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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> 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#DAA520"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFE4B5;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#e67e00">Part of</span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Early_Buddhism" title="Category:Early Buddhism">a series</a> <span class="tmp-color" style="color:#e67e00">on</span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFE4B5;">Early <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/100px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/150px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/200px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts#Texts_of_the_Early_schools" title="Buddhist texts">Scriptures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a> (EBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran EBTs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81timok%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prātimokṣa">Prātimokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jatakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avadana" title="Avadana">Avadanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a></li> <li>Tibetan EBTs in the <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Early sangha</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81riputta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sāriputta">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81moggall%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāmoggallāna">Mahāmoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakasyapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahakasyapa">Mahakasyapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākātyāyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anathapindika" title="Anathapindika">Anāthapiṇḍika</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Kingdom of Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moggaliputtatissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Moggaliputtatissa">Moggaliputtatissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 10em"> <div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekavy%C4%81vah%C4%81rika" title="Ekavyāvahārika">Ekavyāvahārika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gokulika" class="mw-redirect" title="Gokulika">Gokulika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahu%C5%9Brut%C4%ABya" title="Bahuśrutīya">Bahuśrutīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caitika" title="Caitika">Caitika</a></li> <li>(Haimavata)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthaviras</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a> <ul><li>Vātsīputrīya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83mit%C4%ABya" class="mw-redirect" title="Saṃmitīya">Saṃmitīya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> <ul><li>(Haimavata)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" title="Kāśyapīya">Kāśyapīya</a>)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>) <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mulasarvastivada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamrashatiya" title="Tamrashatiya">Tambapaṇṇiya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" title="Kāśyapīya">Kāśyapīya</a>)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>) <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Buddhism" title="Template:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Early Buddhist texts</b> (<b>EBTs</b>), <b>early Buddhist literature</b> or <b>early Buddhist discourses</b> are parallel texts shared by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a>, as well as the corresponding Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some scholars have also pointed out that some <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> material, like the <a href="/wiki/Patimokkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patimokkha">Patimokkhas</a> of the different Buddhist schools, as well as some material from the earliest <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> texts could also be quite early.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the large collections in <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> and Chinese, there are also fragmentary collections of EBT materials in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a>. The modern study of early <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a> often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various scholars of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a>, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne and <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a> hold that Early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> himself or at least to the early years of <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Japanese scholar Akira Hirakawa, "any attempt to ascertain the original teachings of the historical Buddha must be based on this literature."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a>" texts and are not considered Mahayana works.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different genres comprise the Early Buddhist texts, including prose "<a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Sutta Piṭaka">suttas</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i>sūtra</i>, discourses), monastic rules (<i><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></i>), various forms of verse compositions (such as <a href="/wiki/Gatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gatha">gāthā</a> and <a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana">udāna</a>), mixed prose and verse works (<i>geya</i>), and also lists (<i>matika</i>) of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre, these are usually placed in different collections (called <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikayas</a> or <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a>) and constitute the "Sutta Pitaka" (Skt: Sūtra Pitaka, "Basket of sutras") section of the various early Buddhist Canonical collections called <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripitakas</a> ("Three Baskets"). The suttas generally contain doctrinal, spiritual and philosophical content. </p><p>There are EBTs from various Buddhist schools, especially from the Theravada and <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> schools, but also from the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṅghika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a>, and other texts of uncertain prominence.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Oskar_von_Hin%C3%BCber" title="Oskar von Hinüber">Oskar von Hinüber</a> the main purpose for the composition of the EBTs was to "preserve and to defend an orthodox tradition." He adds that this literary effort was influenced by the Vedic prose of the <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hma%E1%B9%87as" class="mw-redirect" title="Brāhmaṇas">Brāhmaṇas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As noted by <a href="/wiki/Oskar_von_Hin%C3%BCber" title="Oskar von Hinüber">von Hinüber</a>, these collections also contain the first ever Indian texts to commemorate historical events, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahaparinibbana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinibbana Sutta">Mahāparinibbānasuttanta</a>,</i> which recounts the death of the Buddha. The early suttas also almost always open by introducing the geographical location of the event they depict, including ancient place names, always preceded by the phrase "thus have I heard" (<i>evaṃ me sutaṃ</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The textual evidence from various traditions shows that by the 1st century BCE to the fourth century CE, slight differences developed among these parallel documents and that these differences reflected "school affiliation, local traditions, linguistic environment, nonstandardized scripts, or any combination of these factors."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orality">Orality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Orality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These texts were initially transmitted through <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral methods</a>. According to Marcus Bingenheimer, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>After the death of the founder, Buddhist texts were transmitted orally in Middle Indo-Aryan dialects (Prakrits). While the southern tradition eventually settled on one of these dialects, Pāli, as its canonical language, in India and Central Asia Buddhist texts were successively Sanskritized and/or translated into other languages such as Chinese, Tokharian, Khotanese, Sogdian, and Tibetan. Also, new Buddhist texts in India, from at least the third century onward, were directly composed in standard Sanskrit. Manuscripts from the northern tradition, especially those of Central Asian provenance, are therefore often in Prakrit (especially Gāndhārī) or some nonstandard form of Sanskrit, sometimes called Buddhist Sanskrit, an intermediate stage between some Prakrit and standard Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As noted by Mark Allon there are various reasons why these texts are held to have been transmitted orally by modern scholars. These include internal evidence from the texts themselves which indicates that they were to be memorized and recited, the lack of any evidence (whether archeological or internal to the texts) that writing was being used to preserve these texts and the stylistic features of the texts themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important feature that marks the Early Buddhist texts are formal characteristics which reflect their origin as orally transmitted literature such as the use of repetition and rhetorical formulas.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other stylistic features which betray orality include: the use of multiple synonyms, standardized phrases and passages, verse summaries similies, numbered lists and standard framing narratives.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These stylistic features are in contrast to later works such as <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a>, which contain more elaborate and complex narratives, that would be more difficult to memorize. Also, the EBTs are always historically situated in ancient Indian locales, unlike many later Mahayana works, which depict themselves as being taught by the Buddha in heavenly realms or other supernatural circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Buddhist texts are believed to have been transmitted by lineages of <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81%E1%B9%87aka" title="Bhāṇaka">bhāṇaka</a>, monks who specialized in memorization and recitation of particular collections of texts,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until they were eventually recorded in writing after the 1st Century BCE. As noted by Alexander Wynne: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Although there is no evidence for writing before Aśoka, the accuracy of oral transmission should not be underestimated. The Buddhist community was full of <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a> who knew that the Vedic educational system had transmitted a mass of difficult texts, verbatim, in an increasingly archaic language, for more than a thousand years. Since the early Buddhists required a different means of oral transmission, for quite different texts, other <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic techniques</a> were developed, based on communal chanting (saṅgīti). The texts explicitly state that this method was to be employed, and their actual form shows that it was, on a grand scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some scholars such as Wynne and <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Analayo</a> generally hold that these texts were memorized in fixed form, to be recited verbatim (in contrast to other forms of oral literature, such as <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>) and that this was affirmed during communal recitations (where there is little room for improvisation), while others argue that they could have been performed in more poetic and improvisational ways (<a href="/wiki/L._S._Cousins" title="L. S. Cousins">L.S. Cousins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Gethin" title="Rupert Gethin">Rupert Gethin</a>) through the use of basic lists or formulas.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The EBTs also show the influence of <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic texts</a>, including the adoption of certain Vedic poetic metres, as well as forms of organization (using topic and number). EBTs share similar terminology and ideas with Vedic texts.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also share certain metaphors and imagery with texts like the <i><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad</a></i>, such as the single salty taste of the ocean (AN 8.157 vs. <i>Bṛhadāraṇyaka</i> 2.4.11).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Setting_and_date">Setting and date</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Setting and date"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/250px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/375px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/500px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Gangetic plain during the pre-Nanda era</figcaption></figure> <p>Regarding the setting, the EBTs generally depict the world of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Urbanisation">second urbanisation period</a>, which features small scale towns and villages, and small competing states (the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">mahajanapadas</a>) with a lower level of urbanisation compared to that of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the EBTs depict the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Gangetic Plain</a> before the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda empire</a>, who unified all these small competing states during the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They also depict <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a> as the small village of <i>Pataligama</i>, while it would later become the capital of the Mauryan empire and the largest city in India.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do not mention <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> but they mention the Jain leader <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (a.k.a. <i>Nātaputta</i>) as a contemporary of the Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The EBTs also depict a small scale local economy, during a time before the establishment of the long-distance trading networks, as noted by Brahmali and <a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>King Pasenadi of Kosala is said to have used kāsi sandalwood (MN 87.28), indicating that even the highest social strata used locally produced luxuries. This situation is perhaps to be expected given the political divisions in North India at the time, which may have complicated long-distance trade.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As noted by <a href="/wiki/Oskar_von_Hin%C3%BCber" title="Oskar von Hinüber">von Hinüber</a>, the omission of any mention of the Mauryas in EBTs such as the <i>Mahāparinibbānasuttanta</i>, in contrast to other later Buddhist texts which do mention them, is also evidence of its pre-Mauryan date: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Given the importance of the rise of the Maurya empire even under <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Candragupta</a>, who is better known for his inclination towards Jainism, one might conjecture that the latest date for the composition of the <i>Mahāparinibbānasuttanta</i>, at least for this part of it, is around 350 to 320 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>According to Alexander Wynne,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The corresponding pieces of textual material found in the canons of the different sects... probably go back to pre-sectarian times. It is unlikely that these correspondences could have been produced by the joint endeavour of different Buddhist sects, for such an undertaking would have required organisation on a scale which was simply inconceivable in the ancient world.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archeology">Archeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Archeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhabru_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Bhabru_inscription.jpg/250px-Bhabru_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Bhabru_inscription.jpg/375px-Bhabru_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Bhabru_inscription.jpg/500px-Bhabru_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>Ashoka Minor Rock Edict No. 3</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a> are some of the earliest Indian historical documents and they agree with the EBTs in some respects. </p><p>According to Sujato, the MPE 2 (Sārnāth) edict makes use of various EBT specific terms such as: "bhikhusaṁgha, bhikhuni-saṁgha, sāsana, upāsaka, anuposatha, saṁgha bheta, saṁgha samaga (Sāñcī version), cila-thitīka (Sāñcī)."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sujato also notes that the RE 5 (Kālsī) edict states: “Good deeds are difficult to perform,” “bad acts are easy to commit”, which could be a quote from the <a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana">Udana</a> (5:8). Likewise, the RE 9 (Girnār) edict states “there is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma”, which could be a quote from the EBTs (see <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85guttara_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Aṅguttara Nikāya">AN</a> 9:5 or <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhp</a> 354).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A. Wynne notes that <a href="/wiki/Minor_Rock_Edicts#Full_texts_of_the_Minor_Rock_Edicts" title="Minor Rock Edicts">Minor Rock Edict #3</a> mentions some Buddhist texts which have been identified and which might show that at the time of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> (304–232 BCE) these were already fixed.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These citations include the "<i>Rāhulāvada</i>", which could refer to the <i>Ambalaṭṭhikā Rāhulovāda Sutta</i> (MN 61)<i>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some early archeological sites like the <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut stupa</a> (most visible material dates from the 1st or 2nd century BCE) contain many details from the EBTs such as: the mention of Buddha Gotama and all five past Buddhas of the EBTs, as well as kings Ajātasatru and Pasenadi. Major events from the Buddha's life from the EBTs are mentioned such as his awakening, the first teaching and his death.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lüders “… the visit of Ajātasattu [to the Buddha] is depicted even in details exactly according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Sama%C3%B1%C3%B1aphala_Sutta" title="Samaññaphala Sutta">Sāmaññaphala Sutta</a></i>,” and “… the representation of the visit of Sakka follows the text of the <i>Sakkapañha Sutta</i>.”<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Indian inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE include terms such as <i>dhamma-kathika</i>, <i>peṭakin</i>, and <i>suttantika</i>, indicating the existence of a Buddhist literature during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extant_material">Extant material</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extant material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg/220px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg/330px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg/440px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="4051" /></a><figcaption>Burmese-Pali <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm-leaf manuscript</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Most modern scholarship has generally focused on the Pāli Nikāyas (which have been fully translated into Western languages) and the Chinese Āgamas (only partially translated). As early as the late 19th century, it was known that the Nikāyas and the Āgamas contain a great number of parallel texts. In 1882, Samuel Beal published his <i>Buddhist Literature in China</i>, where he wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mahaparinibbana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinibbana Sutta">Parinibbāna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brahmajala_Sutta_(Theravada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmajala Sutta (Theravada)">Brahmajāla</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sigalovada_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigalovada Sutta">Sigalovada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dhammacakka</a>, the Kasi-Bhāradvadja, the <a href="/wiki/Mangala_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangala Sutta">Mahāmangala</a>; all these I have found and compared with translations from the Pali, and find that in the main they are identical. I do not say literally the same; they differ in minor points, but are identical in plot and all important details. And when the Vinaya and Āgama collections are thoroughly examined, I can have little doubt we shall find most if not all the Pali suttas in a Chinese form.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the 20th century various scholars including Anesaki Masaharu and <a href="/wiki/Chizen_Akanuma" title="Chizen Akanuma">Akanuma Chizen</a> began critical studies of these correspondences. Probably the most important early works in the comparative study of these two collections are Anesaki's <i>The Four Buddhist Āgamas in Chinese – A Concordance of their Parts and of the Corresponding Counterparts in the Pāli Nikāyas</i> and Akanuma's <i>The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over time this comparative study of these parallel Buddhist texts became incorporated into modern scholarship on Buddhism, such as in the work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte" title="Étienne Lamotte">Etienne Lamotte</a> (1988), who commented on their close relationship: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>However, with the exception of the Mahāyanist interpolations in the <a href="/wiki/Ekottara_Agama" title="Ekottara Agama">Ekottara</a>, which are easily discernable, the variations in question [between the Nikāyas and Āgamas] affect hardly anything save the method of expression or the arrangement of the subjects. The doctrinal basis common to the Nikāyas and Āgamas is remarkably uniform. Preserved and transmitted by the schools, the sūtras do not, however, constitute scholastic documents, but are the common heritage of all the sects.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Bhiksu Thich Minh Chau (1918– 2012) conducted a comparative study (1991) of the contents in the Theravada <i>Majjhima Nikaya</i> and Sarvastivada <i>Madhyama Agama</i> and concluded that despite some differences in technical and practical issues, there was a striking agreement in doctrinal matters.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent study by <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Bhikkhu Analayo</a> also agrees with this position. Analayo argues the Majjhima Nikaya and Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent work has also been done on other more fragmentary materials surviving in Sanskrit, Tibetan and <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandhāran</a> collections. Andrew Glass has compared a small number of Gandhāran sutras with their Tibetan, Pali, Sanskrit and Chinese parallels and concludes that there is a unity in their doctrines, despite some technical differences.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some Asian scholars like <a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a>, Mizuno Kogen and Mun-Keat Choong, the common ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83yutta_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Saṃyutta Nikāya">Samyutta Nikaya</a> and the Samyukta Agama is the basis for the other EBTs.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pāli_EBTs"><span id="P.C4.81li_EBTs"></span>Pāli EBTs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pāli EBTs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg/220px-TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg/330px-TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg/440px-TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1182" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Gold Plates containing fragments of the Pali Tipitaka (5th century) found in Maunggan (a village near the city of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Ksetra_Kingdom" title="Sri Ksetra Kingdom">Sriksetra</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pāli Canon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school contains the most complete fully extant collection of EBTs in an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indic language</a> which has survived until today.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Theravada tradition, after having been passed down orally, it was first written down in the first century BCE in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Schopen" title="Gregory Schopen">Gregory Schopen</a> are skeptical of the antiquity of the Pali texts, Alexander Wynne notes that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Canonical fragments are included in the Golden Pāli Text, found in a reliquary from Śrī kṣetra dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD; they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that the Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years. There is no reason why such an accurate transmission should not be projected back a number of centuries, at the least to the period when it was written down in the first century BC, and probably further.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Early Buddhist material in the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pāli Canon</a> mainly consists of the first four Pāli <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāyas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patimokkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patimokkha">Patimokkha</a> (basic list of monastic rules) and other <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> material as well as some parts of the <a href="/wiki/Khuddaka_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Khuddaka Nikāya">Khuddaka Nikāya</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Nipata" title="Sutta Nipata">Sutta Nipata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itivuttaka" title="Itivuttaka">Itivuttaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therigatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Therigatha">Therigatha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theragatha" title="Theragatha">Theragatha</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana">Udana</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These texts have been widely translated into Western languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_EBTs">Chinese EBTs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chinese EBTs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The EBTs preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a> include the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>, collections of sutras which parallel the Pali Nikāyas in content as well as structure.<sup id="cite_ref-parallels2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parallels2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also some differences between the discourses and collections as modern comparative studies has shown, such as omissions of material, additions and shifts in the location of phrases.<sup id="cite_ref-parallels2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parallels2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These various Agamas possibly come down to us from the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> (the Samyukta and <a href="/wiki/Madhyama_Agama" title="Madhyama Agama">Madhyama Agamas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" title="Kāśyapīya">Kasyayipa</a> schools.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahasamghika</a> Vinaya Pitaka also survives in Chinese translation.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the Agamas have been translated into English by the Āgama Research Group (ARG) at the <a href="/wiki/Dharma_Drum_Mountain" title="Dharma Drum Mountain">Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The language of these texts is a form of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Ancient Chinese</a> termed Buddhist Chinese (<i>fójiào Hànyǔ</i> 佛教漢語) or Buddhist Hybrid Chinese (<i>fójiào hùnhé Hànyǔ</i> 佛教混合漢語) which shows considerable <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacularity</a>. Buddhist Chinese also shows a significant number of elements which derive from the source language, including <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> and phonological transcriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholarly analysis of these texts have shown that they were translated from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> source languages, with varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">sanskritisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the other Chinese Agamas are mostly doctrinally consistent with the Pali Nikayas, the <a href="/wiki/Ekottara_Agama" title="Ekottara Agama">Ekottara Agama</a> (EA) has been seen by various scholars such as Johannes Bronkhorst and <a href="/wiki/Etienne_Lamotte" class="mw-redirect" title="Etienne Lamotte">Etienne Lamotte</a> as being influenced by later <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lamotte, these 'interpolations' are easily discernible.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Analayo, the most often proposed hypothesis is that the EA derives from the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahasamgika</a> school.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gandhari_and_Bactrian_EBTs">Gandhari and Bactrian EBTs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gandhari and Bactrian EBTs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_(1st_C),_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/220px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/330px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/440px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Gandhara birchbark scroll fragments (c. 1st century) from British Library Collection</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern discoveries of various fragmentary manuscript collections (the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> has contributed significantly to the study of Early Buddhist texts. </p><p>Most of these texts are written in the <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari Language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharoṣṭhī script</a>, but some have also been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Mark Allon, the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a> contain several EBTs which parallel those found in other collections "such as the <i>Ekottarikāgama</i> and <i>Vana-saṃyutta</i> of the <i>Saṃyutta-nikāya</i>/<i>Saṃyuktāgama."</i><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These texts include a parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Anattalakkhana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anattalakkhana Sutta">Anattalakkhana Sutta</a>, possibly belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school. A few publications have translated some of these texts.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Mark Allon, the most recent major finds include the following collections:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>"The British Library Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts", Birch bark scrolls in the Gandhari Language and the Kharoṣṭhī script, possibly belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school. They include prose sutras and verse works like parts of the <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dharmapada</a> dating to the 1st century CE, making them the earliest EBT manuscripts discovered.</li> <li>"The Senior Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts", Birch bark scrolls in the Gandhari Language and the Kharoṣṭhī script, possibly belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school. Most of these preserve "canonical" prose sutras, as well as some biographical material on the Buddha's life associated with the Vinaya.</li> <li>"The <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B8yen_Collection" title="Schøyen Collection">Schøyen</a> Manuscripts", discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamiyan</a> caves, a collection which preserves Early Buddhist, Abhidharma and Mahayana texts in either Sanskrit or Gandhari.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanskrit_EBTs">Sanskrit EBTs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sanskrit EBTs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Mark Allon, an important recent find is "a substantial portion of a large Sanskrit birch bark manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABrgh%C4%81gama" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīrghāgama"><i>Dirghagama</i></a>, the division of the canon containing long discourses, belonging to the (Mula)-Sarvastivada school, which dates to the seventh or eighth centuries AD".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This Gilgit <a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABrgha_%C4%80gama" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīrgha Āgama">Dīrgha Āgama</a> contains forty-seven discourses. This includes some sutras not found in Pali at all, like the <i>Māyājāla sutra</i>, the <i>Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra</i> and the <i>Arthavistara-sūtra</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Arthaviniscaya_Sutra" title="Arthaviniscaya Sutra">Arthaviniścaya Sūtra</a></i> is a composite text which is mainly made up of early Buddhist material organized into an Abhidharma type list.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sanskrit fragments of different early Buddhist Agamas also survive from various sources, including from the archaeological finds in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a>. These finds include versions of a Sanskrit <i><a href="/wiki/Udanavarga" title="Udanavarga">Udanavarga</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Sanskrit Agama texts include the (non-Mahayana) <i>Mahāparinirvāṇasutra,</i> and the <i>Pratītyasamutpādādivibhaṅganirdeśa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various Vinaya texts also survive in Sanskrit, including Vinaya texts from the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya and the <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a> Vinaya.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a>,</i> though including much later additions, also includes some EBT parallel passages, including passages on the first sermon at Varanasi.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāsāṃghika_sources"><span id="Mah.C4.81s.C4.81.E1.B9.83ghika_sources"></span>Mahāsāṃghika sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mahāsāṃghika sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first schism among the Buddhist community was between the so-called <a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthaviras</a> ("Elders") and the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> ("Great Community"). Some scholars such as Edward Conze have thus emphasized the importance of EBTs that have parallels in both Sthavira and Mahāsāṅghika sources.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, fewer Mahāsāṃghika texts have survived in comparison to Sthavira material. </p><p>One important source for Mahāsāṃghika EBTs is the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></i> ("Great Event"). This is a mythic life of the Buddha which includes many legendary tales but also includes various EBTs parallels.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also fragments of the Mahāparinirvāṇa and Caṁgi (Pali: Caṅki) sutras of the Mahāsāṃghika dating to the 3rd–4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a> (rice stalk sūtra)</i> is an early Buddhist text which has been tied to the Mahāsāṃghika school, it contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the Sthavira EBTs such as <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">middle way</a>" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "<a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a>", the "<a href="/wiki/Three_poisons" title="Three poisons">three unwholesome roots</a>", the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">four noble truths</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">noble eightfold path</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also various Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya texts which contain early material, including their <i><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81timok%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prātimokṣa">Prātimokṣa</a></i> monastic code, which is almost identical with Sthavira pātimokkhas.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese <i><a href="/wiki/Ekottara_Agama" title="Ekottara Agama">Ekottara Āgama</a></i> (增壹阿含經; pinyin: <i>zēngyī-ahánjīng</i>) has been attributed to the Mahāsāṃghikas by various scholars, though this attribution remains uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abhidharma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The various <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> texts and collections (<i>Pitakas</i>) are considered by scholars to be (mostly) later material (3rd century BCE onwards) and thus are not EBTs.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of the relative lateness of the Abhidharma works, according to scholars like <a href="/wiki/Erich_Frauwallner" title="Erich Frauwallner">Erich Frauwallner</a>, there are kernels of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest layer of the Abhidharma literature, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Vibhanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibhanga">Vibhanga</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Dharmaskandha" title="Dharmaskandha">Dharmaskandha</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputr%C4%81bhidharma" title="Śāriputrābhidharma">Śāriputrābhidharma</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school. According to Frauwallner's comparative study, these texts were possibly developed and "constructed from the same material", mainly early Buddhist doctrinal lists (Pali: <i>mātikā</i>, Sanskrit: <i>mātṛkā</i>) which forms the "ancient core" of early Abhidharma.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrative_genres">Narrative genres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Narrative genres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some narrative texts which discuss the past lives of the Buddha and other figures, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jatakas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avadana" title="Avadana">Avadanas</a>, could also be considered early Buddhist texts. According to Peter Skilling, the Jataka genre is "one of the oldest classes of Buddhist literature."<sup id="cite_ref-:7_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sarah Shaw writes that the earliest part of the Pali Jātakas, the verse portions, are "considered amongst the very earliest part of the Pali tradition and date from the fifth century BCE."<sup id="cite_ref-:11_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Jataka" appears as part of an ancient schema of Buddhist literature called the nine genres of the Buddha's teaching (<i>navaṅga-buddhasāsana</i>), and depictions of them appear in early <a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian art</a> and inscriptions (as early as the second century B.C.E.) seen in sites such as <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:15_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Martin Straube, while these narratives cannot be dated in a precise manner, "the fact that many narratives are passed on in almost identical form within the canons of the different schools shows that they date back to the time before the <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schisms</a> between the schools took place."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a>, jātakas are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated332_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated332-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are various EBTs collected in the Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a>. Peter Skilling has published English translations of these texts in his two volume "<i>Mahasutras</i>" (Pāli Text Society, 1994). According to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://read.84000.co/section/O1JC114941JC14668.html">84000.co</a>, a site of Tibetan Canon translations, the Degé <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a> catalogue states that sutras Toh 287-359 of the General Sutra section are "<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a>" works "probably extracted from the Āgamas of the <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a>". </p><p>Another important source of early Buddhist material in the Tibetan canon are numerous quotations by Śamathadeva in his <i>Abhidharmakośopāyikā-ṭīkā</i> (Derge no. 4094 / Peking no. 5595), a commentary to the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmakosha" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakosha">Abhidharmakosha</a></i>. Some of this material is available in English translation by Bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> treatises also sometimes quote EBTs. According to <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte" title="Étienne Lamotte">Etienne Lamotte</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81upade%C5%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa">Dà zhìdù lùn</a></i> cites "about a hundred sūtras of the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesser Vehicle">Lesser Vehicle</a>; the majority are borrowed from the Āgama collections."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massive <i><a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81rabh%C5%ABmi-%C5%9B%C4%81stra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra">Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</a></i> contains a section titled <i>Vastusaṃgrahaṇī</i> (Compendium of Themes) which includes summaries of key topics found in each sutra of the <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)#Saṃyukta_Āgama" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Samyukta-āgama</a>,</i> as well as the topics of the <i>Vinaya</i> and doctrinal lists (Mātṛka).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous sutra quotations by authors of <a href="/wiki/Sautrantika" class="mw-redirect" title="Sautrantika">Sautrantika</a> treatises are also a source of EBT fragments. The Sautrantika school was known for focusing on using examples from and references to EBT sutras. These works include Kumaralata's <i>Drstantapankti</i>, the <i>Abhidharmamrtara-sasastra</i> attributed to Ghosaka, the <i>Abhidharmavatara-sastra</i> attributed to Skandhila and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Tattvasiddhi</a></i> of Harivarman.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tibetan canon also includes a large Mūlasarvāstivāda text called <i>The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma (Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna,</i> Toh 287). This text contains some EBT passages, including a section on mindfulness of the body (ch. 5), a section on the ten paths of wholesome action (ch. 1) and a passage (in ch. 2) which is similar to the Discourse on Distinguishing the Six Elements (<i>Saddhatuvibhangasutra</i>, MA 162) according to Daniel Malinowski Stuart. There are also further passages in chapter two describing the contemplation of impurity, loving-kindness and pratityasamutpada.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_Origination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent Origination">Dependent Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya Pitaka">Vinaya Pitaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutta_Nipata" title="Sutta Nipata">Sutta Nipata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itivuttaka" title="Itivuttaka">Itivuttaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therigatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Therigatha">Therigatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theragatha" title="Theragatha">Theragatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana">Udana</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tse-Fu Kuan. Mindfulness in similes in Early Buddhist literature in <i>Edo Shonin, William Van Gordon, <a href="/wiki/Nirbhay_N._Singh" title="Nirbhay N. Singh">Nirbhay N. Singh</a>. Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness, page 267</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mun-Keat Choong (1999). <i>The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism,</i> Motilal Banarsidass, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rupert Gethin (1998), <i>The Foundations of Buddhism,</i> OUP Oxford, pp. 42-43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shulman, Eviatar. <i>Mindful Wisdom: The Sati-paṭṭhāna-sutta on Mindfulness, Memory, and Liberation.</i> Vol. 49, No. 4 (May 2010), pp. 393-420</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a>; Brahmali, Bhikkhu (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/authenticity.pdf"><i>The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Chroniker Press, pp. 9–10, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5"><bdi>978-1-312-91150-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authenticity+of+the+Early+Buddhist+Texts&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Chroniker+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-312-91150-5&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft.au=Brahmali%2C+Bhikkhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focbs.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F09%2Fauthenticity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Buddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frauwallner, Erich. Kidd, Sophie Francis (translator). Steinkellner, Ernst (editor). <i>Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems.</i> SUNY Press. pp. 18, 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. "<i>Mun-keat, Choong (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism</i>" and "<i>Analayo. Early Buddhist Meditation Studies (Volume 1)</i>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarder2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">Warder, A. K.</a> (2004). <i>Indian Buddhism, 3rd Revised edition</i>. Motilal Banarsidass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Buddhism%2C+3rd+Revised+edition&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Warder&rft.aufirst=A.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Buddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGombrich1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Gombrich, Richard F.</a> (1997). <i>How Buddhism Began</i>. 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On the history of early Buddhist texts"</a>, <i>Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies</i>, 29, (2), 198-206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcus Bingenheimer, Editor in Chief; Bhikkhu Anālayo and Roderick S. Bucknell, Co-Editors. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T0026_MadhyamaAgama1_2013_0.pdf"><i>The Madhyama Agama: Middle Length Discourses Vol I (Taishō Volume 1, Number 26)</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170802211840/http://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T0026_MadhyamaAgama1_2013_0.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-08-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, Inc. 2013. BDK English Tripiṭaka Series, p. xviii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcus Bingenheimer, Editor in Chief; Bhikkhu Anālayo and Roderick S. Bucknell, Co-Editors. <i>The Madhyama Agama: Middle Length Discourses Vol I (Taishō Volume 1, Number 26).</i> Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, Inc. 2013. BDK English Tripiṭaka Series, p. xvi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allon, Mark (1997), <i>The Oral Composition and Transmission of Early Buddhist Texts</i>, in Indian Insights: Buddhism, Brahmanism and Bhakti, Luzac, pp 39–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnālayo2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/reflect-comp-agama.pdf">"Reflections on Comparative Āgama Studies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal</i>. <b>21</b>. 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Equinox, pp. 28, 43–44, 80–81, 122–128, 133–137, 182, 188, 202–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a>; Brahmali, Bhikkhu (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/authenticity.pdf"><i>The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Chroniker Press, p. 67, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5"><bdi>978-1-312-91150-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authenticity+of+the+Early+Buddhist+Texts&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Chroniker+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-312-91150-5&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft.au=Brahmali%2C+Bhikkhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focbs.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F09%2Fauthenticity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Buddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a>; 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Harvard University. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-72543-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-72543-3">0-674-72543-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox (editors) <i>Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholasticism</i>, <i>Handbuch Der Orientalistik</i>, page 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9nk367zn#article_main">A Less Traveled Path:Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmrtyupasthana(sutra).</a></i> PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://suttacentral.net/">SuttaCentral</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a> translations in multiple languages from the Pali <a href="/wiki/Tipitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipitaka">Tipitaka</a> as well as other collections, focusing on Early Buddhist texts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/index.html">Accesstoinsight</a> Selected Pali Suttas in English translation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/transbibl.html">Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palitext.com/">Pali Text Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gandhari.org">Gandhari.org</a> Complete Corpus, Catalog, Bibliography and Dictionary of early Buddhist texts in Gāndhārī</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.en.gandhara.indologie.uni-muenchen.de/overview/index.html">Buddhist Manuscripts from Gandhāra project</a> at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020818043645/http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/books/series/Seriesbuddhist.html">Gandharan Buddhist texts</a> publications by University of Washington</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a 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