of space with the third being the environmental space. The environmental space represents a very large space, like a city, and can only be fully explored through movement since all objects and space are not directly visible.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Tversky" title="Barbara Tversky">Barbara Tversky</a> systematized the space, but this time taking into consideration the three dimensions that correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">axes</a> of the human body and its extensions: above/below, front/back and left/right. Tversky ultimately proposed a fourfold classification of navigable space: space of the body, space around the body, space of navigation and space of graphics.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wayfinding">Wayfinding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Wayfinding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two types of wayfinding in navigation: aided and unaided.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aided wayfinding requires a person to use various types of <a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">media</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Direction,_position,_or_indication_sign" title="Direction, position, or indication sign">directional signage</a>, etc., in their navigation process which generally involves low spatial reasoning and is less cognitively demanding. Unaided wayfinding involves no such devices for the person who is navigating.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unaided wayfinding can be subdivided into a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomy</a> of tasks depending on whether it is undirected or directed, which basically makes the distinction of whether there is a precise destination or not: undirected wayfinding means that a person is simply <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">exploring</a> an environment for pleasure without any set destination.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Directed wayfinding, instead, can be further subdivided into search vs. target approximation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Search means that a person does not know where the destination is located and must find it either in an unfamiliar environment, which is labeled as an uninformed search, or in a familiar environment, labeled as an informed search. In target approximation, on the other hand, the location of the destination is known to the navigator but a further distinction is made based on whether the navigator knows how to arrive or not to the destination. Path following means that the environment, the path, and the destination are all known which means that the navigator simply follows the path they already know and arrive at the destination without much thought. For example, when you are in your city and walking on the same path as you normally take from your house to your job or university.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, path finding means that the navigator knows where the destination is but does not know the route they have to take to arrive at the destination: you know where a specific store is but you do not know how to arrive there or what path to take. If the navigator does not know the environment, it is called path search which means that only the destination is known while neither the path nor the environment is: you are in a new city and need to arrive at the train station but do not know how to get there.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Path planning, on the other hand, means that the navigator knows both where the destination is and is familiar with the environment so they only need to plan the route or path that they should take to arrive at their target. For example, if you are in your city and need to get to a specific store that you know the destination of but do not know the specific path you need to take to get there.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/28px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/42px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/56px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robot_navigation" title="Robot navigation">Robot navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TVMDC" class="mw-redirect" title="TVMDC">TVMDC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collision_avoidance_in_transportation" title="Collision avoidance in transportation">Collision avoidance in transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_cognition#Navigation" title="Spatial cognition">Spatial cognition#Navigation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-hofman-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hofman_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hofman_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hofman_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hofman_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRell_Pros-Wellenhof2007" class="citation book cs1">Rell Pros-Wellenhof, Bernhard (2007). <i>Navigation: Principles of Positioning and Guidances</i>. Springer. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7"><bdi>978-3-211-00828-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation%3A+Principles+of+Positioning+and+Guidances&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-211-00828-7&rft.aulast=Rell+Pros-Wellenhof&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow799-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bow799_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowditch, 2003:799.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Handbook Of The SAS And Elite Forces. How The Professionals Fight And Win. Edited by Jon E. Lewis. p.363-Tactics And Techniques, Personal Skills And Techniques. Robinson Publishing Ltd 1997. ISBN 1-85487-675-9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxfordShipsAndSea-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oxfordShipsAndSea_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Ty Pros Companion to Ships and the Sea</i>, Peter Kemp ed., 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-586-08308-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-586-08308-1">0-586-08308-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComandante_Estácio_dos_Reis2002" class="citation book cs1">Comandante Estácio dos Reis (2002). <i>Astrolábios Náuticos</i>. 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New York: Spon & Chamberlain. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/formerclockwatc00britgoog/page/n242">230</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-08</span></span>. <q>Chronometers were not regularly supplied to the Royal Navy until about 1825</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Former+Clock+%26+Watchmakers+and+Their+Work&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Spon+%26+Chamberlain&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Britten&rft.aufirst=Frederick+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fformerclockwatc00britgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lecky, Squire, <i>Wrinkles in Practical Navigation</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1837" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Roberts_(diplomat)" title="Edmund Roberts (diplomat)">Roberts, Edmund</a> (1837). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA365">"Chapter XXIV―departure from Mozambique"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ"><i>Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: in the U.S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832–3–4</i></a> (Digital ed.). Harper & brothers. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780608404066" title="Special:BookSources/9780608404066"><bdi>9780608404066</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2012</span>. <q>...what I have stated, will serve to show the absolute necessity of having firstrate chronometers, or the lunar observations carefully attended to; and never omitted to be taken when practicable.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XXIV%E2%80%95departure+from+Mozambique&rft.btitle=Embassy+to+the+Eastern+courts+of+Cochin-China%2C+Siam%2C+and+Muscat%3A+in+the+U.S.+sloop-of-war+Peacock+...+during+the+years+1832%E2%80%933%E2%80%934&rft.pages=373&rft.edition=Digital&rft.pub=Harper+%26+brothers&rft.date=1837&rft.isbn=9780608404066&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaSgPAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mal615-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mal615_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal615_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal615_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal615_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal615_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maloney, 2003:615.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mal614-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mal614_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal614_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mal614_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maloney, 2003:614</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mal618-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mal618_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maloney, 2003:618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mal622-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mal622_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maloney, 2003:622.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow1-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow1_20-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowditch, 2002:1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Handbook of the SAS and Elite Forces. How the Professionals Fight and Win</i>. Edited by Jon E. Lewis. p. 370 "Tactics And Techniques, Personal Skills And Techniques". Robinson Publishing Ltd 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1854876759" title="Special:BookSources/1854876759">1854876759</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14cfr1-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14cfr1_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Federal Aviation Regulations Part 1 §1.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow105-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow105_23-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowditch, 2002:105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilardoni_Presedo_2017_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilardoniPresedo2017" class="citation book cs1">Gilardoni, Eduardo O.; Presedo, Juan P. (2017). <i>Navigation in Shallow Waters</i>. Livingston, Scotland: Witherbys. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-667-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-667-6"><bdi>978-1-85609-667-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation+in+Shallow+Waters&rft.place=Livingston%2C+Scotland&rft.pub=Witherbys&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-85609-667-6&rft.aulast=Gilardoni&rft.aufirst=Eduardo+O.&rft.au=Presedo%2C+Juan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow269-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow269_25-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowditch, 2002:269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://timeandnavigation.si.edu/navigating-air/challenges/overcoming-challenges/celestial-navigation">"How Did Aviators "Shoot" the Sun and Stars? | Time and Navigation"</a>. <i>timeandnavigation.si.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=timeandnavigation.si.edu&rft.atitle=How+Did+Aviators+%22Shoot%22+the+Sun+and+Stars%3F+%7C+Time+and+Navigation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimeandnavigation.si.edu%2Fnavigating-air%2Fchallenges%2Fovercoming-challenges%2Fcelestial-navigation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tazartes-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tazartes_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"An historical perspective on inertial navigation systems", Daniel Tazartes, <i>2014 International Symposium on Inertial Sensors and Systems (ISISS)</i>, Laguna Beach, CA</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170316044511/http://gsp.esa.int/documents/10192/43064675/C4000106174ExS.pdf/8a26a304-9d5f-447d-aa75-bc0c955a4b78">"GSP Executive Summary"</a>. <i>gsp.esa.int</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gsp.esa.int/documents/10192/43064675/C4000106174ExS.pdf/8a26a304-9d5f-447d-aa75-bc0c955a4b78">the original</a> on 2017-03-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gsp.esa.int&rft.atitle=GSP+Executive+Summary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgsp.esa.int%2Fdocuments%2F10192%2F43064675%2FC4000106174ExS.pdf%2F8a26a304-9d5f-447d-aa75-bc0c955a4b78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafi_Letzter2018" class="citation web cs1">Rafi Letzter (2018-04-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/62309-galactic-positioning-system-nasa.html">"NASA's Got a Plan for a 'Galactic Positioning System' to Save Astronauts Lost in Space"</a>. <i>livescience.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=livescience.com&rft.atitle=NASA%27s+Got+a+Plan+for+a+%27Galactic+Positioning+System%27+to+Save+Astronauts+Lost+in+Space&rft.date=2018-04-16&rft.au=Rafi+Letzter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F62309-galactic-positioning-system-nasa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProc" class="citation web cs1">Proc, Jerry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/omega.html">"Omega"</a>. <i>www.jproc.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jproc.ca&rft.atitle=Omega&rft.aulast=Proc&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jproc.ca%2Fhyperbolic%2Fomega.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anwar133-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anwar133_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anwar133_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwar2015" class="citation book cs1">Anwar, Nadeem (2015). <i>Navigation Advanced for Mates and Masters</i> (2nd ed.). 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Edinburgh: <a href="/wiki/Witherby_Publishing_Group" title="Witherby Publishing Group">Witherby Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-627-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-627-0"><bdi>978-1-85609-627-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation+Advanced+for+Mates+and+Masters&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Witherby+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-85609-627-0&rft.aulast=Anwar&rft.aufirst=Nadeem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutler2003" class="citation book cs1">Cutler, Thomas J. (December 2003). <i>Dutton's Nautical Navigation</i> (15th ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-248-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-248-3"><bdi>978-1-55750-248-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dutton%27s+Nautical+Navigation&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=978-1-55750-248-3&rft.aulast=Cutler&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_the_Air_Force2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Department of the Air Force</a> (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070325022639/http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/pubfiles/af/11/afpam11-216/afpam11-216.pdf"><i>Air Navigation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Department of the Air Force. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/pubfiles/af/11/afpam11-216/afpam11-216.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-03-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Air+Navigation&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Air+Force&rft.date=2001-03&rft.au=Department+of+the+Air+Force&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-publishing.af.mil%2Fpubfiles%2Faf%2F11%2Fafpam11-216%2Fafpam11-216.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreat_Britain_Ministry_of_Defence_(Navy)1995" class="citation book cs1">Great Britain Ministry of Defence (Navy) (1995). <i>Admiralty Manual of Seamanship</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Stationery_Office" title="The Stationery Office">The Stationery Office</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-772696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-772696-3"><bdi>978-0-11-772696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Admiralty+Manual+of+Seamanship&rft.pub=The+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-11-772696-3&rft.au=Great+Britain+Ministry+of+Defence+%28Navy%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilardoniPresedo2017" class="citation book cs1">Gilardoni, Eduardo O.; Presedo, Juan P. (2017). <i>Navigation in Shallow Waters</i>. Livingston, Scotland: Witherbys. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-667-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85609-667-6"><bdi>978-1-85609-667-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation+in+Shallow+Waters&rft.place=Livingston%2C+Scotland&rft.pub=Witherbys&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-85609-667-6&rft.aulast=Gilardoni&rft.aufirst=Eduardo+O.&rft.au=Presedo%2C+Juan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernhard_Hofmann-WellenhofK._LegatM._Wieser2003" class="citation book cs1">Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof; K. Legat; M. Wieser (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=losWr9UDRasC"><i>Navigation: principles of positioning and guidance</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7"><bdi>978-3-211-00828-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation%3A+principles+of+positioning+and+guidance&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-211-00828-7&rft.au=Bernhard+Hofmann-Wellenhof&rft.au=K.+Legat&rft.au=M.+Wieser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlosWr9UDRasC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaloney2003" class="citation book cs1">Maloney, Elbert S. (December 2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chapmanpilotings00elbe_1"><i>Chapman Piloting and Seamanship</i></a></span> (64th ed.). New York: Hearst Communications Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58816-089-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58816-089-8"><bdi>978-1-58816-089-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chapman+Piloting+and+Seamanship&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=64th&rft.pub=Hearst+Communications+Inc.&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=978-1-58816-089-8&rft.aulast=Maloney&rft.aufirst=Elbert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchapmanpilotings00elbe_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Imagery_and_Mapping_Agency2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Imagery_and_Mapping_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="National Imagery and Mapping Agency">National Imagery and Mapping Agency</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070307132409/http://www.nga.mil/portal/site/maritime/"><i>Publication 1310: Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board Manual</i></a> (7th ed.). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nga.mil/portal/site/maritime/">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-03-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Publication+1310%3A+Radar+Navigation+and+Maneuvering+Board+Manual&rft.place=Bethesda%2C+MD&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2001&rft.au=National+Imagery+and+Mapping+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nga.mil%2Fportal%2Fsite%2Fmaritime%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurpinMcEwen,_William_A.1980" class="citation book cs1">Turpin, Edward A.; McEwen, William A. (1980). <i>Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook</i> (4th ed.). Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87033-056-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87033-056-8"><bdi>978-0-87033-056-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merchant+Marine+Officers%27+Handbook&rft.place=Centreville%2C+MD&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cornell+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-87033-056-8&rft.aulast=Turpin&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rft.au=McEwen%2C+William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Martin, William Robert (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Navigation"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Navigation">"Navigation" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 284–298.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Navigation&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=284-298&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=William+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunburyBeazley1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bunbury" title="Edward Bunbury">Bunbury, Edward Herbert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Beazley" title="Raymond Beazley">Beazley, Charles Raymond</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pytheas"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pytheas">"Pytheas" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 703–704.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pytheas&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=703-704&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Bunbury&rft.aufirst=Edward+Herbert&rft.au=Beazley%2C+Charles+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaolGopal2013" class="citation cs2">Raol, Jitendra; Gopal, Ajith (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HaS91phGuRQC&q=sanskrit+navgati&pg=PA141"><i>Mobile Intelligent Autonomous Systems</i></a>, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-6300-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-6300-8"><bdi>978-1-4398-6300-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mobile+Intelligent+Autonomous+Systems&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC+Press+Taylor+and+Francis+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-6300-8&rft.aulast=Raol&rft.aufirst=Jitendra&rft.au=Gopal%2C+Ajith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHaS91phGuRQC%26q%3Dsanskrit%2Bnavgati%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANavigation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navigation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Navigation" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Navigation">Navigation</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Navigation" class="extiw" title="commons:Navigation"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Navigation</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Navigation" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:Navigation">Portal:Navigation</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Navigation#Q102066" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Navigation">Navigation</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27642"><i>Lectures in Navigation</i></a> by Ernest Gallaudet Draper</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121208170816/http://alsworld.topcities.com/bwgg/index.html">How to navigate with less than a compass or GPS</a> (archived 8 December 2012)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geodesy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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geodesy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geodesists" title="List of geodesists">Geodesists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Navigation</a></li> <li><a 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title="Dynamo theory">Geodynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_precession" title="Axial precession">Precession of the equinoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/16px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/24px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/32px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="750" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geodesy" title="Portal:Geodesy">Geodesy portal</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geodesy" title="Category:Geodesy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geodesy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geodesy">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Orienteering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Orienteering" title="Template:Orienteering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Orienteering" title="Template talk:Orienteering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Orienteering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Orienteering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Orienteering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Orienteering" title="Orienteering">Orienteering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_orienteering" title="History of orienteering">History of orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteering_events" title="List of orienteering events">List of orienteering events</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sport disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Orienteering_Federation" title="International Orienteering Federation">IOF</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sports_governing_body" title="Sports governing body">governed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foot_orienteering" title="Foot orienteering">Foot orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_bike_orienteering" title="Mountain bike orienteering">Mountain bike orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ski_orienteering" title="Ski orienteering">Ski orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_orienteering" title="Trail orienteering">Trail orienteering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Amateur_Radio_Union" title="International Amateur Radio Union">IARU</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sports_governing_body" title="Sports governing body">governed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_direction_finding" title="Amateur radio direction finding">Amateur radio direction finding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Oring" title="Fox Oring">Fox Oring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Orienteering_in_a_Compact_Area" title="Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area">Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_orienteering" title="Canoe orienteering">Canoe orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_orienteering" title="Car orienteering">Car orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_marathon" title="Mountain marathon">Mountain marathon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mounted_orienteering" title="Mounted orienteering">Mounted orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogaining" title="Rogaining">Rogaining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_racing" title="Adventure racing">Adventure racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alleycat_race" title="Alleycat race">Alleycat race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fell_running" title="Fell running">Fell running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay_race" title="Relay race">Relay race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmitter_hunting" title="Transmitter hunting">Transmitter hunting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_point_(orienteering)" title="Control point (orienteering)">Control point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Course_(orienteering)" title="Course (orienteering)">Course</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orienteering_map" title="Orienteering map">Map</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hand_compass" title="Hand compass">hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protractor_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Protractor compass">protractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumb_compass" title="Thumb compass">thumb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_protection" title="Eye protection">Eye protectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaiters" title="Gaiters">Gaiters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headlamp_(outdoor)" title="Headlamp (outdoor)">Headlamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backpacking_(wilderness)#Equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Backpacking (wilderness)">Backpacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistle" title="Whistle">Whistle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orienteering.sport/iof/it/list-of-software-for-orienteering/">Software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprietary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=OCAD_(software)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OCAD (software) (page does not exist)">OCAD</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Condes_(software)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Condes (software) (page does not exist)">Condes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SportSoftware&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SportSoftware (page does not exist)">SportSoftware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open-source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=OpenOrienteering_Mapper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OpenOrienteering Mapper (page does not exist)">OpenOrienteering Mapper</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Purple_Pen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Purple Pen (page does not exist)">Purple Pen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MeOS_(software)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MeOS (software) (page does not exist)">MeOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orienteering.sport/iof/it/list-of-software-for-orienteering/">Video games</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catching_Features" title="Catching Features">Catching Features</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Suunnistussimulaattori&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suunnistussimulaattori (page does not exist)">Suunnistussimulaattori</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=WinOL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WinOL (page does not exist)">WinOL / WinOL II Oriantica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamentals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orienteering_map" title="Orienteering map">orienteering map</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Navigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_direction" title="Cardinal direction">cardinal direction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_resection" class="mw-redirect" title="Position resection">resection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Route_choice_(orienteering)" title="Route choice (orienteering)">route choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayfinding" title="Wayfinding">wayfinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waypoint" title="Waypoint">waypoint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racing" title="Racing">Racing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiking" title="Hiking">hiking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Running" title="Running">running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiing" title="Skiing">skiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_biking" title="Mountain biking">mountain biking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations / lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Orienteering_Federation" title="International Orienteering Federation">International Orienteering Federation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_members_of_the_International_Orienteering_Federation" title="Category:National members of the International Orienteering Federation">members</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteering_clubs" title="List of orienteering clubs">List of clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteers" title="List of orienteers">List of orienteers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteers#By_country" title="List of orienteers">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteers#Innovators" title="List of orienteers">innovators</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orienteering_events" title="List of orienteering events">List of events</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-sport related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_travel" title="Adventure travel">Adventure travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_touring" title="Bicycle touring">Bicycle touring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing" title="Climbing">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiking" title="Hiking">Hiking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location-based_game" title="Location-based game">Location-based game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocaching" title="Geocaching">geocaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poker_run" title="Poker run">poker run</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orienteering_(scouting)" title="Orienteering (scouting)">Scoutcraft orienteering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backpacking_(wilderness)" class="mw-redirect" title="Backpacking (wilderness)">wilderness</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foot_orienteering" title="Foot orienteering">Foot orienteering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Orienteering_Championships" title="World Orienteering Championships">World Championships</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Junior_World_Orienteering_Championships" title="Junior World Orienteering Championships">Junior</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/World_Masters_Orienteering_Championships" title="World Masters Orienteering Championships">Masters</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/World_University_Orienteering_Championships" title="World University Orienteering Championships">University</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orienteering_World_Cup" title="Orienteering World Cup">World Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orienteering_at_the_World_Games" title="Orienteering at the World Games">World Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Orienteering_Championships" title="European Orienteering Championships">European Championships</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Youth_Orienteering_Championships" title="European Youth Orienteering Championships">Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_University_Orienteering_Championships&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European University Orienteering Championships (page does not exist)">University</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Orienteering_Championships" title="North American Orienteering Championships">North American Championships</a></li> <li>Open events <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O-Ringen" title="O-Ringen">O-Ringen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jukola_relay" title="Jukola relay">Jukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiomila" title="Tiomila">Tiomila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kainuu_Orienteering_Week" title="Kainuu Orienteering Week">Kainuu Orienteering Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Kjellstr%C3%B6m_International_Festival_of_Orienteering" title="Jan Kjellström International Festival of Orienteering">Jan Kjellström Festival</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ski_orienteering" title="Ski orienteering">Ski orienteering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Ski_Orienteering_Championships" title="World Ski Orienteering Championships">World Championships</a> <ul><li><small><a 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Trail_Orienteering_Championships" title="World Trail Orienteering Championships">World Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Orienteering" title="Category:Orienteering">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Seamanship" title="Template:Seamanship"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Seamanship" title="Template talk:Seamanship"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Seamanship" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Seamanship"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seamanship_(seafaring)_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Seamanship (seafaring) topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Sea_anchor" title="Sea anchor">Sea anchor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Satellite_navigation_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Satellite_navigation_systems" title="Template:Satellite navigation systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS / NavStar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Regional_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System">IRNSS / NAVIC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BeiDou#BeiDou-1" title="BeiDou">BDS / BeiDou-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timation" title="Timation">Timation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsiklon_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsiklon (satellite)">Tsiklon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GNSS_augmentation" title="GNSS augmentation">GNSS augmentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Geostationary_Navigation_Overlay_Service" title="European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service">EGNOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPS_Aided_GEO_Augmented_Navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation">GAGAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPS%C2%B7C" title="GPS·C">GPS·C</a> (retired)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Precision_Approach_and_Landing_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Precision Approach and Landing System">JPALS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_Area_Augmentation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Area Augmentation System">LAAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTSAT_Satellite_Augmentation_System" title="MTSAT Satellite Augmentation System">MSAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networked_Transport_of_RTCM_via_Internet_Protocol" title="Networked Transport of RTCM via Internet Protocol">NTRIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-Zenith_Satellite_System" title="Quasi-Zenith Satellite System">QZSS / Michibiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Positioning_Augmentation_Network" title="Southern Positioning Augmentation Network">SouthPAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StarFire_(navigation_system)" title="StarFire (navigation system)">StarFire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_Area_Augmentation_System" title="Wide Area Augmentation System">WAAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_for_Differential_Corrections_and_Monitoring" title="System for Differential Corrections and Monitoring">SDCM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GNSS_reflectometry" 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