Printing-based assembly of quadruple-junction four-terminal microscale solar cells and their use in high-efficiency modules

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Now, a printing-based, scalable approach for the assembly of multi-junction solar cells in concentrator photovoltaic modules that reach a high power conversion efficiency is reported. Expenses associated with shipping, installation, land, regulatory compliance and on-going maintenance and operations of utility-scale photovoltaics can be significantly reduced by increasing the power conversion efficiency of solar modules1 through improved materials, device designs and strategies for light management2,3,4. Single-junction cells have performance constraints defined by their Shockley–Queisser limits5. Multi-junction cells6,7,8,9,10,11,12 can achieve higher efficiencies, but epitaxial and current matching requirements between the single junctions in the devices hinder progress. Mechanical stacking of independent multi-junction cells13,14,15,16,17,18,19 circumvents these disadvantages. Here we present a fabrication approach for the realization of mechanically assembled multi-junction cells using materials and techniques compatible with large-scale manufacturing. The strategy involves printing-based stacking of microscale solar cells, sol–gel processes for interlayers with advanced optical, electrical and thermal properties, together with unusual packaging techniques, electrical matching networks, and compact ultrahigh-concentration optics. 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class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Xing-Sheng-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Xing-Sheng-Aff1" data-author-search="Sheng, Xing">Xing Sheng</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup><sup class="u-js-hide"> <a href="#na1">na1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Christopher_A_-Bower-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Christopher_A_-Bower-Aff2" data-author-search="Bower, Christopher A.">Christopher A. Bower</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup><sup class="u-js-hide"> <a href="#na1">na1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Salvatore-Bonafede-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Salvatore-Bonafede-Aff2" data-author-search="Bonafede, Salvatore">Salvatore Bonafede</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-John_W_-Wilson-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-John_W_-Wilson-Aff2" data-author-search="Wilson, John W.">John W. Wilson</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Brent-Fisher-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Brent-Fisher-Aff2" data-author-search="Fisher, Brent">Brent Fisher</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Matthew-Meitl-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Matthew-Meitl-Aff2" data-author-search="Meitl, Matthew">Matthew Meitl</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Homan-Yuen-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Homan-Yuen-Aff3" data-author-search="Yuen, Homan">Homan Yuen</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Shuodao-Wang-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Shuodao-Wang-Aff1" data-author-search="Wang, Shuodao">Shuodao Wang</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Ling-Shen-Aff4" data-author-popup="auth-Ling-Shen-Aff4" data-author-search="Shen, Ling">Ling Shen</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Anthony_R_-Banks-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Anthony_R_-Banks-Aff5" data-author-search="Banks, Anthony R.">Anthony R. 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Nuzzo</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Scott-Burroughs-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Scott-Burroughs-Aff2" data-author-search="Burroughs, Scott" data-corresp-id="c1">Scott Burroughs<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 14 authors for this article" title="Show all 14 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-John_A_-Rogers-Aff1-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-John_A_-Rogers-Aff1-Aff6" data-author-search="Rogers, John A." data-corresp-id="c2">John A. Rogers<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/nmat" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature Materials</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 13</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">pages </span>593–598 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2014</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">8989 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">135 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">103 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/nmat3946/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/solar-cells" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Solar cells</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/solar-energy-and-photovoltaic-technology" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Solar energy and photovoltaic technology</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs2" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs2">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs2-content"><p>Expenses associated with shipping, installation, land, regulatory compliance and on-going maintenance and operations of utility-scale photovoltaics can be significantly reduced by increasing the power conversion efficiency of solar modules<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Breyer, C. & Gerlach, A. Global overview on grid-parity. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 21, 121–136 (2013)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e532">1</a></sup> through improved materials, device designs and strategies for light management<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Luque, A. & Hegedus, S. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering (Wiley, 2011)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e536">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Polman, A. & Atwater, H. A. Photonic design principles for ultrahigh-efficiency photovoltaics. Nature Mater. 11, 174–177 (2012)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e539">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y., Warta, W. & Dunlop, E. D. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 43). Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 22, 1–9 (2014)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e542">4</a></sup>. Single-junction cells have performance constraints defined by their Shockley–Queisser limits<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Shockley, W. & Queisser, H. J. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p–n junction solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 32, 510–519 (1961)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e546">5</a></sup>. Multi-junction cells<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Luque, A. Will we exceed 50% efficiency in photovoltaics? J. Appl. Phys. 110, 031301 (2011)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e550">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Derkacs, D., Jones-Albertus, R., Suarez, F. & Fidaner, O. Lattice-matched multijunction solar cells employing a 1 eV GaInNAsSb bottom cell. J. Photon. Energy 2, 021805 (2012)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e553">7</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="King, R. R. et al. 40% efficient metamorphic GaInP/GaInAs/Ge multijunction solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 183516 (2007)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e556">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Geisz, J. F. et al. High-efficiency GaInP/GaAs/InGaAs triple-junction solar cells grown inverted with a metamorphic bottom junction. Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 023502 (2007)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e559">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="King, R. R. et al. Band-gap-engineered architectures for high-efficiency multijunction concentrator solar cells. Proc. 24th Euro. Photovolt. Solar Energy Conf. 55–61 (2009)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e562">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Wojtczuk, S. et al. 42% 500X bi-facial growth concentrator cells. AIP Conf. Proc. 1407, 9–12 (2011)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e565">11</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Sasaki, K. et al. Development of InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs inverted triple junction concentrator solar cells. AIP Conf. Proc. 1556, 22–25 (2013)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e569">12</a></sup> can achieve higher efficiencies, but epitaxial and current matching requirements between the single junctions in the devices hinder progress. Mechanical stacking of independent multi-junction cells<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Tanabe, K., Watanabe, K. & Arakawa, Y. III-V/Si hybrid photonic devices by direct fusion bonding. Sci. Rep. 2, 349 (2012)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e573">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Derendorf, K. et al. Fabrication of GaInP/GaAs//Si solar cells by surface activated direct wafer bonding. IEEE J. Photovolt. 3, 1423–1428 (2013)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e576">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Dimroth, F. Wafer bonded four-junction GaInP/GaAs/GaInAsP/GaInAs concentrator solar cells with 44.7% efficiency. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 22, 277–282 (2014)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e579">15</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Gee, J. M. & Virshup, G. F. A 31% efficient GaAs/silicon mechanically stacked, multijunction concentrator solar cell. Proc. 20th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf. 1, 754–758 (1988)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e582">16</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Fraas, L. M. et al. Over 35% efficient GaAs/GaSb stacked concentrator cell assemblies for terrestrial applications. Proc. 21st IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf. 1, 190–195 (1990)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e585">17</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Takamoto, T. et al. InGaP/GaAs and InGaAs mechanically-stacked triple-junction solar cells. Proc. 26th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf. 1031–1034 (1997)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e588">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Zhao, L., Flamand, G. & Poortmans, J. Recent progress and spectral robustness study for mechanically stacked multi-junction solar cells. AIP Conf. Proc. 1277, 284–289 (2010)." href="/articles/nmat3946#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d59079928e592">19</a></sup> circumvents these disadvantages. Here we present a fabrication approach for the realization of mechanically assembled multi-junction cells using materials and techniques compatible with large-scale manufacturing. The strategy involves printing-based stacking of microscale solar cells, sol–gel processes for interlayers with advanced optical, electrical and thermal properties, together with unusual packaging techniques, electrical matching networks, and compact ultrahigh-concentration optics. We demonstrate quadruple-junction, four-terminal solar cells with measured efficiencies of 43.9% at concentrations exceeding 1,000 suns, and modules with efficiencies of 36.5%.</p></div></div></section> <noscript> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side " data-component="entitlement-box"> <div class="js-access-button"> <a href="https://wayf.springernature.com?redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnmat3946" class="c-article__button" data-test="ra21"> <svg class="u-icon" width="18" height="18" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-institution"></use></svg> <span class="c-article__button-text">Access through your institution</span> </a> </div> <div class="js-buy-button"> <a href="#access-options" class="c-article__button c-article__button--inverted" data-test="ra21"> <span>Buy or subscribe</span> </a> </div> </div> </noscript> <div class="js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile" data-track-context="article body"> </div> <div class="c-article-access-provider 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L.S. acknowledges support from China Scholarship Council. We thank J. Hu and Y. Zou for discussion on chalcogenide glasses, J. Soares for help on laser facilities, J. He for ray tracing modelling, and E. Chow for thermal imaging.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><span class="c-article-author-information__subtitle u-visually-hidden" id="author-notes">Author notes</span><ol class="c-article-author-information__list"><li class="c-article-author-information__item" id="na1"><p>Xing Sheng and Christopher A. Bower: These authors contributed equally to this work.</p></li></ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Xing Sheng, Shuodao Wang, Ralph G. Nuzzo & John A. Rogers</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Semprius, Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christopher A. Bower, Salvatore Bonafede, John W. Wilson, Brent Fisher, Matthew Meitl & Scott Burroughs</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Solar Junction, San Jose, California 95131, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Homan Yuen</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics, College of Sciences, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221116, China</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Ling Shen</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Anthony R. Banks</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christopher J. Corcoran, Ralph G. Nuzzo & John A. Rogers</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Xing-Sheng-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Xing Sheng</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Xing%20Sheng" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Xing%20Sheng" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Xing%20Sheng%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Christopher_A_-Bower-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Christopher A. 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X.S., C.A.B., J.W.W., B.F., L.S., A.R.B. and C.J.C. measured the data. X.S., B.F., M.M. and S.W. performed simulations. R.G.N., S.B. and J.A.R. provided guidance. X.S., C.A.B., M.M. and J.A.R. wrote the paper.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding authors</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:scott.burroughs@semprius.com">Scott Burroughs</a> or <a id="corresp-c2" href="mailto:jrogers@illinois.edu">John A. Rogers</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare that C.A.B., S.B., J.W.W., B.F., M.M., H.Y., S.B. and J.A.R. (affiliated with Semprius and Solar Junction) are involved in commercializing various technologies related to those described here. J.A.R. is a co-founder of Semprius.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Supplementary information"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec5">Supplementary information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div id="figshareContainer" class="c-article-figshare-container" data-test="figshare-container"></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM10"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary information" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fnmat3946/MediaObjects/41563_2014_BFnmat3946_MOESM10_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Supplementary Information</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Supplementary Information (PDF 1898 kb)</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=Printing-based%20assembly%20of%20quadruple-junction%20four-terminal%20microscale%20solar%20cells%20and%20their%20use%20in%20high-efficiency%20modules&author=Xing%20Sheng%20et%20al&contentID=10.1038%2Fnmat3946&copyright=Springer%20Nature%20Limited&publication=1476-1122&publicationDate=2014-04-28&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="u-hide-print c-bibliographic-information__column c-bibliographic-information__column--border"><a data-crossmark="10.1038/nmat3946" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1038/nmat3946" data-track="click" data-track-action="Click Crossmark" data-track-label="link" data-test="crossmark"><img loading="lazy" width="57" height="81" alt="Check for updates. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Sheng, X., Bower, C., Bonafede, S. <i>et al.</i> Printing-based assembly of quadruple-junction four-terminal microscale solar cells and their use in high-efficiency modules. <i>Nature Mater</i> <b>13</b>, 593–598 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat3946</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/nmat3946?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li 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