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class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750_&_756–1031)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750_&_756–1031)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 & 756–1031)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750_&_756–1031)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1258_&_1261–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1258_&_1261–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 & 1261–1517)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1258_&_1261–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> 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class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="History of the Arabs (disambiguation)">History of the Arabs (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg/200px-Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg/300px-Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="171" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 240 – c. 274 CE) was a third-century queen of the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>. One of several ancient female rulers in antiquity of Arab origin. Depicted as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">empress</a> on the obverse of an <i><a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a></i> (272 CE).</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The recorded <b>history of the Arabs</b> begins in the mid-9th century BCE, which is the earliest known attestation of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> language. Tradition holds that Arabs descend from <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EoR-Ishmael_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoR-Ishmael-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a> is the home of the first attested "Arab" groups,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as other Arab groups that spread in the land and existed for millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> (632–661), the term "Arab" referred to any of the largely <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> or settled Arabic tribes from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, North and Lower <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, "Arab" refers to a variety of large numbers of people whose native regions form the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> due to the spread of Arabs and the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic language</a> throughout the region during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> of the 7th and 8th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arabs forged the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a> (632–661), <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> (661–750) and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> (750–1258) caliphates, creating one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest land empires in history</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reaching southern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> in the east, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in the north, and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> in the south. In 1517, the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, which ruled much of the Arab world. In <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, it was <a href="/wiki/Defeat_and_dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">defeated and dissolved</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">territories were partitioned</a>, forming the modern Arab states.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Protocol" title="Alexandria Protocol">Alexandria Protocol</a> in 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> was founded on 22 March 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-History_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter of the Arab League</a> endorsed the principle of an <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Arab homeland</a> while respecting the individual sovereignty of its member states.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">History of the ancient Levant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bedouin#History" title="Bedouin">Bedouin § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic_age">Neolithic age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neolithic age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, the Bedouin engaged in nomadic herding, agriculture and sometimes fishing in the Syrian <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> since 6000 BCE. By about 850 BCE, a complex network of settlements and camps were established. The earliest Arab tribes emerged from Bedouins.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_age">Iron age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Iron age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arabs are first mentioned in <a href="/wiki/The_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible">Biblical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> texts of the 9th to 5th centuries BC where they inhabited parts of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Arab tribes and towns are identified during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a> period through their onomastics and toponyms. These tribes were present throughout <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>, and in many times their presence often accompanied <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramean</a> tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the land of Laqē near <a href="/wiki/Terqa" title="Terqa">Terqa</a>, which was mentioned in an inscription by <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> (911–891 BC), Aramaean and Arab clans formed a confederacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> descended on <a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Pattin</a> in 858 BC, he fought a force which included two Arab chieftains from <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumant</a> tribes of the lower <a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes valley</a>: a certain Bur-'Anat of Yašbuq, and Hada[d-ya]ṯa of a tribe whose name is lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qarqar" title="Battle of Qarqar">Battle of Qarqar</a> in 853 BC, Arabs were part of a Damascene coalition of Syrian and Israelite allies under <a href="/wiki/Gindibu" title="Gindibu">Gindibu</a>, who ruled over an Arab kingdom located in the northeastern parts of present-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Sirhan" title="Wadi Sirhan">Wadi Sirhan</a>. In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> (744–727 BC), the "Arabāy" (Arabs) were among the Syrians integrated into the Assyrian administrative system, and were reportedly located in the regions of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Tadmor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Franck_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franck-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Retso_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retso-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tiglath-Pileser III even appointed a certain Arab, <i>Idibi'ilu</i>, to the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai peninsula</a> jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab raiders were also active in the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa Valley</a>, where they attacked <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a>'s (722–705 BC) troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Retso_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retso-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A reference to the potential ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>, the <i>Nabayatu</i>, is made in a <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> letter from before 648 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nabaytau reportedly lived in the Babylonian border region, and were probably the namesake of the city of Nabatu mentioned in an inscription of <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> (721–710 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Retso_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retso-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> (669–631 BC) most Nabayatu clans shifted to the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>, and by the 6th century had migrated to the area south of <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Sirhan" title="Wadi Sirhan">Wadi Sirhan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashurbanipal launched a punitive campaign against the Arabs in <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a> from his base in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, capturing Abiyate the Qedarite and taking him to <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Retso_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retso-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_kingdoms">Classical kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Kingdom of Hatra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Khazneh_2,_Petra,_Jordan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/220px-Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/330px-Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/440px-Al-Khazneh_2%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption> Façade of <a href="/wiki/Al_Khazneh" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Khazneh">Al Khazneh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, Jordan, built by the <a href="/wiki/Nabateans" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabateans">Nabateans</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a> texts give a clearer picture of Arabic's developmental history and emergence. Ancient North Arabian is a collection of texts from <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> which not only recorded ancient forms of Arabic, such as <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a>, but also of pre-Arabic languages previously spoken in the Arabian peninsula, such as <a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The texts are either written in variants or closely related sister scripts of <a href="/wiki/Epigraph_(literature)" title="Epigraph (literature)">epigraphic</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">south Arabian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/South_Arabian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="South Arabian alphabet">musnad</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nabataeans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a> were nomads who moved into territory vacated by the <a href="/wiki/Edomites" class="mw-redirect" title="Edomites">Edomites</a> – Semitic-speakers who settled the region centuries before them. Their early inscriptions were in <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Aramaic</a> but gradually switched to their spoken <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a>, thus producing some of the earliest clear Arabic texts. The <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a> was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BC) and the many Arabic personal names in <a href="/wiki/Nabataean" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean">Nabataean</a> inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from <a href="/wiki/Qaryat_al-Faw" title="Qaryat al-Faw">Qaryat al-Faw</a> reveal a dialect no longer considered <i>proto-Arabic</i>, but <i>pre-classical Arabic</i>. Five <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at <a href="/wiki/Sumatar_Harabesi" title="Sumatar Harabesi">Sumatar Harabesi</a> northeast of <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>, one of which dates to the 2nd century AD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_Syria">In Syria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In Syria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bel,_Palmyra_15.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg/220px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg/330px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg/440px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="1797" /></a><figcaption>The ruins of Palmyra. The Palmyrenes were an admixture of Arabs, <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Arabs are first recorded in <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> in the late first millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce_2014_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce_2014-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikh</a> Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BC), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce_2014_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce_2014-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a> in 260 CE, the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> was taken prisoner. Assuming the side of Rome, the Palmyrenes united under <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> and defeated the Sassanian armies in several battles, even reaching the capital city, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, twice. </p><p>Odaenathus' son <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> succeeded him in 270 under the regency of his mother <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, who declared the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, quickly capturing most of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and most of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> in 271, reaching <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ancyra</a>. Zenobia was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> with the help of the Arab enemies of Zenobia, the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a>. The Tanukhids initially appear in 196 CE as a federation of Arab tribes roaming the western banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> who later made way into central and northern Syria, where they became part of the <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a> of the Romans. They rebelled against Roman authority in 378 CE under their queen, <a href="/wiki/Mavia_(queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mavia (queen)">Mavia</a>, who lead her forces into Palestine, Arabia and even the edges of Egypt, and also served as <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">auxiliaries</a> in the Roman army. </p><p>South of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus range</a> and in the region of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> were an Arab group ruled by a certain Aziz, who played an important role in the affairs of the last <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a>. To the east of Antioch was another Arab group that ruled in Chalcidice represented by the Rhambaei, Gambarus and Themella, who were ruled by way of various Arab princes, including a famous Alchaedamnus who fought against <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a>. Another Arab group or community was established in the <a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes river</a> valley, the <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene</a> Arabs who dominated <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Emesa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Rastan" title="Al-Rastan">Aresutha</a> until the 2nd century, and were involved in the affairs of late Seleucid monarchs under their chief Sempsigeramus. In <a href="/wiki/Al-Zabadani" title="Al-Zabadani">al-Zabadani</a> region close by the <a href="/wiki/Qalamoun_Mountains" title="Qalamoun Mountains">Qalamoun Mountains</a>, was an Arab group known as the <i>Zabadaioi</i> who came into conflict with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> (103–76 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Itureans</a>, another Arab group known since <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Bekaa_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Bekaa valley">Bekaa valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Lebanon" title="Southern Lebanon">Southern Lebanon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon mountains</a>, and from there they expanded their territories into the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> coast, <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Aurinitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lajat" title="Lajat">Trachonitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batanaea" title="Batanaea">Batanaea</a>, coming close to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In southern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Idumaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumaeans">Idumaeans</a> inhabited and became numerous in the area west of the Dead Sea, whose names comprised an admixture of <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a> names.<sup id="cite_ref-Shahid_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shahid-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arabs were also living in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> even in pre-<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> times, in the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> nome called Arabia, in <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Arsinoites</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shahid_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shahid-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_Mesopotamia">In Mesopotamia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In Mesopotamia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/220px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/330px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png/440px-Northern_Mesopotamian_vassal_kingdoms_AD_200.png 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="1606" /></a><figcaption>Approximate map of the kingdoms of Hatra, Edessa and Adiabene as vassals of the Parthians in Mesopotamia in 200 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>Further north, the <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroeni</a> Arabs were in possession of the city of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> which they had occupied and ruled since the 2nd century BC, and which they had continued to rule until the 3rd century CE. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Kingdom of Hatra</a> was similarly ruled by an Arab dynasty since the 2nd century CE, whose rulers assumed the title <i>malka</i> often in form of "King of the Arabs".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, who also included the Praetavi of Singara (present-day Sinjar, Iraq) reported by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, and the Arabs of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>. This elaborate Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanians</a>, who called the region <a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a>, meaning "land of the Arabs".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_kingdoms">Late kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kindites" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindites">Kindites</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tanukh_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/220px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/330px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tanukh_Map.svg/440px-Tanukh_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>Tanukhid territories in the Levant, Mesopotamia and Arabia in the 4th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Several Arab entities flourished during middle and <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late Antiquity</a>; these included kingdoms and confederations of tribes that dominated large swaths of land in the Arabian Peninsula, Levant and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakhmid_Kingdom.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lakhmid_Kingdom.png/220px-Lakhmid_Kingdom.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lakhmid_Kingdom.png/330px-Lakhmid_Kingdom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lakhmid_Kingdom.png/440px-Lakhmid_Kingdom.png 2x" data-file-width="1802" data-file-height="1501" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Lakhmid Kingdom in the 6th-century at its peak. Light green is Sasanian territory governed by the Lakhmids.</figcaption></figure> <p>In central Arabia and Iraq, the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> assumed leadership from the Tanukhids and established themselves as clients for the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> by 300 CE, ruling from their capital city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">Al-Hirah</a> and acting as a buffer between them and the Romans and unruly nomadic Arab tribes further south. Their <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanid</a> counterparts served the same purpose for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> after their settlement in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> likely between 250 and 300 CE. The Ghassanids were part of an influx from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> due to conflict between the <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabian</a> kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Qataban" title="Qataban">Qataban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaa</a> in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE; it's not clear whether or not Ghassanids originally spoke Arabic or a <a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic</a> language like the ones spoken in Yemen at the time. Upon their settlement in the Levant around 300 CE, the Ghassanids also became part of the <i>foederati</i>, along with several other Arab tribes in the region including <a href="/wiki/Banu_Amilah" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Amilah">Banu Amilah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Judham" title="Banu Judham">Banu Judham</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/220px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/330px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg/440px-Ghassanid_Kingdom_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Ghassanid kingdom in the 6th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "<a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a></i>, after the city of <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Magna" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia Magna">Arabia Magna</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kindite_Kingdom,_ca._500.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png/220px-Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png/330px-Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png/440px-Kindite_Kingdom%2C_ca._500.png 2x" data-file-width="1573" data-file-height="1270" /></a><figcaption>Approximate extent of the Kingdom of Kinda, c. 500</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kingdom of Kinda</a> was yet another Arab entity in central Arabia, established in 450 CE as a confederation of the <a href="/wiki/Ma%27ad_ibn_Adnan" title="Ma'ad ibn Adnan">Ma'ad</a> tribes ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Kinda_(tribe)" title="Kinda (tribe)">Kindites</a>. The Kindites originally migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids, where they had served as nomad <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries" title="Auxiliaries">auxiliaries</a> for the armies of the Sabaean and Himyarite kings,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but were turned back in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a> by the Abdul Qais <a href="/wiki/Rabi%60ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabi`ah">Rabi'a</a> tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kinda</a> in 540 after the fall of their main ally <a href="/wiki/Himyar" title="Himyar">Himyar</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> were destroyed by the Lakhmid king <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir</a>, and his son <a href="/wiki/%27Amr_III_ibn_al-Mundhir" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amr III ibn al-Mundhir">'Amr</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/220px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/330px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/440px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Age of the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a1584e; color:white;"> </span> Expansion under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, 622–632/A.H. 1–11</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ef9070; color:black;"> </span> Expansion during the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun Empire">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, 632–661/A.H. 11–40</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fad07d; color:black;"> </span> Expansion during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, 661–750/A.H. 40–129</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)"><span id="Rashidun_Caliphate_.28632.E2.80.93661.29"></span>Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></div> <p>United by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">their new faith</a> after the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in 632, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun armies</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">campaigns of conquest</a> of the surrounding territories controlled by the Sassanians and Romans, effectually establishing what is known in Islamic chronology as the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. The state was centered at the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, in particular in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> from 632 until 656 CE, when <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750_&_756–1031)"><span id="Umayyad_Caliphate_.28661.E2.80.93750_.26_756.E2.80.931031.29"></span>Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 & 756–1031)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 & 756–1031)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abbadid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbadid">Abbadid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/330px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/440px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan" title="Great Mosque of Kairouan">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> was founded in 670 by the Arab general <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a>; it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and represents an architectural testimony of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of North Africa">Arab conquest of North Africa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg/220px-Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg/330px-Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg/440px-Umayyad_Mosquee_panoramic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9924" data-file-height="2615" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, built in 715, is one of the oldest, largest and best preserved mosques in the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate shifted into the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Umayya" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Umayya">Umayyads</a>, who established their capital in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. The Umayyads derived most of their military from Arabs of Syria, and heavily sponsored poetry. They established garrison towns at <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, all of which developed into major cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunde_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunde-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reform greatly influenced the conquered non-Arab peoples and fueled the <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of the region. However, the Arabs' higher status among non-Arab Muslim converts and the latter's obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment. Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a> strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the disparity, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a> came to power and moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dome_of_the_Rock_III,_Jerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg/220px-Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg/330px-Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg/440px-Dome_of_the_Rock_III%2C_Jerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5128" data-file-height="3389" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, constructed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al Malik</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punics" class="mw-redirect" title="Punics">Punics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> and Romans. After the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia. Their last holding became known as the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a>. It was the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> architecture and the library of <a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4akam_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ḥakam II">Al-Ḥakam II</a> which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 AD, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a> was divided into small kingdoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1258_&_1261–1517)"><span id="Abbasid_Caliphate_.28750.E2.80.931258_.26_1261.E2.80.931517.29"></span>Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 & 1261–1517)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 & 1261–1517)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/170px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/255px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/340px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustansiriya University">Mustansiriya University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maqamat_hariri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/170px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/255px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/340px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Scholars at an Abbasid library in Baghdad. Maqamat of al-Hariri Illustration, 1237.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Abbasids were the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a>, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a> clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Battle of the Zab</a> effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunde_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunde-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to the newly founded city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. The Abbasids were influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'anic</a> injunctions and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "<a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بيت الحكمة</span>) in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyads</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> were also major intellectual centres with cities such as <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> rivaling <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vartan_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vartan-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/170px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/255px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/340px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1391" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> receiving a delegation sent by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when <a href="/wiki/Wilayah" title="Wilayah">Wilayas</a> began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">conquered Baghdad</a> in 1258 and killed the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a>. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk</a> generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatimid_Caliphate_(909–1171)"><span id="Fatimid_Caliphate_.28909.E2.80.931171.29"></span>Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg/170px-A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg/255px-A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg/340px-A_side_view_of_the_front_gate_of_Al_Azhar_mosque..jpg 2x" data-file-width="2825" data-file-height="4238" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a>, commissioned by the Fatimid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27izz_li-Din_Allah" title="Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah">Al-Mu'izz</a> for the newly established capital city of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in 969.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Fatimid caliphate was founded by <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah">al-Mahdi Billah</a>, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fatimah</a>, the daughter of Muhammad, in the early 10th century. Egypt was the political, cultural, and religious centre of the Fatimid empire. The Fatimid state took shape among the <a href="/wiki/Kutama" title="Kutama">Kutama</a> Berbers, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering <a href="/wiki/Raqqada" title="Raqqada">Raqqada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabid</a> capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of <a href="/wiki/Mahdia" title="Mahdia">Mahdia</a> as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to <a href="/wiki/Mansouria,_Tunisia" title="Mansouria, Tunisia">Al-Mansuriya</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> as the capital of their caliphate. </p><p>Intellectual life in Egypt during the Fatimid period achieved great progress and activity, due to many scholars who lived in or came to Egypt, as well as the number of books available. Fatimid Caliphs gave prominent positions to scholars in their courts, encouraged students, and established libraries in their palaces, so that scholars might expand their knowledge and reap benefits from the work of their predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-imamreza.net_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imamreza.net-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fatimids were also known for their exquisite arts. Many traces of <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid architecture</a> exist in Cairo today; the most defining examples include the <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_Mosque" title="Al-Hakim Mosque">Al-Hakim Mosque</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/220px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/330px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/440px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Arabesque pattern behind hunters on <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">ivory plaque</a>, 11th–12th century, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>It was not until the 11th century that the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> saw a large influx of ethnic Arabs. Starting with the 11th century, the Arab bedouin <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a> tribes migrated to the West. Having been sent by the <a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> to punish the Berber <a href="/wiki/Zirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zirids">Zirids</a> for abandoning <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shias</a>, they travelled westwards. The Banu Hilal quickly defeated the Zirids and deeply weakened the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Hammadid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammadid">Hammadids</a>. According to some modern historians, their influx was a major factor in the arabization of the Maghreb.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Berbers ruled the region until the 16th century (under such powerful dynasties as the <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Almohads" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hafsids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafsids">Hafsids</a>, etc.). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1299–1922/1923)"><span id="Under_the_Ottoman_Empire_.281299.E2.80.931922.2F1923.29"></span>Under the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922/1923)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Under the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922/1923)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:030Arab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/030Arab.jpg/220px-030Arab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/030Arab.jpg/330px-030Arab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/030Arab.jpg/440px-030Arab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Army">Arab Army</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian Desert</a> carrying the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1517 to 1918, much of the Arab world was under the suzerainty of the Turkish <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The Ottomans defeated the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Arabs did not feel the change of administration because the Ottomans modeled their rule after the previous Arab administration systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed <a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">al-Fatat</a> ("the Young Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Congress_of_1913" title="Arab Congress of 1913">Arab Congress of 1913</a> in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri166_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri166-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, former Ottoman colonies were divided up between the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> as <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandates</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Most Arabs in modern times live in the Arab world, which comprises 22 countries in <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>. All are all modern states and became significant as distinct political entities. There is also a large Arab diaspora worldwide following the fall, <a href="/wiki/Defeat_and_dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a>. </p><p>In 1948, Britain withdrew from Palestine and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Arab-Israeli_War_of_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab-Israeli War of 1948">war</a> caused nearly one million Arabs to flee to nearby countries.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events of 1948 are known to Palestinians as the <a href="/wiki/Nakba" title="Nakba">Nakba</a>, meaning "catastrophe." To this day, millions of Palestinians are still displaced from their homes and are unable to return.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1948 Arab Israeli war and subsequent conflicts due to antisemitism, pogroms, and state oppression, the vast majority of Jews in the Arab world would <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">migrate to Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There would be subsequent wars between Arab countries and Israel in <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">1956</a>, <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">1967</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">1967-1970</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">1973</a>, <a href="/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War" title="1982 Lebanon War">1982</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">2006</a>. </p><p>On March 22, 1945, the Arab League would be founded in Cairo, originally with only six but currently consisting of 21 member countries.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its goal is to foster cooperation between member countries.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Arab countries rely heavily on oil exports to fuel their economies. <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> founded OPEC on 14 September 1960 in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> OPEC would cease the export of oil to America after the 1973 <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> in an attempt to force America to stop supporting Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The abundance of oil in the Arab countries has directly and indirectly led to conflict and prevented Arab countries from diversifying their economies in what some economists calls the "<a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">paradox of plenty</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Cold War the Arab world would be fought over by the West and East, with both sides supporting and sending troops into various conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK would set up the Central Treaty Organization to serve as the Middle East equivalent of NATO in 1955 before it was disbanded in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011 the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> would begin in Tunisia and soon spread across the Arab world. During the Arab Spring many Arab countries underwent pro-democracy revolutions against their ruling governments.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would result in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as other conflicts. </p><p>In modern times an Arab diaspora of 50 million has been formed by emigrants from Arab countries.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Arabs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Historical Arab states and dynasties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arte_Alhambra_I_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg/375px-Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Arte_Alhambra_I_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3055" data-file-height="1258" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient Arab states</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Kingdom of Qedar</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 800 BC–300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lihyan" title="Lihyan">Kingdom of Lihyan</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 600 BC–100 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 400 BC–106 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Kingdom of Osroene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 132 BC–244 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 64 BC–300s AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Kingdom of Hatra</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 100s–241 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 196–1100 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 220–638 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 300s–500s AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 300s–602 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kingdom of Kinda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 450 AD–550 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Arab empires and caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 632–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 909–1171</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Eastern dynasties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Emirate of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 654–884</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Tbilisi" title="Emirate of Tbilisi">Emirate of Tbilisi</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 736–1122</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Emirate of Crete</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 824–961</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dulafid_dynasty" title="Dulafid dynasty"> Dulafids </a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 840–897</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Habbari_dynasty" title="Habbari dynasty">Habbarids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 854–1011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kaysites" title="Kaysites">Kaysites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 860–964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shirvanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirvanshah">Shirvanshah</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 861–1538</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 864–928</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hashimids_(Darband)" title="Hashimids (Darband)"> Hashimids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 869–1075</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 890–1004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 955–1071</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Mazyad" title="Banu Mazyad">Mazyadids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 961–1150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jarrahids" title="Jarrahids">Jarrahids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 970–1107</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 990–1096</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Numayrid_dynasty" title="Numayrid dynasty">Numayrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 990–1081</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1024–1080</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Munqidh" title="Banu Munqidh">Munqidhites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1025–1157</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ma%27n_dynasty" title="Ma'n dynasty">Ma'nids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1517–1697</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turabay_dynasty" title="Turabay dynasty">Turabays</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1480–1677</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harfush_dynasty" title="Harfush dynasty">Harfushs</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1517–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Shihabs</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1697–1842</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Western dynasties and caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Nekor" title="Emirate of Nekor">Salihids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">710–1019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fihrids" title="Fihrids">Fihrid Emirate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">745-757</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_state_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Umayyad state of Córdoba">Umayyad state of Córdoba</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">756–1031</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Muhallabids" title="Muhallabids">Muhallabids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">771–793</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">788–974</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">800–909</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sulaymanid_dynasty" title="Sulaymanid dynasty">Sulaymanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">814–922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">831–1091</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kanz" title="Banu Kanz">Kanzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1004–1412</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Salt%C3%A9s_and_Huelva" title="Taifa of Saltés and Huelva">Bakrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1012–1051</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Tujib" title="Banu Tujib">Tujibids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1013–1039</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Valencia" title="Taifa of Valencia"> Amirids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1020–1086</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Seville" title="Taifa of Seville">Abbadids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1023–1091</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Niebla" title="Taifa of Niebla">Yahsubids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1023–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_M%C3%A1laga" title="Taifa of Málaga">Hammudids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1026–1057</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Silves" title="Taifa of Silves">Muzaynids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1027–1063</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Taifa of Córdoba">Jawharids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1031–1091</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hud" title="Banu Hud">Hudids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1039–1110</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Sumadih" title="Banu Sumadih">Sumadihids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1041–1091</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Murcia" title="Taifa of Murcia">Tahirids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1049–1078</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Nasrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1230–1492</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saadi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi dynasty">Saadids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1554–1659</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Senussi" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi">Senussids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1837–1969</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Arabian Peninsula</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Oman_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Oman proper">Imamate of Oman</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 751–1970</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyadid_dynasty" title="Ziyadid dynasty">Ziyadids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 819–1138</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yufirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Yufirids">Yufirids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 847–997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ukhaidhir" title="Banu Ukhaidhir">Ukhaidhirds</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 865–1066</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rassids" class="mw-redirect" title="Rassids">Rassids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 897–1962</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 899–1077</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Wajihids" title="Wajihids">Wajihids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 926–965</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sharifate_of_Mecca" title="Sharifate of Mecca">Sharifate of Mecca</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 968–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sulayhid_dynasty" title="Sulayhid dynasty">Sulayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1047–1138</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sulaymanids" title="Sulaymanids">Sulaymanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1063–1174</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uyunid_Emirate" title="Uyunid Emirate">Uyunids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1076–1253</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zurayids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurayids">Zurayids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1083–1174</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nabhani_dynasty" title="Nabhani dynasty">Nabhanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1154–1624</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahdids" title="Mahdids">Mahdids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1159–1174</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rasulid_dynasty" title="Rasulid dynasty">Rasulids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1229–1454</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Usfurids" title="Usfurids">Usfurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1253–1320</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jarwanid_dynasty" title="Jarwanid dynasty">Jarwanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1305–1487</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kathiri" title="Kathiri">Kathirids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1395–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirids_(Yemen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirids (Yemen)">Tahirids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1454–1526</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jabrids" title="Jabrids">Jabrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1463–1521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rassids#The_Qasimid_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Rassids">Qasimids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1597–1872</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yaruba_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaruba dynasty">Ya'arubids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1624–1742</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Yafa" title="Upper Yafa">Upper Yafa</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1800–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Muscat and Oman</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1820–1970</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidi_dynasty" title="Rashidi dynasty">Rashidids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1836–1921</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qu%27aiti" title="Qu'aiti">Qu'aitids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1858–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Beihan" title="Emirate of Beihan">Emirate of Beihan</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1903–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir" title="Idrisid Emirate of Asir">Idrisids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1906–1934</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen">Mutawakkilite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1926–1970</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">East Africa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Showa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Showa">Makhzumi dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shewa" title="Shewa">Shewa</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 896–1279</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Pate" title="List of rulers of Pate">Nabahani dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pate_Island" title="Pate Island">Pate Island</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1203–1894</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Sultanate#Mahdali_era" title="Kilwa Sultanate">Mahdali dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kilwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilwa">Kilwa</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1277–1495</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mazrui" title="Mazrui">Mazrui dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1746–1828</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1856–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Witu" title="List of rulers of Witu">Nabahani dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Wituland</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1858–1895</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip%27s_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Tippu Tip's State">Tippu Tip's State</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1860–1887</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-left:0.5em;;color: var(--color-base)">Current monarchies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/%27Alawi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="'Alawi dynasty">'Alawis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1631–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al_Qasimi" title="Al Qasimi">Al Qasimi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ras_al_Khaymah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ras al Khaymah">Ras al Khaymah</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1727–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al_Qasimi" title="Al Qasimi">Al Qasimi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sharjah" title="Sharjah">Sharjah</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1727–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">Al Saud</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1744–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Busaid" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Busaid">Al Said</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1749–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Sabah" title="House of Sabah">Al Sabah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1752–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Nahyan" title="House of Nahyan">Al Nahyan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi" title="Emirate of Abu Dhabi">Abu Dhabi</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1761–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al_Mualla" title="Al Mualla">Al Mualla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Umm_al-Quwain" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Umm al-Quwain">Umm al-Quwain</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1775–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Khalifa" title="House of Khalifa">Al Khalifa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1783–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al_Nuaimi" title="Al Nuaimi">Al Nuaimi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Ajman" title="Emirate of Ajman">Ajman</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1810–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Maktoum" title="House of Maktoum">Al Maktoum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Dubai" title="Emirate of Dubai">Dubai</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1833–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Thani" title="House of Thani">Al Thani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1868–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al_Sharqi" title="Al Sharqi">Al Sharqi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Fujairah" title="Emirate of Fujairah">Fujairah</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1900–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1921–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFredrick_E._Greenspahn2005" class="citation book cs1">Fredrick E. Greenspahn (2005). "Ishmael". In Lindsay Jones (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0jMOAQAAMAAJ&q=Ishmael"><i>Encyclopedia of Religion</i></a>. Vol. 7. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 4551–4552. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865740-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865740-0"><bdi>978-0-02-865740-0</bdi></a>. <q>ISHMAEL, or, in Hebrew, Yishmaʿeʾl; eldest son of Abraham. Ishmael's mother was Agar, an Egyptian slave-girl whom Sarah had as her maid and eventually donated to Abraham because this royal couple were aged and childless but they were unaware then of God's plan and Israel; in accordance with Mesopotamian law, the offspring of such a union would be credited to Sarah (Gn. 16:2). The name Yishmaʿeʾl is known from various ancient Semitic cultures and means "God has hearkened," suggesting that a child so named was regarded as the answer to a request. Ishmael was circumcised at the age of thirteen by Abraham and expelled with his mother Agar at the instigation of Sarah, Abraham's wife, who wanted to ensure that Isaac would be Abraham's heir (Gn. 21). In the New Testament, Paul uses this incident to symbolize the relationship between Judaism and Christianity (Gal. 4:21–31). In the Genesis account, God blessed Ishmael, promising that he would be the founder of a great nation and a "wild ass of a man" always at odds with others (Gn. 16:12). So Abraham rose up in the morning, and taking bread and a bottle of water, put it upon her shoulder, and delivered the boy, and sent her away. And she departed, and wandered in the wilderness of Bersabee. [15] And when the water in the bottle was spent, she cast the boy under one of the trees that were there. Genesis chapter 21: [16] And she went her way, and sat over against him a great way off as far as a bow can carry, for she said: I will not see the boy die: and sitting over against, she lifted up her voice and wept. [17] And God heard the voice of the boy: and an angel of God called to Agar from heaven, saying: What art thou doing, Agar? fear not: for God hath heard the voice of the boy, from the place wherein he is. [18] Arise, take up the boy, and hold him by the hand: for I will make him a great nation. [19] And God opened her eyes: and she saw a well of water, and went and filled the bottle, and gave the boy to drink. [20] And God was with him: and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, and became a young man, an archer. [21] And he dwelt in the wilderness of Pharan, and his mother took a wife for him out of the land of Egypt. [22] At the same time Abimelech, and Phicol the general of his army said to Abraham: God is with thee in all that thou dost. [23] Swear therefore by God, that thou wilt not hurt me, nor my posterity, nor my stock: but according to the kindness that I have done to thee, thou shalt do to me, and to the land wherein thou hast lived a stranger. [24] And Abraham said: I will swear. [25] And he reproved Abimelech for a well of water, which his servants had taken away by force. [26] And Abimelech answered: I knew not who did this thing: and thou didst not tell me, and I heard not of it till today. [27] And Abraham took sheep and oxen and gave them to Abimelech: and both of them made a league. [28] And Abraham set apart seven ewe lambs of the flock. [29] And Abimelech said to him: What mean these seven ewe lambs which thou hast set apart? [30] But he said: Thou shalt take seven ewe lambs at my hand: that they may be a testimony for me, that I dug this well. [31] Therefore that place was called Bersabee: because there both of them did swear. [32] And they made a league for the well of oath. [33] And Abimelech, and Phicol the general of his army arose and returned to the land of the Palestines. But Abraham planted a grove in Bersabee, and there called upon the name of the Lord God eternal. [34] And he was a sojourner in the land of the Palestines many days. [Genesis 21:1-34]Douay Rheims Bible. He is credited with twelve sons, described as "princes according to their tribes" (Gn. 25:16), representing perhaps an ancient confederacy. The Ishmaelites, vagrant traders closely related to the Midianites, were apparently regarded as his descendants. The fact that Ishmael's wife and mother are both said to have been Egyptian suggests close ties between the Ishmaelites and Egypt. According to Genesis 25:17, Ishmael lived to the age of 137. Islamic tradition tends to ascribe a larger role to Ishmael than does the Bible. He is considered a prophet and, according to certain theologians, the offspring whom Abraham was commanded to sacrifice (although surah Judaism has generally regarded him as wicked, although repentance is also ascribed to him. According to some rabbinic traditions, his two wives were Aisha and Fatima, whose names are the same as those of Muhammad's wife and daughter Both Judaism and Islam see him as the ancestor of Arab peoples. Bibliography A survey of the Bible's patriarchal narratives can be found in Nahum M. Sarna's Understanding Genesis (New York, 1966). Postbiblical traditions, with reference to Christian and Islamic views, are collected in Louis Ginzberg's exhaustive Legends of the Jews, 2d ed., 2 vols., translated by Henrietta Szold and Paul Radin (Philadelphia, 2003). Frederick E. Greenspahn (1987 and 2005)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ishmael&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.pages=4551-4552&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865740-0&rft.au=Fredrick+E.+Greenspahn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0jMOAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DIshmael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoegelWheeler2010" class="citation book cs1">Noegel, Scott B.; Wheeler, Brannon M. (April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNAWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130"><i>The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-1895-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-1895-6"><bdi>978-1-4617-1895-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Prophets+in+Islam+and+Judaism&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2010-04&rft.isbn=978-1-4617-1895-6&rft.aulast=Noegel&rft.aufirst=Scott+B.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Brannon+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNAWAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.therefinersfire.org/ishmael_and_isaac.htm">"Ishmael and Isaac"</a>. <i>www.therefinersfire.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.therefinersfire.org&rft.atitle=Ishmael+and+Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.therefinersfire.org%2Fishmael_and_isaac.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CeObAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA156">"Arabian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Britannica Student Encyclopedia (A-Z Set)</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. January 2012. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61535-557-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61535-557-0"><bdi>978-1-61535-557-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabian+Peninsula&rft.btitle=Britannica+Student+Encyclopedia+%28A-Z+Set%29&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012-01&rft.isbn=978-1-61535-557-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCeObAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyland2001" class="citation book cs1">Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). <i>Arabia and the Arabs</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-76392-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-76392-0"><bdi>0-203-76392-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+and+the+Arabs&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-203-76392-0&rft.aulast=Hoyland&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur2001" class="citation book cs1">MacArthur, John F. (15 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P_tB-z8DH5wC&pg=PT15"><i>Terrorism, Jihad, and the Bible</i></a>. Thomas Nelson Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4185-1897-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4185-1897-4"><bdi>978-1-4185-1897-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terrorism%2C+Jihad%2C+and+the+Bible&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+Inc&rft.date=2001-12-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4185-1897-4&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP_tB-z8DH5wC%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab">"Arab people"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 3 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Arab+people&rft.date=2023-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FArab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2003" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Christina Phelps (2003). <i>The Syrian desert: caravans, travel and exploration</i>. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-136-19271-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-136-19271-9"><bdi>1-136-19271-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syrian+desert%3A+caravans%2C+travel+and+exploration&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-136-19271-9&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Christina+Phelps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161221031402/https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-rise-and-spread-of-islam-8/pre-islamic-arabia-42/the-nomadic-tribes-of-arabia-154-13223/">"The Nomadic Tribes of Arabia"</a>. <i>Boundless</i>. 2 October 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-rise-and-spread-of-islam-8/pre-islamic-arabia-42/the-nomadic-tribes-of-arabia-154-13223/">the original</a> on 21 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Boundless&rft.atitle=The+Nomadic+Tribes+of+Arabia&rft.date=2016-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boundless.com%2Fworld-history%2Ftextbooks%2Fboundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook%2Fthe-rise-and-spread-of-islam-8%2Fpre-islamic-arabia-42%2Fthe-nomadic-tribes-of-arabia-154-13223%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFelectricpulp.com" class="citation web cs1">electricpulp.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-i">"ʿARAB i. Arabs and Iran (pre-Islamic) – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. <i>www.iranicaonline.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=%CA%BFARAB+i.+Arabs+and+Iran+%28pre-Islamic%29+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.au=electricpulp.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farab-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthven2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruthven, Albert Hourani; with a new afterword by Malise (2010). <i>A history of the Arab peoples</i> (1st Harvard Press pbk. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05819-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05819-4"><bdi>978-0-674-05819-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Arab+peoples&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=1st+Harvard+Press+pbk.&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05819-4&rft.aulast=Ruthven&rft.aufirst=Albert+Hourani%3B+with+a+new+afterword+by+Malise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=bbv">"HISTORY OF MIGRATION"</a>. <i>www.historyworld.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historyworld.net&rft.atitle=HISTORY+OF+MIGRATION&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3FParagraphID%3Dbbv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower" class="citation web cs1">Power, Bethany G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160903042434/http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html">"The Emergence and Expansion of Islam to 1500"</a>. <i>University of Massachusetts</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html">the original</a> on 3 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Massachusetts&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+and+Expansion+of+Islam+to+1500&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Bethany+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.umass.edu%2Feduc613%2FWorldhistoryI%2FWHI.3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebh">"History of the Arabs (book)"</a>. <i>Historyworld.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historyworld.net&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Arabs+%28book%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3FParagraphID%3Debh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisChurchill2008" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard Ellis & Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVyMAvW9slYC&pg=PA137"><i>Islam: The Religion and the People</i></a>. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-271606-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-271606-2"><bdi>978-0-13-271606-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2017</span>. <q>At the time of the Prophet's birth and mission, the Arabic language was more or less confined to Arabia, a land of deserts, sprinkled with oases. Surrounding it on land on every side were the two rival empires of Persia and Byzantium. The countries of what now make up the Arab world were divided between the two of them—Iraq under Persian rule, Syria, Palestine, and North Africa part of the Byzantine Empire. They spoke a variety of different languages and were for the most part Christians, with some Jewish minorities. Their Arabization and Islamization took place with the vast expansion of Islam in the decades and centuries following the death of the Prophet in 632 CE. The Aramaic language, once dominant in the Fertile Crescent, survives in only a few remote villages and in the rituals of the Eastern churches. Coptic, the language of Christian Egypt before the Arab conquest, has been entirely replaced by Arabic except in the church liturgy. Some earlier languages have survived, notably Kurdish in Southwest Asia and Berber in North Africa, but Arabic, in one form or another, has in effect become the language of everyday speech as well as of government, commerce, and culture in what has come to be known as "the Arab world."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Religion+and+the+People&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-271606-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard+Ellis&rft.au=Churchill%2C+Buntzie+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIVyMAvW9slYC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141215204011/http://history-world.org/islam11.htm">"Islam, The Arab Empire Of The Umayyads"</a>. <i>history-world.org</i>. 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(2001). <i>Arabia and the Arabs</i>. 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Lyon, France: Société des Amis de la bibliothèque Salomon-Reinach/Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux (Fédération de recherche sur les sociétés anciennes): 310–340. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2496-7114">2496-7114</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Pers%C3%A9e_(web_portal)" title="Persée (web portal)">Persée</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Topoi&rft.atitle=Arabs+in+Syria%3A+Demography+and+epigraphy&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=Suppl.+4&rft.pages=310-340&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft.issn=2496-7114&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=David+Franck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Ftopoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Retso-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Retso_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Retso_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Retso_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Retso_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetso2013" class="citation book cs1">Retso, Jan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a9RN6gE8z40C"><i>The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87282-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87282-2"><bdi>978-1-136-87282-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+Antiquity%3A+Their+History+from+the+Assyrians+to+the+Umayyads&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87282-2&rft.aulast=Retso&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da9RN6gE8z40C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElayi2022" class="citation book cs1">Elayi, Josette (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ"><i>Tiglath-pileser III, Founder of the Assyrian Empire</i></a>. SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62837-430-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62837-430-8"><bdi>978-1-62837-430-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tiglath-pileser+III%2C+Founder+of+the+Assyrian+Empire&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-62837-430-8&rft.aulast=Elayi&rft.aufirst=Josette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwap5EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2015" class="citation book cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6X29BwAAQBAJ"><i>An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28982-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28982-6"><bdi>978-90-04-28982-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+the+Grammar+of+the+Safaitic+Inscriptions&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28982-6&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6X29BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryce_2014-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce_2014_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce_2014_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce2014" class="citation book cs1">Bryce, Trevor (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Syria: a three thousand year history</i></a>. Corby. pp. 278 & 359. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2"><bdi>978-0-19-100292-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/877868387">877868387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Syria%3A+a+three+thousand+year+history&rft.place=Corby&rft.pages=278+%26+359&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F877868387&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100292-2&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXno9AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetso2013" class="citation book cs1">Retso, Jan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a9RN6gE8z40C"><i>The Arabs in Antiquity Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87282-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87282-2"><bdi>978-1-136-87282-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+Antiquity+Their+History+from+the+Assyrians+to+the+Umayyads&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87282-2&rft.aulast=Retso&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da9RN6gE8z40C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: Volume 1, Part 1</i>, p. 449</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shahid-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shahid_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shahid_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahid1984" class="citation book cs1">Shahid, Irfan (1984). <i>Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs</i>. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 3–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-115-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-115-5"><bdi>978-0-88402-115-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabs%3A+A+Prolegomenon+to+the+Study+of+Byzantium+and+the+Arabs&rft.pages=3-6&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-115-5&rft.aulast=Shahid&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2013" class="citation journal cs1">de Jong, Albert (2013). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/18709085">"Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth"</a></span>. <i>Oriens et Occidens – Band 21</i>: 143–161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens+et+Occidens+%E2%80%93+Band+21&rft.atitle=Hatra+and+the+Parthian+Commonwealth&rft.pages=143-161&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=de+Jong&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F18709085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllerbrock2021" class="citation book cs1">Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pFEXEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire</i></a>. Oxford: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-48190-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-48190-2"><bdi>978-0-367-48190-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Parthians%3A+The+Forgotten+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-367-48190-2&rft.aulast=Ellerbrock&rft.aufirst=Uwe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFEXEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJullien2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jullien, Christelle (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-715?rskey=ib3kng&result=3">"Beth 'Arabaye"</a>. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Late_Antiquity" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity">The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8"><bdi>978-0-19-866277-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beth+%27Arabaye&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866277-8&rft.aulast=Jullien&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-715%3Frskey%3Dib3kng%26result%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html">"Dionysius Periegetes"</a>. <i>www.cartographic-images.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cartographic-images.net&rft.atitle=Dionysius+Periegetes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cartographic-images.net%2FCartographic_Images%2F117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeston1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._F._L._Beeston" class="mw-redirect" title="A. F. L. Beeston">Beeston, A. F. L.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Kinda+%E2%80%94+The+relations+of+Kinda+with+Saba+and+Himyar&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Kinda — The relations of Kinda with Saba and Himyar"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume V:<i> Khe–Mahi</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07819-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kinda+%E2%80%94+The+relations+of+Kinda+with+Saba+and+Himyar&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+V%3A+Khe%E2%80%93Mahi&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07819-2&rft.aulast=Beeston&rft.aufirst=A.+F.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DKinda%2B%25E2%2580%2594%2BThe%2Brelations%2Bof%2BKinda%2Bwith%2BSaba%2Band%2BHimyar%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarshater1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PR59">"Introduction"</a>. <i>The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods, Volume 1</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. lix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20092-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20092-X"><bdi>0-521-20092-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%3A+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian+and+Sasanid+Periods%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=lix&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-20092-X&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPR59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C. Edmund</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264"><i>Historic Cities of the Islamic World</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15388-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15388-2"><bdi>978-90-04-15388-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Cities+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15388-2&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUB4uSVt3ulUC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lunde-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lunde_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunde_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunde2002" class="citation book cs1">Lunde, Paul (2002). <i>Islam</i>. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing. pp. 50–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7894-8797-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7894-8797-7"><bdi>0-7894-8797-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=50-52&rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7894-8797-7&rft.aulast=Lunde&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Joseph Saunders, <i>A history of medieval Islam</i>, Routledge, 1965, page 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vartan-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vartan_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26–38 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-3283-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-3283-X">0-8157-3283-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-imamreza.net-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-imamreza.net_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Amin" class="citation web cs1">al-Amin, Hasan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574">"Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt"</a>. <i>Imam Reza</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574">the original</a> on 2010-06-16 – via Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imam+Reza&rft.atitle=Fatimid+Dynasty+in+Egypt&rft.aulast=al-Amin&rft.aufirst=Hasan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imamreza.net%2Feng%2Fimamreza.php%3Fid%3D574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2013" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (4 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&q=arabization+tribes+maghreb+banu+hilal&pg=PA668"><i>Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set</i></a>. Routledge. p. 668. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2"><bdi>978-1-135-45670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History+3-Volume+Set&rft.pages=668&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-07-04&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45670-2&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumyHqvAErOAC%26q%3Darabization%2Btribes%2Bmaghreb%2Bbanu%2Bhilal%26pg%3DPA668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJorisTengour2012" class="citation book cs1">Joris, Pierre; Tengour, Habib (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MVQlDQAAQBAJ&q=arabization+tribes+maghreb+banu+hilal&pg=PA42"><i>Poems for the Millennium, Volume Four: The University of California Book of North African Literature</i></a>. 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Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-1479-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-1479-8"><bdi>978-1-4422-1479-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fear+and+Faith+in+Paradise%3A+Exploring+Conflict+and+Religion+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2012-06-18&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-1479-8&rft.aulast=Karber&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D__lUxmzAZ08C%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Sharif2020" class="citation journal cs1">al-Sharif, Amine (2020-08-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/diasporas-a-global-and-vibrant-force-for-arab-democratization/">"Diasporas: A Global and Vibrant Force for Arab Democratization"</a>. <i>Arab Reform Initiative</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arab+Reform+Initiative&rft.atitle=Diasporas%3A+A+Global+and+Vibrant+Force+for+Arab+Democratization&rft.date=2020-08-11&rft.aulast=al-Sharif&rft.aufirst=Amine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arab-reform.net%2Fpublication%2Fdiasporas-a-global-and-vibrant-force-for-arab-democratization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Arabs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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