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href="#Battle_of_Rathmines_and_Cromwell's_landing_in_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Battle of Rathmines and Cromwell's landing in Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Rathmines_and_Cromwell's_landing_in_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Drogheda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Drogheda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Siege of Drogheda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Drogheda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wexford,_Waterford_and_Duncannon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wexford,_Waterford_and_Duncannon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wexford,_Waterford_and_Duncannon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clonmel_and_the_conquest_of_Munster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clonmel_and_the_conquest_of_Munster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clonmel and the conquest of Munster</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clonmel_and_the_conquest_of_Munster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_the_Royalist_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_the_Royalist_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Collapse of the Royalist alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_the_Royalist_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scarrifholis_and_the_destruction_of_the_Ulster_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scarrifholis_and_the_destruction_of_the_Ulster_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Scarrifholis and the destruction of the Ulster Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scarrifholis_and_the_destruction_of_the_Ulster_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sieges_of_Limerick_and_Galway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sieges_of_Limerick_and_Galway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sieges of Limerick and Galway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sieges_of_Limerick_and_Galway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guerrilla_warfare,_famine,_and_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrilla_warfare,_famine,_and_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Guerrilla warfare, famine, and plague</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrilla_warfare,_famine,_and_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Cromwellian_Settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Cromwellian_Settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>The Cromwellian Settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Cromwellian_Settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Historical debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Long-term results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" 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contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="احتلال كرومويل لأيرلندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="احتلال كرومويل لأيرلندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquesta_d%27Irlanda_per_Cromwell" title="Conquesta d'Irlanda per Cromwell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Conquesta d'Irlanda per Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwells_erobring_af_Irland" title="Cromwells erobring af Irland – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Cromwells erobring af Irland" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCckeroberung_Irlands" title="Rückeroberung Irlands – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rückeroberung Irlands" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_de_Irlanda_por_Cromwell" title="Conquista de Irlanda por Cromwell – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conquista de Irlanda por Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conqu%C3%AAte_cromwellienne_de_l%27Irlande" title="Conquête cromwellienne de l'Irlande – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conquête cromwellienne de l'Irlande" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromail_in_%C3%89irinn_1649-1650" title="Cromail in Éirinn 1649-1650 – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cromail in Éirinn 1649-1650" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Irlandia_oleh_Cromwell" title="Penaklukan Irlandia oleh Cromwell – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penaklukan Irlandia oleh Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_cromwelliana_dell%27Irlanda" title="Conquista cromwelliana dell'Irlanda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conquista cromwelliana dell'Irlanda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromvela_%C4%AArijas_iekaro%C5%A1ana" title="Kromvela Īrijas iekarošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kromvela Īrijas iekarošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%83%A0%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AB%E3%81%AE%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E4%BE%B5%E7%95%A5" title="クロムウェルのアイルランド侵略 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クロムウェルのアイルランド侵略" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampania_Cromwella_w_Irlandii" title="Kampania Cromwella w Irlandii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kampania Cromwella w Irlandii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_da_Irlanda_por_Cromwell" title="Conquista da Irlanda por Cromwell – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conquista da Irlanda por Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Завоевание Кромвелем Ирландии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Завоевание Кромвелем Ирландии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwellin_Irlannin-valloitus" title="Oliver Cromwellin Irlannin-valloitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oliver Cromwellin Irlannin-valloitus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0rlanda%27n%C4%B1n_Cromwell_taraf%C4%B1ndan_fethi" title="İrlanda'nın Cromwell tarafından fethi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İrlanda'nın Cromwell tarafından fethi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%86%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Завоювання Кромвелем Ірландії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Завоювання Кромвелем Ірландії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E4%BC%A6%E5%A8%81%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D%E7%88%B1%E5%B0%94%E5%85%B0" title="克伦威尔征服爱尔兰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="克伦威尔征服爱尔兰" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military campaign (1649–1653)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/200px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/300px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/400px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2916" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>15 August 1649 – 27 September 1653</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Ireland</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a> victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="700" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg/22px-Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg/33px-Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg/44px-Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland_17th_century.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">Confederate Ireland</a><br /> </p> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg/22px-Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg/33px-Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg/44px-Royal_Standard_of_England_%281603%E2%80%931689%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Royalists</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Jones_(soldier)" title="Michael Jones (soldier)">Michael Jones</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ludlow" title="Edmund Ludlow">Edmund Ludlow</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fleetwood" title="Charles Fleetwood">Charles Fleetwood</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coote,_1st_Earl_of_Mountrath" title="Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Mountrath">Charles Coote</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_1st_Duke_of_Ormond" title="James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond">James Butler</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Ulick_Burke,_1st_Marquess_of_Clanricarde" title="Ulick Burke, 1st Marquess of Clanricarde">Ulick Burke</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roe_O%27Neill" title="Owen Roe O'Neill">Owen Roe O'Neill</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Heber_MacMahon" title="Heber MacMahon">Heber MacMahon</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> ~12,000 <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> <br /> ~10,000 locally raised</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000 to 30,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Irish Confederate Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Irish Confederate Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Irish Confederate Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Irish_Confederate_Wars_or_Eleven_Years&#039;_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars"><span class="wrap">Irish Confederate Wars</span></a> <small><i>or</i> Eleven Years' War</small></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Timeline of the Irish Confederate Wars">Timeline</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">1641–42 Irish Rebellion</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portadown_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Portadown Massacre">Portadown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda_(1641)" title="Siege of Drogheda (1641)">1st Drogheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Julianstown" title="Battle of Julianstown">Julianstown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kilrush" title="Battle of Kilrush">Kilrush</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">1642–49</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_(1642)" title="Siege of Limerick (1642)">1st Limerick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmaquin" title="Battle of Glenmaquin">Glenmaquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Galway#Lord_Forbes's_siege_of_1642" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieges of Galway">1st Galway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liscarroll" title="Battle of Liscarroll">Liscarroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Ross_(1643)" title="Battle of New Ross (1643)">New Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cloughleagh" title="Battle of Cloughleagh">Cloghleagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clones_(1643)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Clones (1643)">Clones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Portlester" title="Battle of Portlester">Portlester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Duncannon" title="Siege of Duncannon">Duncannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benburb" title="Battle of Benburb">Benburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dungan%27s_Hill" title="Battle of Dungan's Hill">Dungan's Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Cashel" title="Sack of Cashel">Cashel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Knocknanuss" title="Battle of Knocknanuss">Knocknanuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dublin_(1649)" title="Siege of Dublin (1649)">Dublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rathmines" title="Battle of Rathmines">Rathmines</a></li></ul> <p><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1649–53 Cromwellian Conquest</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda" title="Siege of Drogheda">2nd Drogheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Wexford" title="Sack of Wexford">Wexford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arklow_(1649)" title="Battle of Arklow (1649)">Arklow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Waterford" title="Siege of Waterford">Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lisnagarvey" title="Battle of Lisnagarvey">Lisnagarvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kilkenny" title="Siege of Kilkenny">Kilkenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Clonmel" title="Siege of Clonmel">Clonmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Macroom" title="Battle of Macroom">Macroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tecroghan" title="Battle of Tecroghan">Tecroghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scarrifholis" title="Battle of Scarrifholis">Scarrifholis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Charlemont" title="Siege of Charlemont">Charlemont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meelick_Island" title="Battle of Meelick Island">Meelick Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_(1650%E2%80%931651)" title="Siege of Limerick (1650–1651)">2nd Limerick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Knocknaclashy" title="Battle of Knocknaclashy">Knocknaclashy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Galway" title="Siege of Galway">2nd Galway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</b> (1649–1653) was the re-conquest of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>. It forms part of the 1641 to 1652 <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a>, and wider 1639 to 1653 <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a>. Modern estimates suggest that during this period, Ireland experienced a <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">demographic loss</a> totalling around 15 to 20% of the pre-1641 population, due to fighting, famine and <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion of 1641</a> brought much of Ireland under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Catholic_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Catholic Confederation">Irish Catholic Confederation</a>, who engaged in a multi-sided <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">war</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Royalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roundheads" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundheads">Parliamentarians</a>, Scots <a href="/wiki/Covenanters" title="Covenanters">Covenanters</a>, and local <a href="/wiki/Laggan_Army" title="Laggan Army">Presbyterian militia</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in January 1649, the Confederates allied with their former Royalist opponents against the newly established <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>. Cromwell landed near <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> in August 1649 with an expeditionary force, and by the end of 1650 the Confederacy had been defeated, although sporadic guerrilla warfare continued until 1653. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a> barred <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> from most public offices and confiscated large amounts of their land, much of which was <a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland#Cromwellian_land_confiscation_(1652)" title="Plantations of Ireland">given to Protestant settlers</a>. These proved a continuing source of grievance, while the brutality of conquest means Cromwell remains a deeply reviled figure in Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How far he was personally responsible for the atrocities is still debated; some historians suggest his actions were within what were then viewed as accepted rules of war, while others disagree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyle1999_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyle1999-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in January 1649, the newly established <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a> took steps to regain control of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a>. The first and most pressing reason was an alliance signed in 1649 between the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">Irish Confederate Catholics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, proclaimed King of Ireland in January 1649. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by <a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_1st_Duke_of_Ormonde" class="mw-redirect" title="James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde">James Butler, Earl of Ormonde</a>. </p><p>Secondly, Parliament also had a longstanding commitment to re-conquer Ireland dating back to the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Even if the Irish Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to invade the country to crush Catholic power there. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (most of them under <a href="/wiki/Michael_Jones_(soldier)" title="Michael Jones (soldier)">Michael Jones</a> in 1647). They viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Rebellion of 1641. Many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for alleged atrocities supposedly committed against the mainly Scottish Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising. Furthermore, some Irish towns (notably Wexford and Waterford) had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping throughout the 1640s.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, the English Parliament had a financial imperative to invade Ireland to confiscate land there in order to repay its creditors. The Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the <a href="/wiki/Adventurers%27_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventurers' Act">Adventurers' Act</a> to subdue Ireland since 1642, on the basis that its creditors would be repaid with land confiscated from Irish Catholic rebels. To repay these loans, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. The Parliamentarians also had internal political reasons to send forces to Ireland. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling the New Model Army, and the soldiers' demands would probably increase if they were left idle. </p><p>Finally, for some Parliamentarians, the war in Ireland was a religious war. Cromwell and much of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate <a href="/wiki/Pierfrancesco_Scarampi" title="Pierfrancesco Scarampi">Pierfrancesco Scarampi</a> and later the Papal Nuncio <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Rinuccini" title="Giovanni Battista Rinuccini">Giovanni Battista Rinuccini</a> in 1643–49. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Battle_of_Rathmines_and_Cromwell's_landing_in_Ireland"><span id="Battle_of_Rathmines_and_Cromwell.27s_landing_in_Ireland"></span>Battle of Rathmines and Cromwell's landing in Ireland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Battle of Rathmines and Cromwell's landing in Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rathmines" title="Battle of Rathmines">Battle of Rathmines</a></div> <p>By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the <a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_1st_Duke_of_Ormonde" class="mw-redirect" title="James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde">Marquess of Ormonde</a> gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dublin_(1649)" title="Siege of Dublin (1649)">to take the city</a> and deprive the Parliamentarians of a port in which they could land. Jones, however, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rathmines" title="Battle of Rathmines">launched a surprise attack</a> on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight. Jones claimed to have killed around 4,000 Royalist or Confederate soldiers and taken 2,517 prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oliver Cromwell called the battle "an astonishing mercy, so great and seasonable that we are like them that dreamed",<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it meant that he had a secure port at which he could land his army in Ireland, and that he retained the capital city. With Admiral <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blake_(admiral)" title="Robert Blake (admiral)">Robert Blake</a> blockading the remaining Royalist fleet under <a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert_of_the_Rhine" title="Prince Rupert of the Rhine">Prince Rupert of the Rhine</a> in Kinsale, Cromwell landed on 15 August with thirty-five ships filled with troops and equipment. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a> landed two days later with a further seventy-seven ships.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ormonde's troops retreated from around Dublin in disarray. They were badly demoralised by their unexpected defeat at Rathmines and were incapable of fighting another pitched battle in the short term. As a result, Ormonde hoped to hold the walled towns on Ireland's east coast to hold up the Cromwellian advance until the winter, when he hoped that "Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness" (i.e. hunger and disease) would deplete their ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siege_of_Drogheda">Siege of Drogheda</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Siege of Drogheda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda" title="Siege of Drogheda">Siege of Drogheda</a></div> <p>Upon landing, Cromwell proceeded to take the other port cities on Ireland's east coast, to facilitate the efficient landing of supplies and reinforcements from England. The first town to fall was Drogheda, about 50 km north of Dublin. Drogheda was garrisoned by a regiment of 3,000 English Royalist and Irish Confederate soldiers, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Aston_(army_officer)" title="Arthur Aston (army officer)">Arthur Aston</a>. After a week-long siege, Cromwell's forces breached the walls protecting the town. Aston refused Cromwell's request that he surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-ReillyP61_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReillyP61-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the ensuing battle for the town, Cromwell ordered that no quarter be given,<sup id="cite_ref-ReillyP71_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReillyP71-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the majority of the garrison and Catholic priests were killed. Many civilians also died in the sack. Aston was beaten to death by the Roundheads with his own wooden leg.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The massacre of the garrison in Drogheda, including some after they had surrendered and some who had sheltered in a church, was received with horror in Ireland and is used today as an example of Cromwell's extreme cruelty.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having taken Drogheda, Cromwell took most of his army south to secure the southeastern ports. He sent a detachment of 5,000 men north under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Venables" title="Robert Venables">Robert Venables</a> to take eastern Ulster from the remnants of a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Covenanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenanter">Covenanter</a> army that had landed there in 1642. They defeated the Scots at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lisnagarvey" title="Battle of Lisnagarvey">Battle of Lisnagarvey</a> (6 December 1649) and linked up with a Parliamentarian army composed of English settlers based around Derry in western Ulster, which was commanded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coote,_1st_Earl_of_Mountrath" title="Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Mountrath">Charles Coote</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wexford,_Waterford_and_Duncannon"><span id="Wexford.2C_Waterford_and_Duncannon"></span>Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Wexford" title="Sack of Wexford">Sack of Wexford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Waterford" title="Siege of Waterford">Siege of Waterford</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kilkenny_castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Kilkenny_castle.jpg/250px-Kilkenny_castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Kilkenny_castle.jpg/375px-Kilkenny_castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Kilkenny_castle.jpg/500px-Kilkenny_castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kilkenny_Castle" title="Kilkenny Castle">Kilkenny Castle</a>. The Irish Confederate capital of Kilkenny fell to Cromwell in 1650.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> then marched south to secure the ports of Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon. Wexford was the scene of another infamous atrocity: the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Wexford" title="Sack of Wexford">Sack of Wexford</a>, when Parliamentarian troops broke into the town while negotiations for its surrender were ongoing, and sacked it, killing about 2,000 soldiers and 1,500 townspeople and burning much of the town.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998100_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998100-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Royalist commander Ormonde thought that the terror of Cromwell's army had a paralysing effect on his forces. Towns like New Ross and Carlow subsequently surrendered on terms when besieged by Cromwell's forces. On the other hand, the massacres of the defenders of Drogheda and Wexford prolonged resistance elsewhere, as they convinced many Irish Catholics that they would be killed even if they surrendered. </p><p>Such towns as Waterford, Duncannon, Clonmel, Limerick and Galway only surrendered after determined resistance. Cromwell was unable to take Waterford or Duncannon and the New Model Army had to retire to winter quarters, where many of its men died of disease, especially typhoid and dysentery. The port city of Waterford and Duncannon town eventually surrendered after prolonged sieges in 1650. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clonmel_and_the_conquest_of_Munster">Clonmel and the conquest of Munster</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Clonmel and the conquest of Munster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Clonmel" title="Siege of Clonmel">Siege of Clonmel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Ireton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Henry_Ireton.jpg/220px-Henry_Ireton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Henry_Ireton.jpg/330px-Henry_Ireton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Henry_Ireton.jpg/440px-Henry_Ireton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a>. Cromwell passed the command of Parliamentarian forces in Ireland to Ireton in 1650. He died of disease at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_(1650%E2%80%9351)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Limerick (1650–51)">Siege of Limerick</a> in 1651.</figcaption></figure> <p>The following spring, Cromwell mopped up the remaining walled towns in Ireland's southeast—notably the Confederate capital of Kilkenny, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kilkenny" title="Siege of Kilkenny">which surrendered on terms</a>. The New Model Army met its only serious reverse in Ireland at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Clonmel" title="Siege of Clonmel">Siege of Clonmel</a>, where its attacks on the town's defences were repulsed at a cost of up to 2,000 men. The town nevertheless surrendered the following day. </p><p>Cromwell's treatment of Kilkenny and Clonmel is in contrast to that of <a href="/wiki/Drogheda" title="Drogheda">Drogheda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a>. Despite the fact that his troops had suffered heavy casualties attacking the former two, Cromwell respected surrender terms which guaranteed the lives and property of the townspeople and the evacuation of armed Irish troops who were defending them. The change in attitude on the part of the Parliamentarian commander may have been a recognition that excessive cruelty was prolonging Irish resistance. However, in the case of Drogheda and Wexford no surrender agreement had been negotiated, and by the rules of continental <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a> prevalent in the mid-17th century, this meant no quarter would be given; thus it can be argued that Cromwell's attitude had not changed. </p><p>Ormonde's Royalists still held most of <a href="/wiki/Munster" title="Munster">Munster</a>, but were outflanked by a mutiny of their own garrison in <a href="/wiki/Cork_(city)" title="Cork (city)">Cork</a>. The British Protestant troops there had been fighting for the Parliament up to 1648 and resented fighting with the Confederates. Their mutiny handed Cork and most of Munster to Cromwell and they defeated the local Irish garrison at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Macroom" title="Battle of Macroom">Battle of Macroom</a>. The Irish and Royalist forces retreated behind the <a href="/wiki/River_Shannon" title="River Shannon">River Shannon</a> into <a href="/wiki/Connacht" title="Connacht">Connacht</a> or (in the case of the remaining Munster forces) into the fastness of <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">County Kerry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collapse_of_the_Royalist_alliance">Collapse of the Royalist alliance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Collapse of the Royalist alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 1650, Charles II repudiated his alliance with the Irish Confederacy, and agreed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Breda_(1650)" title="Treaty of Breda (1650)">Treaty of Breda</a> with the Covenanter government in Scotland. This totally undermined Ormonde's position as head of a Royalist coalition in Ireland. Cromwell published generous surrender terms for Protestant Royalists in Ireland and many of them either capitulated or went over to the Parliamentarian side. </p><p>This left in the field only the remaining Irish Catholic armies and a few diehard English Royalists. From this point onwards, many Irish Catholics, including their bishops and clergy, questioned why they should accept Ormonde's leadership when his master, the King, had repudiated his alliance with them. The outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_war_(1650%E2%80%931652)" title="Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)">Anglo-Scottish War</a> forced Cromwell to leave Ireland and deal with the new threat, passing command to Henry Ireton. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scarrifholis_and_the_destruction_of_the_Ulster_Army">Scarrifholis and the destruction of the Ulster Army</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Scarrifholis and the destruction of the Ulster Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scarrifholis" title="Battle of Scarrifholis">Battle of Scarrifholis</a></div> <p>The most formidable force left to the Irish and Royalists was the 6,000-strong army of Ulster, formerly commanded by <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roe_O%27Neill" title="Owen Roe O'Neill">Owen Roe O'Neill</a>, who died in 1649. However the army was now commanded by an inexperienced Catholic bishop named <a href="/wiki/Heber_MacMahon" title="Heber MacMahon">Heber MacMahon</a>. The Ulster Army met a Parliamentarian army commanded by Charles Coote, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scarrifholis" title="Battle of Scarrifholis">Battle of Scarrifholis</a> in County Donegal in June 1650. The Ulster army was routed and as many as 2,000 of its men were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, MacMahon and most of the Ulster Army's officers were either killed at the battle or captured and executed after it. This eliminated the last strong field army opposing the Parliamentarians in Ireland and secured for them the northern province of Ulster. Coote's army, despite suffering heavy losses at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Charlemont" title="Siege of Charlemont">Siege of Charlemont</a>, the last Catholic stronghold in the north, was now free to march south and invade the west coast of Ireland. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sieges_of_Limerick_and_Galway">Sieges of Limerick and Galway</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sieges of Limerick and Galway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_(1650%E2%80%931651)" title="Siege of Limerick (1650–1651)">Siege of Limerick (1650–1651)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Galway" title="Siege of Galway">Siege of Galway</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Castle_Limerick-seabhcan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/John_Castle_Limerick-seabhcan.jpg/220px-John_Castle_Limerick-seabhcan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/John_Castle_Limerick-seabhcan.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/King_John%27s_Castle_(Limerick)" title="King John's Castle (Limerick)">King John's Castle</a> and Thomond Bridge, Limerick city. Ireton took Limerick in 1651 after a long siege.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Parliamentarians crossed the River Shannon into the western province of Connacht in October 1650. An Irish army under <a href="/wiki/Ulick_Burke,_1st_Marquess_of_Clanricarde" title="Ulick Burke, 1st Marquess of Clanricarde">Clanricarde</a> had attempted to stop them but this was surprised and routed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meelick_Island" title="Battle of Meelick Island">Battle of Meelick Island</a>. </p><p>Ormonde was discredited by the constant stream of defeats for the Irish and Royalist forces and no longer had the confidence of the men he commanded, particularly the Irish Confederates. He fled for France in December 1650 and was replaced as commander by an Irish nobleman, Ulick Burke of Clanricarde. The Irish and Royalist forces were penned into the area west of the <a href="/wiki/River_Shannon" title="River Shannon">River Shannon</a> and placed their last hope on defending the strongly walled cities of <a href="/wiki/Limerick" title="Limerick">Limerick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galway" title="Galway">Galway</a> on Ireland's west coast. These cities had built extensive modern defences and could not be taken by a straightforward assault as at Drogheda or Wexford. </p><p>Ireton besieged Limerick while Charles Coote surrounded Galway, but they were unable to take the strongly fortified cities and instead blockaded them until a combination of hunger and disease forced them to surrender. An Irish force from <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">County Kerry</a> attempted to relieve Limerick from the south but was intercepted and routed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Knocknaclashy" title="Battle of Knocknaclashy">Battle of Knocknaclashy</a>. Limerick fell in 1651 and Galway the following year. Disease, however, killed indiscriminately and Ireton, along with thousands of Parliamentarian troops, died of plague outside Limerick in 1651.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Guerrilla_warfare,_famine,_and_plague"><span id="Guerrilla_warfare.2C_famine.2C_and_plague"></span>Guerrilla warfare, famine, and plague</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Guerrilla warfare, famine, and plague"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old-Galway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Old-Galway.jpg/344px-Old-Galway.jpg" decoding="async" width="344" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Old-Galway.jpg/516px-Old-Galway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Old-Galway.jpg/688px-Old-Galway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>The heavily fortified city of <a href="/wiki/Galway" title="Galway">Galway</a> in 1651. It was the last Irish stronghold to fall to the Parliamentarians, surrendering in 1652.</figcaption></figure> <p>The fall of <a href="/wiki/Galway" title="Galway">Galway</a> saw the end of organised resistance to the Cromwellian conquest, but fighting continued as small units of Irish troops launched guerrilla attacks on the Parliamentarians. </p><p>The guerrilla phase of the war had been going since late 1650 and at the end of 1651, despite the defeat of the main Irish or Royalist forces, there were still estimated to be 30,000 men in arms against the Parliamentarians. Tories (from the Irish word <i>tóraí</i> meaning "pursuer" or "outlaw") operated from difficult terrain such as the <a href="/wiki/Bog_of_Allen" title="Bog of Allen">Bog of Allen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wicklow_Mountains" title="Wicklow Mountains">Wicklow Mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Drumlin" title="Drumlin">drumlin</a> country in the north midlands, and within months made the countryside extremely dangerous for all except large parties of Parliamentarian troops. Ireton mounted a punitive expedition to the Wicklow mountains in 1650 to try to put down the tories there, but without success. </p><p>By early 1651, it was reported that no English supply convoys were safe if they travelled more than two miles outside a military base. In response, the Parliamentarians destroyed food supplies and forcibly evicted civilians who were thought to be helping the Tories. <a href="/wiki/John_Hewson_(regicide)" title="John Hewson (regicide)">John Hewson</a> systematically destroyed food stocks in counties Wicklow and <a href="/wiki/County_Kildare" title="County Kildare">County Kildare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hardress_Waller" title="Hardress Waller">Hardress Waller</a> did likewise in the Burren in <a href="/wiki/County_Clare" title="County Clare">County Clare</a>, as did Colonel Cook in <a href="/wiki/County_Wexford" title="County Wexford">County Wexford</a>. The result was famine throughout much of Ireland, aggravated by an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla war">guerrilla war</a> ground on, the Parliamentarians, as of April 1651, designated areas such as <a href="/wiki/County_Wicklow" title="County Wicklow">County Wicklow</a> and much of the south of the country as what would now be called free-fire zones, where anyone found would be, "taken slain and destroyed as enemies and their cattle and good shall be taken or spoiled as the goods of enemies".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tactic had succeeded in the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a>. </p><p>This phase of the war was by far the most costly in terms of civilian loss of life. The combination of warfare, famine and plague caused a huge mortality among the Irish population. <a href="/wiki/William_Petty" title="William Petty">William Petty</a> estimated (in the 1655–56 <a href="/wiki/Down_Survey" title="Down Survey">Down Survey</a>) that the death toll of the wars in Ireland since 1641 was over 618,000 people, or about 40% of the country's pre-war population. Of these, he estimated that over 400,000 were Catholics, 167,000 killed directly by war or famine, and the remainder by war-related disease.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern estimates put the toll at closer to 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, some fifty thousand Irish people, including prisoners of war, were sold as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a> under the English Commonwealth regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Callaghan200085_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Callaghan200085-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998134_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998134-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigman1997107,_108_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigman1997107,_108-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were often sent to the English colonies in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and the Caribbean where they subsequently comprised a substantial portion of certain Caribbean colony populations in the late 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Barbados, some of their descendants are known <a href="/wiki/Redleg" title="Redleg">as Redlegs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrish_Times_staff2009_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrish_Times_staff2009-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eventually, the guerrilla war was ended when the Parliamentarians published surrender terms in 1652 allowing Irish troops to go abroad to serve in foreign armies not at war with the Commonwealth of England. Most went to France or Spain. The largest Irish guerrilla forces under John Fitzpatrick (in Leinster, Edmund O'Dwyer (in Munster) and Edmund Daly (in Connacht) surrendered in 1652, under terms signed at <a href="/wiki/Kilkenny" title="Kilkenny">Kilkenny</a> that May. However, up to 11,000 men, mostly in <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a>, were still thought to be in the field at the end of the year. The last Irish and Royalist forces (the remnants of the Confederate's Ulster Army, led by Philip O'Reilly) formally surrendered at <a href="/wiki/Cloughoughter" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloughoughter">Cloughoughter</a> in <a href="/wiki/County_Cavan" title="County Cavan">County Cavan</a> on 27 April 1653. The English Parliament then declared the Irish rebellion subdued on 27 September 1653. However, low-level guerrilla warfare continued for the remainder of the decade and was accompanied by widespread lawlessness. Undoubtedly some of the tories were simple <a href="/wiki/Brigand" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigand">brigands</a>, whereas others were politically motivated. The Cromwellians distinguished in their rewards for information or capture of outlaws between "private tories" and "public tories".<sup id="cite_ref-Third_Burdensome_Beast,_A_Tory._24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Third_Burdensome_Beast,_A_Tory.-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Cromwellian_Settlement">The Cromwellian Settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Cromwellian Settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a> and <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1662" title="Act of Settlement 1662">Act of Settlement 1662</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PRENDERGAST(1870)_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September,_1653.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/200px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/300px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/400px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1742" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>After Cromwell's victory, huge areas of land were confiscated and the Irish Catholics were banished to the lands of <a href="/wiki/Connacht" title="Connacht">Connacht</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The English Parliament imposed an extremely harsh settlement on the Irish population, driven by antipathy to the Catholic religion, and to punish Irish Catholics for the rebellion of 1641. Also, Parliament needed to raise money to pay the army and to provide land to those who had subsidised the war under the Adventurers Act back in 1640.<sup id="cite_ref-O’_Donovan_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O’_Donovan-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the 1640 Adventurers Act, lenders were paid in confiscated estates, while Parliamentarian soldiers who served there were often compensated with land rather than wages. Although many of these simply sold their grants, the net result was the percentage of land owned by Irish Catholics fell from 60% in 1641 to 20% by the 1660 <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Stuart Restoration</a>. Thereafter, Catholics were barred from most public office, although not from the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Irish Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_debate">Historical debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Historical debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Parliamentarian campaign in Ireland was the most ruthless of the Civil War period. In particular, Cromwell's actions at Drogheda and Wexford earned him a reputation for cruelty. </p><p>Cromwell's critics point to his response to a plea by Catholic Bishops to the Irish Catholic people to resist him in which he states that although his intention was not to "massacre, banish and destroy the Catholic inhabitants", if they did resist "I hope to be free from the misery and desolation, blood and ruin that shall befall them, and shall rejoice to exercise the utmost severity against them".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlyle2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfv9V4YGVOjwCpgPA132_132]_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlyle2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfv9V4YGVOjwCpgPA132_132]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite attempts by some to argue what happened at Drogheda was not unusual by the standards of 17th century siege warfare, this has been largely rejected by other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One historian argues "the Drogheda massacre does stand out for its mercilessness,...ruthlessness and calculation, for its combination of hot- and cold-bloodiness".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003263–265_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003263–265-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, other critics point out that at the time the killings at Drogheda and Wexford were considered atrocities. They cite such sources as <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ludlow" title="Edmund Ludlow">Edmund Ludlow</a>, the Parliamentarian commander in Ireland after Ireton's death, who wrote that the tactics used by Cromwell at Drogheda showed "extraordinary severity". </p><p>Cromwell's actions in Ireland occurred in the context of a mutually cruel war. In 1641–42 Irish insurgents in Ulster killed some 4,000 Protestant settlers who had settled on land confiscated from their former Catholic owners. These events were magnified in Protestant propaganda as an attempt by Irish Catholics to exterminate the English Protestant settlers in Ireland, with English Parliamentarian pamphlets claiming that over 200,000 Protestants had died. In turn, this was used as justification by English Parliamentary and Scottish Covenant forces to take vengeance on the Irish Catholic population. A Parliamentary tract of 1655 argued that, "the whole Irish nation, consisting of gentry, clergy and commonality are engaged as one nation in this quarrel, to root out and extirpate all English Protestants from amongst them".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atrocities were subsequently committed by all sides. When <a href="/wiki/Murrough_O%27Brien,_1st_Earl_of_Inchiquin" title="Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Inchiquin">Murrough O'Brien</a>, the Earl of Inchiquin and Parliamentarian commander in Cork, <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Cashel" title="Sack of Cashel">took Cashel</a> in 1647, he slaughtered the garrison and Catholic clergy there (including <a href="/wiki/Theobald_Stapleton" title="Theobald Stapleton">Theobald Stapleton</a>), earning the nickname "Murrough of the Burnings". Inchiquin switched allegiances in 1648, becoming a commander of the Royalist forces. After such battles as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dungans_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dungans Hill">Dungans Hill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scarrifholis" title="Battle of Scarrifholis">Scarrifholis</a>, English Parliamentarian forces executed thousands of their Irish Catholic prisoners. Similarly, when the Confederate Catholic general <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Preston,_1st_Viscount_Tara" title="Thomas Preston, 1st Viscount Tara">Thomas Preston</a> took Maynooth in 1647, he hanged its Catholic defenders as <a href="/wiki/Apostates" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostates">apostates</a>. </p><p>Nevertheless, the 1649–1653 campaign remains notorious in Irish popular memory as it was responsible for a huge death toll among the Irish population. The main reason for this was the counter-guerrilla tactics used by such commanders as Henry Ireton, <a href="/wiki/John_Hewson_(regicide)" title="John Hewson (regicide)">John Hewson</a> and Edmund Ludlow against the Catholic population from 1650, when large areas of the country still resisted the Parliamentary Army. These tactics included the wholesale burning of crops, forced population movement, and killing of civilians. One modern estimate estimated that 200,000 were killed, of which 137,000 were civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_Levene" title="Mark Levene">Mark Levene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Axelrod" title="Alan Axelrod">Alan Axelrod</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country. Others such as the historical writer <a href="/wiki/Tim_Pat_Coogan" title="Tim Pat Coogan">Tim Pat Coogan</a> have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-genocide_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genocide-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial studies professor Katie Kane suggested that the invasion was comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide</a>, drawing parallels between that event and the English treatment of Irish civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aftermath of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement saw extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. In the event, the much larger number of surviving poorer Catholics were not moved westwards; most of them had to fend for themselves by working for the new landowners. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_results">Long-term results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Long-term results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Cromwellian conquest completed the British colonisation of Ireland, which was merged into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653–59. It destroyed the native Irish Catholic land-owning classes and replaced them with colonists with a British identity. The bitterness caused by the Cromwellian settlement was a powerful source of <a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a> from the 17th century onwards. </p><p>After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a> restored about a third of the confiscated land to the former landlords in the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1662" title="Act of Settlement 1662">Act of Settlement 1662</a>, but not all, as he needed political support from former parliamentarians in England. A generation later, during the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, many of the Irish Catholic landed class tried to reverse the remaining Cromwellian settlement in the <a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War in Ireland</a> (1689–91), where they fought en masse for the <a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobites</a>. They were defeated once again, and many lost land that had been regranted after 1662. As a result, Irish and English Catholics did not become full political citizens of the British state again until <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829" title="Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829">1829</a> and were legally barred from buying valuable interests in land until the <a href="/wiki/Papists_Act_1778" title="Papists Act 1778">Papists Act 1778</a>. </p><p>The Cromwellian government also contributed to the decline and eventual extinction of <a href="/wiki/Wolves_in_Ireland" title="Wolves in Ireland">wolves in Ireland</a>, through such methods as <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and anti-wolf legislation, the latter including bounties paid out for killing wolves.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_military_history" class="mw-redirect" title="British military history">British military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Chronology of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Chronology of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">History of Ireland (1536–1691)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Tuireamh_na_h%C3%89ireann" title="Tuireamh na hÉireann">Tuireamh na hÉireann</a>"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The wording of this version is taken from a London edition, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> notes that another contemporary version copied from the original Cork edition, ends with the phrase "and shall rejoice to act severity against them" and that he states "is probably the true reading" <a href="#CITEREFCarlyle2010">Carlyle 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fv9V4YGVOjwC&pg=PA132">132</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Of all these doings in Cromwell's Irish Chapter, each of us may say what he will. Yet to everyone it will at least be intelligible how his name came to be hated in the tenacious heart of Ireland". John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell. Page 298. 1900 and 2001. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6707-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6707-4">978-1-4212-6707-4</a>.; "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928062053/http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/civilwar/g5/cs2/s4/">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/civilwar/g5/cs2/s4/">the original</a> on 28 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learningcurve.gov.uk%2Fcivilwar%2Fg5%2Fcs2%2Fs4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span> British National Archives web site. Accessed March 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041211163740/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1649-52-cromwell-ireland.htm">"1649-52: Cromwell's conquest of Ireland"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1649-52-cromwell-ireland.htm">the original</a> on 11 December 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1649-52%3A+Cromwell%27s+conquest+of+Ireland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-civil-wars.co.uk%2Fmilitary%2F1649-52-cromwell-ireland.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span> From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Accessed March 2007. Site currently offline. WayBack Machine holds archive here</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyle1999-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyle1999_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoyle1999">Coyle 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ó Siochrú, <i>God's Executioner</i>, pp. 69 & 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKeiver, <i>A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign</i>, p. 59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonia Fraser, <i>Cromwell, our Chief of Men</i> (1973), p. 324</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fraser, <i>Cromwell our Chief of Men</i>, p. 326</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Padraig Lenihan, <i>Confederate Catholics at War</i>, p. 113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReillyP61-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReillyP61_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReilly1999" class="citation book cs1">Reilly, Tom (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoenixcromwellh00tomr/page/61"><i>Cromwell, An Honourable Enemy</i></a>. London: Phoenix Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoenixcromwellh00tomr/page/61">61</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-080-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-080-8"><bdi>1-84212-080-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwell%2C+An+Honourable+Enemy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-84212-080-8&rft.aulast=Reilly&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphoenixcromwellh00tomr%2Fpage%2F61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReillyP71-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReillyP71_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReilly1999" class="citation book cs1">Reilly, Tom (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoenixcromwellh00tomr/page/71"><i>Cromwell, An Honourable Enemy</i></a>. London: Phoenix Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoenixcromwellh00tomr/page/71">71</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-080-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-080-8"><bdi>1-84212-080-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwell%2C+An+Honourable+Enemy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-84212-080-8&rft.aulast=Reilly&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphoenixcromwellh00tomr%2Fpage%2F71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fraser, pp. 336–339. <a href="#CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998">Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O Siochru, <i>God's Executioner</i>, pp. 82–91. Faber & Faber (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998100-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998100_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998">Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKeiver, <i>A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign</i>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mícheál Ó Siochrú, <i>God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and Conquest of Ireland</i>, p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenihan, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998">Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998</a>, p. 278. Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theirishstory.com/2014/01/22/from-catastrophe-to-baby-boom-population-change-in-early-modern-ireland-1641-1741/">"From Catastrophe to Baby Boom – Population Change in Early Modern Ireland 1641–1741"</a>. 22 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Catastrophe+to+Baby+Boom+%E2%80%93+Population+Change+in+Early+Modern+Ireland+1641%E2%80%931741&rft.date=2014-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theirishstory.com%2F2014%2F01%2F22%2Ffrom-catastrophe-to-baby-boom-population-change-in-early-modern-ireland-1641-1741%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Callaghan200085-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Callaghan200085_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Callaghan2000">O'Callaghan 2000</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998134-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyonOhlmeyer1998134_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998">Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigman1997107,_108-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigman1997107,_108_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHigman1997">Higman 1997</a>, pp. 107, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahoney" class="citation web cs1">Mahoney, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/blog/irish-indentured-labour-in-the-caribbean">"Irish indentured labour in the Caribbean"</a>. <i>UK National Archive</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UK+National+Archive&rft.atitle=Irish+indentured+labour+in+the+Caribbean&rft.aulast=Mahoney&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fblog%2Firish-indentured-labour-in-the-caribbean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrish_Times_staff2009-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrish_Times_staff2009_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIrish_Times_staff2009">Irish Times staff 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Third_Burdensome_Beast,_A_Tory.-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Third_Burdensome_Beast,_A_Tory._24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrendergast1868" class="citation book cs1">Prendergast, John Patrick (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cromwelliansett02prengoog"><i>The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland</i></a>. P. M. Haverty New York. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cromwelliansett02prengoog/page/n186">178</a>, 187<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cromwellian+Settlement+of+Ireland&rft.pages=178%2C+187&rft.pub=P.+M.+Haverty+New+York&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Prendergast&rft.aufirst=John+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcromwelliansett02prengoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O’_Donovan-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O’_Donovan_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Donovan" class="citation web cs1">O'Donovan, Catherine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/coclare/history/cromwell_settlement.htm">"The Cromwellian Settlement"</a>. <i>Clare County Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clare+County+Library&rft.atitle=The+Cromwellian+Settlement&rft.aulast=O%27Donovan&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clarelibrary.ie%2Feolas%2Fcoclare%2Fhistory%2Fcromwell_settlement.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenihan, p. 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlyle2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfv9V4YGVOjwCpgPA132_132]-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlyle2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfv9V4YGVOjwCpgPA132_132]_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarlyle2010">Carlyle 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fv9V4YGVOjwC&pg=PA132">132</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorrill2003">Morrill 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003263–265-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrill2003263–265_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorrill2003">Morrill 2003</a>, pp. 263–265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Lawrence, The Interest of England in Irish transplantation (1655), quoted in Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at War, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlton, Charles, "Civilians". <a href="#CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998">Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-genocide-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-genocide_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li>Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). <i>Nationalism and Rationality</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer".</li> <li><i>Ukrainian Quarterly</i>. Ukrainian Society of America, 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population".</li> <li>David Norbrook (2000).<i>Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660</i>. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing".</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/index.php/staff/stewart/">Frances Stewart</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135450/http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/index.php/staff/stewart/">Archived</a> 16 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2000). <i>War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1</i> (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. p. 51. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/frank/axelrod.htm">Alan Axelrod</a> (2002). <i>Profiles in Leadership</i>, Prentice-Hall. 2002. p. 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pat_Coogan" title="Tim Pat Coogan">Tim Pat Coogan</a> (2002). <i>The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29418-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29418-2">978-0-312-29418-2</a>. p. 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide."</li> <li>Peter Berresford Ellis (2002). <i>Eyewitness to Irish History</i>, John Wiley & Sons. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-26633-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-26633-4">978-0-471-26633-4</a>. p. 108. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMorrill2003">Morrill 2003</a>: "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell.<br /> Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G. K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that 'it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it'."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://feature.ipfw.edu/faculty/profiles/lutz.html">James M. Lutz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216141728/http://feature.ipfw.edu/faculty/profiles/lutz.html">Archived</a> 16 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Brenda J. Lutz (2004). <i>Global Terrorism</i>, Routledge: London. p. 193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLevene2005">Levene 2005</a>, pp. 56: "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLevene2005">Levene 2005</a>, pp. 56―57: "[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state."</li> <li>Aziz Rahman, Mary Anne Clarke and Sean Byrne (2017). <i>The Art of Breaking People Down: The British Colonial Model in Ireland and Canada</i>. "The 1649 warfare by Cromwellian soldiers culminated in acts of genocide against Irish Gaels with the liquidation of the inhabitants of Drogheda and Dundalk, with Cromwell giving them the choice of "to hell or to Connacht"."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKane1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kane, Katie (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1354592">"Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination"</a>. <i>Cultural Critique</i> (42): 81–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1354592">10.2307/1354592</a>. <q>Sir Charles Coote, like Chivington two hundred years later, was a military commander responsible for eradicating an indigenous population whose presence was inimical to the "planting" of government-authorized settlers in a colonial space understood to be somehow empty, at least of a population of any value.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Critique&rft.atitle=Nits+Make+Lice%3A+Drogheda%2C+Sand+Creek%2C+and+the+Poetics+of+Colonial+Extermination&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=81-103&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1354592&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1354592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickey" class="citation journal cs1">Hickey, Kieran. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325161025/http://www.nuigalway.ie/geography/documents/wolf.pdf">"Wolf - Forgotten Irish Hunter"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Wild Ireland</i> (May–June 2003): 10–13. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/geography/documents/wolf.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wild+Ireland&rft.atitle=Wolf+-+Forgotten+Irish+Hunter&rft.issue=May%E2%80%93June+2003&rft.pages=10-13&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Kieran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuigalway.ie%2Fgeography%2Fdocuments%2Fwolf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickey" class="citation journal cs1">Hickey, Kieran R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907043329/http://www.ucd.ie:80/gsi/pdf/33-2/lupus.pdf#expand">"A geographical perspective on the decline and extermination of the Irish wolf <i>canis lupus</i> — an initial assessment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Irish Geography</i>. <b>33</b> (2). Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway: 185–198. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucd.ie:80/gsi/pdf/33-2/lupus.pdf#expand">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Geography&rft.atitle=A+geographical+perspective+on+the+decline+and+extermination+of+the+Irish+wolf+canis+lupus+%E2%80%94+an+initial+assessment&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-198&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Kieran+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucd.ie%3A80%2Fgsi%2Fpdf%2F33-2%2Flupus.pdf%23expand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyle1999" class="citation journal cs1">Coyle, Eugene (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyireland.com/cromwell/cromwell-an-honourable-enemy-tom-reilly-brandon-press-17-99-isbn-0863222501/">"Review of "Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy, by Tom Reilly"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>History Ireland</i>. <b>7</b> (4)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Ireland&rft.atitle=Review+of+%22Cromwell%3A+An+Honourable+Enemy%2C+by+Tom+Reilly%22&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Coyle&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyireland.com%2Fcromwell%2Fcromwell-an-honourable-enemy-tom-reilly-brandon-press-17-99-isbn-0863222501%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle, Thomas</a> (2010), Traill, Henry Duff; Cromwell, Oliver (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fv9V4YGVOjwC&pg=PA132"><i>The Works of Thomas Carlyle</i></a>, vol. 2, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108022309" title="Special:BookSources/9781108022309"><bdi>9781108022309</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Thomas+Carlyle&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781108022309&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfv9V4YGVOjwC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fraser, Antonia. <i>Cromwell Our Chief of Men</i>, Panther, St Albans 1975, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-586-04206-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-586-04206-7">0-586-04206-7</a></li> <li>Ó Siochrú, Mícheál. RTÉ ONE, Cromwell in Ireland Part 2. Broadcast 16 September 2008.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Callaghan2000" class="citation book cs1">O'Callaghan, Sean (2000). <i>To Hell or Barbados</i>. Brandon. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86322-272-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86322-272-6"><bdi>978-0-86322-272-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Hell+or+Barbados&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Brandon&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-86322-272-6&rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigman1997" class="citation book cs1">Higman, B. W. (1997). Knight, Franklin W. (ed.). <i>General History of the Caribbean: The slave societies of the Caribbean</i>. Vol. 3 (illustrated ed.). <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-65605-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-65605-1"><bdi>978-0-333-65605-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+the+Caribbean%3A+The+slave+societies+of+the+Caribbean&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-333-65605-1&rft.aulast=Higman&rft.aufirst=B.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrish_Times_staff2009" class="citation news cs1">Irish Times staff (12 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/weekend/2009/1219/1224260948211.html">"Remnants of an indentured people"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Irish_Times" title="The Irish Times">The Irish Times</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Remnants+of+an+indentured+people&rft.date=2009-12-12&rft.au=Irish+Times+staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fnewspaper%2Fweekend%2F2009%2F1219%2F1224260948211.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer1998" class="citation book cs1">Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (1998). <i>The Civil Wars</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866222-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866222-X"><bdi>0-19-866222-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+Wars&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-866222-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevene2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Levene" title="Mark Levene">Levene, Mark</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3PsLXeDflfMC"><i>Genocide in the Age of the Nation State</i></a>. Vol. 2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide. <a href="/wiki/I._B._Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I. B. Tauris">I. B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4"><bdi>978-1-84511-057-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+in+the+Age+of+the+Nation+State&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-057-4&rft.aulast=Levene&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3PsLXeDflfMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lenihan, Padraig, <i>Confederate Catholics at War</i>, Cork 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5">1-85918-244-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">Morrill, John</a> (December 2003). "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences". <i>Canadian Journal of History</i>. <b>19</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Rewriting+Cromwell%3A+A+Case+of+Deafening+Silences&rft.volume=19&rft.date=2003-12&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Reilly, Tom. <i>Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy</i>, Dingle 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86322-250-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-86322-250-1">0-86322-250-1</a></li> <li>Scott-Wheeler, James, <i>Cromwell in Ireland</i>, Dublin 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7171-2884-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7171-2884-6">978-0-7171-2884-6</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Butler_(British_Army_officer)" title="William Butler (British Army officer)">Butler, William</a> (1903). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Studies in Irish History, 1649-1775/Oliver Cromwell in Ireland"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Studies_in_Irish_History,_1649-1775/Oliver_Cromwell_in_Ireland">"Oliver Cromwell in Ireland" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_O%27Brien" title="Richard Barry O'Brien">O'Brien, R. Barry</a> (ed.). <i>Studies in Irish History, 1649–1775</i>. Dublin: Browne and Nolan. pp. 1–65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+in+Ireland&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Irish+History%2C+1649%E2%80%931775&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pages=1-65&rft.pub=Browne+and+Nolan&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACromwellian+conquest+of+Ireland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Canny, Nicholas P. <i>Making Ireland British 1580–1650</i>, Oxford 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820091-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820091-9">0-19-820091-9</a></li> <li>Gentles, Ian. <i>The New Model Army</i>, Cambridge 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19347-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19347-2">0-631-19347-2</a></li> <li>O'Siochru, Micheal, <i>God's Executioner- Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland</i>, Faber & Faber, London, 2008.</li> <li>Plant, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041211163740/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1649-52-cromwell-ireland.htm">Cromwell in Ireland: 1649–52</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210746/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/">British Civil Wars</a>, Retrieved 22 September 2008</li> <li>Stradling, R. A. <i>The Spanish monarchy and Irish mercenaries</i>, Irish Academic Press, Dublin 1994.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808164429/http://www.iisresource.org/Documents/KS3_Cromwell_Ireland_Interpretation.pdf">Excerpts, support for and a critique of Tom Reilly's <i>Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy</i> (1999)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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English Civil War">Worcestershire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Wars_of_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="European Wars of Religion">European Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> (<small><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1625%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1625–30)">Anglo-Spanish War, 1625–1630</a></small>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (<small><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War, 1635–1659</a></small>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kingdom_of_Ireland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Template:Kingdom of Ireland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Template talk:Kingdom of Ireland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of Ireland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kingdom_of_Ireland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_history" title="Timeline of Irish history">Timeline of Irish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">History of Ireland (1536–1691)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1691%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Ireland (1691–1800)">History of Ireland (1691–1800)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General<br />and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_people" title="Anglo-Irish people">New English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_and_regrant" title="Surrender and regrant">Surrender and regrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Ireland" title="Reformation in Ireland">Reformation in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Rebellions" title="Desmond Rebellions">Desmond Rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland" title="Plantations of Ireland">Plantations of Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster" title="Plantation of Ulster">Ulster</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls" title="Flight of the Earls">Flight of the Earls</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion of 1641</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_indentured_servants" title="Irish indentured servants">Barbadosed</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite–Jacobite War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Wild_Geese" title="Flight of the Wild Geese">Wild Geese</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Acts of <br />Parliament</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poynings%27_Law_(on_certification_of_acts)" title="Poynings' Law (on certification of acts)">Poynings' Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542" title="Crown of Ireland Act 1542">Crown of Ireland Act 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Meath_and_Westmeath_Act_1543" title="Counties of Meath and Westmeath Act 1543">Counties of Meath and Westmeath Act 1543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Laois_and_Offaly_1556" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of Laois and Offaly 1556">Settlement of Laois and Offaly 1556</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1662" title="Act of Settlement 1662">Act of Settlement 1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_(Ireland)" title="Penal laws (Ireland)">Penal Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popery_Act" title="Popery Act">Popery Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_1782" title="Constitution of 1782">Constitution of 1782</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union 1800</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gaelic<br />conquests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomond" title="Thomond">Tuadhmhumhain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1543)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iveagh" title="Iveagh">Uí Echach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1543)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%ADgis" title="Loígis">Loígis</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1543)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clanricarde" title="Clanricarde">Clanricarde</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1544)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_U%C3%AD_Failghe" title="Kingdom of Uí Failghe">Uí Failghe</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1550)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_D%C3%ADarmata" title="Uí Díarmata">Uí Díarmata</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1574)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandeboye" title="Clandeboye">Clann Aodha Buidhe</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1574)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Magh_Luirg" title="Kings of Magh Luirg">Magh Luirg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1585)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airg%C3%ADalla" title="Airgíalla">Airgíalla</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1585)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iar_Connacht" title="Iar Connacht">Iar Connacht</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1589)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umhaill" title="Umhaill">Umhaill</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1593)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Desmond" title="Kingdom of Desmond">Deasmhumhain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1596)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_William_%C3%8Dochtar" title="Mac William Íochtar">Mac William Íochtar</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1602)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Leinster" title="Kingdom of Leinster">Laigin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1603)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Breifne" title="West Breifne">Bréifne Uí Ruairc</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1605)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbery_(barony)" title="Carbery (barony)">Cairbrigh</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1606)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrconnell" title="Tyrconnell">Tír Chonaill</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1607)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADr_Eoghain" title="Tír Eoghain">Tír Eoghain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1607)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermanagh" title="Fermanagh">Fear Manach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1607)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Cahan" title="O'Cahan">Uí Catháin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1607)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Breifne" title="East Breifne">Bréifne Uí Raghallaigh</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1607)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Mh%C3%A1ine" title="Uí Mháine">Uí Mháine</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1611)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics<br />and society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_Castle_administration" title="Dublin Castle administration">Dublin Castle administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Parliament of Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_House_of_Lords" title="Irish House of Lords">Irish House of Lords</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons" title="Irish House of Commons">Irish House of Commons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Ireland" title="Privy Council of Ireland">Privy Council of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Courts" title="Four Courts">Four Courts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(Ireland)" title="Court of King's Bench (Ireland)">King's Bench</a>, <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Exchequer_(Ireland)" title="Court of Exchequer (Ireland)">Exchequer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery_(Ireland)" title="Court of Chancery (Ireland)">Chancery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Common_Pleas_(Ireland)" title="Court of Common Pleas (Ireland)">Common Pleas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Castle_Chamber" title="Court of Castle Chamber">Court of Castle Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland" title="Peerage of Ireland">Peerage of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Army_(1661%E2%80%931801)" title="Irish Army (1661–1801)">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Ireland" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy" title="Protestant Ascendancy">Ascendancy</a> & <a href="/wiki/Recusancy_in_Ireland" title="Recusancy in Ireland">Recusancy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Lodge_of_Ireland" title="Grand Lodge of Ireland">Grand Lodge of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin" title="Trinity College Dublin">Trinity College Dublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_St_Patrick" title="Order of St Patrick">Order of St Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Patriot_Party" title="Irish Patriot Party">Irish Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defenders_(Ireland)" title="Defenders (Ireland)">Defenders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Committee_(Ireland)" title="Catholic Committee (Ireland)">Catholic Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Order" title="Orange Order">Orange Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen" title="Society of United Irishmen">United Irishmen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ireland" title="Monarchy of Ireland">Monarchs</a><br /> and rulers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1542–1547)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward VI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1547–1553)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Jane_Grey" title="Lady Jane Grey">Lady Jane Grey</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1553; disputed)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1553–1558)</span> & <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris" title="Jure uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i> (1554–1558)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1558–1603)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1603–1625)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1625–1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649–1653)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1653–1658)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1658–1659)</span></li> <li><i>Commonwealth</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1659–1660)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660–1685)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1685–1691)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689–1702)</span> & <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689–1694)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1702–1714)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714–1727)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1727–1760)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1760–1800)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/16px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/24px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/32px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">British Empire portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Four_Provinces_Flag.svg/16px-Four_Provinces_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Four_Provinces_Flag.svg/24px-Four_Provinces_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Four_Provinces_Flag.svg/32px-Four_Provinces_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="680" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ireland" title="Portal:Ireland">Ireland portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_Ireland" title="Category:Early modern history of Ireland">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_British_Empire" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject British Empire">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ireland_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ireland_topics" title="Template:Ireland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ireland_topics" title="Template talk:Ireland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ireland_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ireland topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ireland_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ireland-related_topics" title="List of Ireland-related topics">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Outline of the Republic of Ireland">topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Northern_Ireland%E2%80%93related_topics" title="List of Northern Ireland–related topics">topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_history" title="Timeline of Irish history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory_of_Ireland" title="Protohistory of Ireland">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">1536–1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1691%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Ireland (1691–1800)">1691–1800</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1801%E2%80%931923)" title="History of Ireland (1801–1923)">1801–1923</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Republic" title="Irish Republic">Irish Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ireland_(1921%E2%80%931922)" title="Southern Ireland (1921–1922)">Southern Ireland (1921–1922)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> (1921–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">since 1922</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State (1922–1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland (since 1922)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(Ireland)" title="Battle of Tara (Ireland)">Battles of Tara</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmama" title="Battle of Glenmama">Glenmama</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf" title="Battle of Clontarf">Clontarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" title="Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_campaign_in_Ireland" title="Bruce campaign in Ireland">Bruce campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Rebellions" title="Desmond Rebellions">Desmond Rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada_in_Ireland" title="Spanish Armada in Ireland">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Tyrone's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls" title="Flight of the Earls">Flight of the Earls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster" title="Plantation of Ulster">Plantation of Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">1641 Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Confederate War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cromwellian conquest</a> / <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Settlement of 1652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_(Ireland)" title="Penal laws (Ireland)">Penal Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)" title="Irish Famine (1740–1741)">First Great Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">1798 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Act of Union (1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_rebellion_of_1803" title="Irish rebellion of 1803">1803 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe_War" title="Tithe War">Tithe War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Second Great Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_War" title="Land War">Land War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_Rising" title="Fenian Rising">Fenian Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_lock-out" title="Dublin lock-out">Dublin lock-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1914" title="Government of Ireland Act 1914">Home Rule crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Anglo-Irish Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Civil_War" title="Irish Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)" title="Northern campaign (Irish Republican Army)">IRA Northern Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)" title="Border campaign (Irish Republican Army)">IRA Border Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process" title="Northern Ireland peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Economy of the Republic of Ireland">Economy of the Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Tiger" title="Celtic Tiger">Celtic Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_economic_downturn" title="Post-2008 Irish economic downturn">Post-2008 Irish economic downturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_banking_crisis" title="Post-2008 Irish banking crisis">Post-2008 Irish banking crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Ireland" title="List of conflicts in Ireland">List of conflicts in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes#Goidels_/_Gaels_/_Hibernians" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">List of Irish tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_kingdoms" title="List of Irish kingdoms">List of Irish kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_High_Kings_of_Ireland" title="List of High Kings of Ireland">List of High Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland#Dress" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic clothing and fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland">List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Ireland" title="Geography of Ireland">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Ireland" title="Climate of Ireland">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Climate change in the Republic of Ireland">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_landforms_of_Ireland" title="Coastal landforms of Ireland">Coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Ireland" title="Extreme points of Ireland">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Ireland" title="Fauna of Ireland">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Ireland" title="List of islands of Ireland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loughs_of_Ireland" title="List of loughs of Ireland">Loughs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_in_Ireland" title="Lists of mountains in Ireland">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_of_Ireland" title="Rivers of Ireland">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Ireland" title="List of rivers of Ireland">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of national parks of the Republic of Ireland">List of national parks of the Republic of Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_the_United_Kingdom#National_parks_in_Northern_Ireland" title="National parks of the United Kingdom">in Northern Ireland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Ireland" title="Architecture of Ireland">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buildings_in_Ireland" title="List of buildings in Ireland">Notable buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Ireland" title="List of tallest structures in Ireland">Tallest buildings and structures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_Ireland" title="City status in Ireland">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland" title="Counties of Ireland">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Demographics of the Republic of Ireland">Demographics of the Republic of Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Demographics of Northern Ireland">of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_Ireland" title="List of ports in Ireland">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland" title="Provinces of Ireland">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border" title="Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border">ROI–UK border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_towns_in_Ireland" title="Lists of towns in Ireland">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Tourism in the Republic of Ireland">Tourism in the Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Ireland" title="List of tourist attractions in Ireland">Tourist attractions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ireland" title="Transport in Ireland">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Politics of the Republic of Ireland">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_loyalism" title="Ulster loyalism">Ulster loyalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland" title="Unionism in Ireland">Unionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Politics of the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland" title="Constitution of Ireland">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Economy of the Republic of Ireland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Ireland" title="Foreign relations of Ireland">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland" title="Government of Ireland">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Local government in the Republic of Ireland">local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Law of the Republic of Ireland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Republic of Ireland">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oireachtas" title="Oireachtas"><i>Oireachtas</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">parliament</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann" title="Dáil Éireann"><i>Dáil Éireann</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(lower house)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann" title="Seanad Éireann"><i>Seanad Éireann</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(upper house)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Ireland" title="President of Ireland">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Taxation in the Republic of Ireland">Taxation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%27Hondt_method" title="D'Hondt method">D'Hondt method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Education in Northern Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Northern_Ireland" title="LGBT rights in Northern Ireland">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process" title="Northern Ireland peace process">Peace process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_cuisine" title="Irish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_dishes" title="List of Irish dishes">List of dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barmbrack" title="Barmbrack">Barmbrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacon_and_cabbage" title="Bacon and cabbage">Bacon and cabbage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxty" title="Boxty">Boxty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_(food)" title="Champ (food)">Champ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coddle" title="Coddle">Coddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colcannon" title="Colcannon">Colcannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drisheen" title="Drisheen">Drisheen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_breakfast#Ireland" title="Full breakfast">Irish fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skirts_and_kidneys" title="Skirts and kidneys">Skirts and kidneys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread">Soda bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_bag" title="Spice bag">Spice Bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_stew" title="Irish stew">Stew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-in-1_(fast_food_dish)" title="3-in-1 (fast food dish)">Three-in-One</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Drinks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_coffee" title="Irish coffee">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cream" title="Irish cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinness" title="Guinness">Guinness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mist" title="Irish Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poit%C3%ADn" title="Poitín">Poitín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_breakfast_tea" title="Irish breakfast tea">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_whiskey" title="Irish whiskey">Whiskey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_dance" title="Irish dance">Dance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jig" title="Jig">Jig</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_dance" title="Sean-nós dance">Sean-nós</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_set_dancing" title="Irish set dancing">Set dancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_stepdance" title="Irish stepdance">Stepdance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day" title="Saint Patrick's Day">Saint Patrick's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Bealtaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Twelfth" title="The Twelfth">The Twelfth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lúnasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_of_Tralee_(festival)" title="Rose of Tralee (festival)">Rose of Tralee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Halloween" title="Halloween">Halloween</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wren_Day" title="Wren Day">Wren Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ireland" title="Languages of Ireland">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialect" title="Ulster Scots dialect">Ulster Scots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_prose_fiction" title="Irish prose fiction">Fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Gaeilge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_poetry" title="Irish poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_theatre" title="Irish theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triads_of_Ireland" title="Triads of Ireland">Triads</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ireland" title="Music of Ireland">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_ballads" title="List of Irish ballads">Ballads</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A8ilidh" title="Cèilidh">Céilí</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Folk music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music_session" title="Irish traditional music session">session</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Irish_musical_instruments" title="Category:Irish musical instruments">Instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_music_in_Ireland" title="Rock music in Ireland">Rock music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Irish_singing" title="Traditional Irish singing">Traditional singing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Mythology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology#Mythological_cycle" title="Irish mythology">Cycles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythological_Cycle" title="Mythological Cycle">Mythological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_Cycle" title="Fenian Cycle">Fenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Cycle" title="Ulster Cycle">Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycles_of_the_Kings" title="Cycles of the Kings">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aos_S%C3%AD" title="Aos Sí">Aos Sí</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Echtra" title="Echtra">Echtrai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Immram" 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