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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Valid elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valid_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>From children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waiver_of_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waiver_of_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Waiver of requirement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Waiver_of_requirement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Waiver of requirement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Waiver_of_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-21st_Century_Cures_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_Century_Cures_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>21st Century Cures Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_Century_Cures_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medical sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medical procedures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medical_procedures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medical procedures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medical_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Requirements_of_the_professional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requirements_of_the_professional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Requirements of the professional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requirements_of_the_professional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obtaining_informed_consents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obtaining_informed_consents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Obtaining informed consents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obtaining_informed_consents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competency_of_the_patient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competency_of_the_patient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Competency of the patient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competency_of_the_patient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Deception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Abortion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Within_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Within_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Within research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Within_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Within research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Within_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duty_to_share_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duty_to_share_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Duty to share findings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duty_to_share_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflicts_of_interest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicts_of_interest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Conflicts of interest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicts_of_interest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Medical history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Research history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>New areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Informed consent</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%82%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="موافقة مستنيرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="موافقة مستنيرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentiment_informat" title="Consentiment informat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Consentiment informat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informovan%C3%BD_souhlas" title="Informovaný souhlas – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Informovaný souhlas" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informeret_samtykke" title="Informeret samtykke – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Informeret samtykke" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informierte_Einwilligung" title="Informierte Einwilligung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Informierte Einwilligung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadlik_n%C3%B5usolek" title="Teadlik nõusolek – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teadlik nõusolek" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentimiento_informado" title="Consentimiento informado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Consentimiento informado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baimen_informatu" title="Baimen informatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Baimen informatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="رضایت آگاهانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رضایت آگاهانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_libre_et_%C3%A9clair%C3%A9" title="Consentement libre et éclairé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Consentement libre et éclairé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84%EB%8F%99%EC%9D%98" title="사전동의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사전동의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informirani_pristanak" title="Informirani pristanak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Informirani pristanak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consenso_informato" title="Consenso informato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Consenso informato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%AA" title="הסכמה מדעת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הסכמה מדעת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C3%AFnformeerde_toestemming" title="Geïnformeerde toestemming – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geïnformeerde toestemming" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="インフォームド・コンセント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インフォームド・コンセント" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informert_samtykke" title="Informert samtykke – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Informert samtykke" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Awiadoma_zgoda_na_udzia%C5%82_w_badaniu" title="Świadoma zgoda na udział w badaniu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Świadoma zgoda na udział w badaniu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentimento_informado" title="Consentimento informado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Consentimento informado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Информированное добровольное согласие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Информированное добровольное согласие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Informed consent" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informirano_soglasje" title="Informirano soglasje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Informirano soglasje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietoon_perustuva_suostumus" title="Tietoon perustuva suostumus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietoon perustuva suostumus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1nlat%C4%B1lm%C4%B1%C5%9F_r%C4%B1za" title="Aydınlatılmış rıza – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aydınlatılmış rıza" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%94%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Інформована згода пацієнта – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інформована згода пацієнта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about consent to medical or research procedures. For consent in other contexts, see <a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a>. For the <i>House</i> episode, see <a href="/wiki/Informed_Consent_(House)" title="Informed Consent (House)">Informed Consent (House)</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#b6e3c9;;padding-top:0.4em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_ethics" title="Category:Medical ethics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#b6e3c9;;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Values</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">Primum non nocere</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Conflicts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_(law)" title="Capacity (law)">Capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_to_warn" title="Duty to warn">Duty to warn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_to_protect" title="Duty to protect">Duty to protect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Cases</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Frameworks</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_healthcare_directive" title="Advance healthcare directive">Advance healthcare directive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker" title="Surrogate decision-maker">Surrogate decision-maker</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Related Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_profession" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical profession">Medical profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_law" title="Medical law">Medical law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Critiques</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/PARAMOUNT_Eli_Lilly_Informed_Consent_Document.djvu/page1-330px-PARAMOUNT_Eli_Lilly_Informed_Consent_Document.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/PARAMOUNT_Eli_Lilly_Informed_Consent_Document.djvu/page1-440px-PARAMOUNT_Eli_Lilly_Informed_Consent_Document.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3301" /></a><figcaption>Example of informed consent document from the <a href="/wiki/PARAMOUNT_trial" title="PARAMOUNT trial">PARAMOUNT trial</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Informed consent</b> is a principle in <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_law" title="Medical law">medical law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">media studies</a>, and other fields, that a person must have sufficient information and understanding before making decisions about accepting risk, such as their medical care. Pertinent information may include risks and benefits of treatments, alternative treatments, the patient's role in treatment, and their <a href="/wiki/Right_to_refuse_medical_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to refuse medical treatment">right to refuse treatment</a>. In most systems, healthcare providers have a legal and ethical responsibility to ensure that a patient's consent is informed. This principle applies more broadly than healthcare intervention, for example to conduct research, to disclose a person's medical information, or to participate in high risk sporting and recreational activities. </p><p>Within the US, definitions of informed consent vary, and the standard required is generally determined by the state.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These standards in medical contexts are formalized in the requirement for decision-making capacity and professional determinations in these contexts have legal authority.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requirement can be summarized in brief to presently include the following conditions, all of which must be met in order for one to qualify as possessing decision-making capacity: </p> <ol><li>Choice, the ability to provide or evidence a decision.</li> <li>Understanding, the capacity to apprehend the relevant facts pertaining to the decision at issue.</li> <li>Appreciation, the ability of the patient to give informed consent with concern for, and belief in, the impact the relevant facts will have upon oneself.</li> <li>Reasoning, the mental acuity to make the relevant inferences from, and mental manipulations of, the information appreciated and understood to apply to the decision at hand.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Impairments to reasoning and judgment that may preclude informed consent include intellectual or emotional immaturity, high levels of stress such as <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> or a severe <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, severe <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">intoxication</a>, severe <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>. </p><p>Obtaining informed consent is <a href="#Waiver_of_requirement">not always required</a>. If an individual is considered unable to give informed consent, another person is generally authorized to give consent on the individual's behalf—for example, the parents or <a href="/wiki/Legal_guardian" title="Legal guardian">legal guardians</a> of a child (though in this circumstance the child may be required to provide <a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">informed assent</a>) and conservators for the <a href="/wiki/Mentally_disordered" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentally disordered">mentally disordered</a>. Alternatively, the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Implied_consent" title="Implied consent">implied consent</a> permits treatment in limited cases, for example when an unconscious person will die without immediate intervention. Cases in which an individual is provided insufficient information to form a reasoned decision raise serious ethical issues. When these issues occur, or are anticipated to occur, in a <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trial</a>, they are subject to review by an <a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">ethics committee</a> or <a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">institutional review board</a>. </p><p>Informed consent is codified in both national and international law. 'Free consent' is a cognate term in the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, adopted in 1966 by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, and intended to be in force by 23 March 1976. Article 7 of the covenant prohibits experiments conducted without the "free consent to medical or scientific experimentation" of the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-junod05_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-junod05-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of September 2019<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the covenant has 173 parties and six more signatories without ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-reservations_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reservations-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment">Assessment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Informed consent can be complex to evaluate, because neither expressions of consent, nor expressions of understanding of implications, necessarily mean that full adult consent was in fact given, nor that full comprehension of relevant issues is internally digested.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consent may be implied within the usual subtleties of human communication, rather than explicitly negotiated verbally or in writing. For example, if a doctor asks a patient to take their blood pressure, a patient may demonstrate consent by offering their arm for a blood pressure cuff. In some cases consent cannot legally be possible, even if the person protests he does indeed understand and wish. There are also structured instruments for evaluating capacity to give informed consent, although no ideal instrument presently exists.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, there is always a degree to which informed consent must be assumed or inferred based upon observation, or knowledge, or legal reliance. This especially is the case in sexual or relational issues. In medical or formal circumstances, explicit agreement by means of signature—normally relied on legally—regardless of actual consent, is the norm. This is the case with certain procedures, such as a "<a href="/wiki/Do_not_resuscitate" title="Do not resuscitate">do not resuscitate</a>" directive that a patient signed before onset of their illness.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brief examples of each of the above: </p> <ol><li>A person may verbally agree to something from fear, perceived social pressure, or psychological difficulty in asserting true feelings. The person requesting the action may honestly be unaware of this and believe the consent is genuine, and rely on it. <i>Consent is expressed, but not internally given.</i></li> <li>A person may claim to understand the implications of some action, as part of consent, but in fact has failed to appreciate the possible consequences fully and may later deny the validity of the consent for this reason. <i>Understanding needed for informed consent is present but is, in fact (through ignorance), not present.</i></li> <li>A person signs a <a href="/wiki/Legal_release" title="Legal release">legal release</a> form for a <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">medical procedure</a>, and later feels he did not really consent. Unless he can show actual misinformation, the release is usually persuasive or conclusive in law, in that the clinician may rely legally upon it for consent. <i>In formal circumstances, a written consent usually legally overrides later denial of informed consent (unless obtained by misrepresentation)</i>.</li> <li>Informed consent in the U.S. can be overridden in emergency medical situations pursuant to <a href="/w/index.php?title=21CFR50.24&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="21CFR50.24 (page does not exist)">21CFR50.24</a>, which was first brought to the general public's attention via the controversy surrounding the study of <a href="/wiki/Polyheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyheme">Polyheme</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Valid_elements">Valid elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Valid elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For an individual to give valid informed consent, three components must be present: disclosure, capacity and voluntariness.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Disclosure</i> requires the researcher to supply each prospective subject with the information necessary to make an autonomous decision and also to ensure that the subject adequately understands the information provided. This latter requirement implies that a written consent form be written in lay language suited for the comprehension skills of subject population, as well as assessing the level of understanding through conversation (to be informed).</li> <li><i>Capacity</i> pertains to the ability of the subject to both understand the information provided and form a reasonable judgment based on the potential consequences of his/her decision.</li> <li><i>Voluntariness</i> refers to the subject's right to freely exercise his/her decision making without being subjected to external pressure such as coercion, manipulation, or undue influence.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="From_children">From children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: From children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_medicine#Pediatric_autonomy_in_healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatric medicine">Pediatric medicine § Pediatric autonomy in healthcare</a></div><p>As children often lack the decision-making ability or legal power (competence) to provide true informed consent for medical decisions, it often falls on parents or legal guardians to provide <i>informed permission</i> for medical decisions. This "consent by proxy" usually works reasonably well, but can lead to ethical dilemmas when the judgment of the parents or guardians and the medical professional differ with regard to what constitutes appropriate decisions "in the best interest of the child". Children who are <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_of_minors" title="Emancipation of minors">legally emancipated</a>, and certain situations such as decisions regarding sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy, or for unemancipated minors who are deemed to have medical decision making capacity, may be able to provide consent without the need for parental permission depending on the laws of the jurisdiction the child lives in. The <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> encourages medical professionals also to seek the assent of older children and adolescents by providing age appropriate information to these children to help empower them in the decision-making process.<sup id="cite_ref-AAP_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on children has benefited society in many ways. The only effective way to establish normal patterns of growth and metabolism is to do research on infants and young children. When addressing the issue of informed consent with children, the primary response is parental consent. This is valid, although only legal guardians are able to consent for a child, not adult siblings.<sup id="cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, parents may not order the termination of a treatment that is required to keep a child alive, even if they feel it is in the best interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Guardians are typically involved in the consent of children, however a number of doctrines have developed that allow children to receive health treatments without parental consent. For example, emancipated minors may consent to medical treatment, and minors can also consent in an emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Waiver_of_requirement">Waiver of requirement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Waiver of requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Informed_consent" title="Talk:Informed consent">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Waiver of the consent requirement may be applied in certain circumstances where no foreseeable harm is expected to result from the study or when permitted by law, federal regulations, or if an ethical review committee has approved the non-disclosure of certain information.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides studies with minimal risk, waivers of consent may be obtained in a military setting. According to 10 USC 980, the United States Code for the Armed Forces, Limitations on the Use of Humans as Experimental Subjects, a waiver of advanced informed consent may be granted by the Secretary of Defense if a research project would:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>directly benefit subjects</li> <li>advance the development of a medical product necessary to the military and</li> <li>be carried out under all laws and regulations (i.e., Emergency Research Consent Waiver) including those pertinent to the FDA.</li></ol> <p>While informed consent is a basic right and should be carried out effectively, if a patient is incapacitated due to injury or illness, it is still important that patients benefit from emergency experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Baren_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baren-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (January 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) joined<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> to create federal guidelines to permit emergency research, without informed consent.<sup id="cite_ref-Baren_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baren-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2023)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> can only proceed with the research if they obtain a waiver of informed consent (WIC) or an emergency exception from informed consent (EFIC).<sup id="cite_ref-Baren_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baren-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_Century_Cures_Act">21st Century Cures Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 21st Century Cures Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/21st_Century_Cures_Act" title="21st Century Cures Act">21st Century Cures Act</a> enacted by the 114th United States Congress in December 2016 allows researchers to waive the requirement for informed consent when clinical testing "poses no more than minimal risk" and "includes appropriate safeguards to protect the rights, safety, and welfare of the human subject."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_sociology">Medical sociology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Medical sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociologists</a> have studied informed consent as well <a href="/wiki/Bioethics#Medical_sociology" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a> more generally. Oonagh Corrigan, looking at informed consent for research in patients, argues that much of the conceptualization of informed consent comes from research ethics and bioethics with a focus on patient autonomy, and notes that this aligns with a neoliberal worldview.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 770">: 770 </span></sup> Corrigan argues that a model based solely around individual decision making does not accurately describe the reality of consent because of social processes: a view that has started to be acknowledged in bioethics.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 771">: 771 </span></sup> She feels that the liberal principles of informed consent are often in opposition with autocratic medical practices such that norms values and systems of expertise often shape and individuals ability to apply choice.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 789">: 789 </span></sup> </p><p>Patients who agree to participate in trials often do so because they feel that the trial was suggested by a doctor as the best intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 782">: 782 </span></sup> Patients may find being asked to consent within a limited time frame a burdensome intrusion on their care when it arises because a patient has to deal with a new condition.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 783">: 783 </span></sup> Patients involved in trials may not be fully aware of the alternative treatments, and an awareness that there is uncertainty in the best treatment can help make patients more aware of this.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 784">: 784 </span></sup> Corrigan notes that patients generally expect that doctors are acting exclusively in their interest in interactions and that this combined with "clinical equipose" where a healthcare practitioner does not know which treatment is better in a randomized control trial can be harmful to the doctor-patient relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 780–781">: 780–781 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_procedures">Medical procedures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medical procedures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The doctrine of informed consent relates to <a href="/wiki/Professional_negligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional negligence">professional negligence</a> and establishes a breach of the duty of care owed to the patient (see <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care_in_English_law" title="Duty of care in English law">duty of care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_duty_in_English_law" title="Breach of duty in English law">breach of the duty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">respect for persons</a>). The doctrine of informed consent also has significant implications for medical trials of medications, devices, or procedures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Requirements_of_the_professional">Requirements of the professional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Requirements of the professional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until 2015 in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, informed consent in medical procedures requires proof as to the standard of care to expect as a recognised standard of acceptable professional practice (the <a href="/wiki/Bolam_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolam Test">Bolam Test</a>), that is, what risks would a medical professional usually disclose in the circumstances (see <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_right_in_English_law" title="Loss of right in English law">Loss of right in English law</a>). Arguably, this is "sufficient consent" rather than "informed consent." The UK has since departed from the Bolam test for judging standards of informed consent, due to the landmark ruling in <i><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_v_Lanarkshire_Health_Board" title="Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board">Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board</a></i>. This moves away from the concept of a reasonable physician and instead uses the standard of a <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_person" title="Reasonable person">reasonable patient</a>, and what risks an individual would attach significance to.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medicine in the United States, Australia, and Canada takes this patient-centric approach to "informed consent." Informed consent in these jurisdictions requires healthcare providers to disclose significant risks, as well as risks of particular importance to that patient. This approach combines an objective (a hypothetical reasonable patient) and subjective (this particular patient) approach.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Optimal establishment of an informed consent requires adaptation to cultural or other individual factors of the patient. As of 2011, for example, people from Mediterranean and Arab baqckgrounds appeared to rely more on the context of the delivery of the information, with the information being carried more by who is saying it and where, when, and how it is being said, rather than <i>what</i> is said, which is of relatively more importance in typical "Western" countries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (January 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The informed consent doctrine is generally implemented through good healthcare practice: pre-operation discussions with patients and the use of medical consent forms in hospitals. However, reliance on a signed form should not undermine the basis of the doctrine in giving the patient an opportunity to weigh and respond to the risk. In one British case, a doctor performing routine surgery on a woman noticed that she had cancerous tissue in her womb. He took the initiative to remove the woman's womb; however, as she had not given informed consent for this operation, the doctor was judged by the <a href="/wiki/General_Medical_Council" title="General Medical Council">General Medical Council</a> to have acted negligently. The council stated that the woman should have been informed of her condition, and allowed to make her own decision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obtaining_informed_consents">Obtaining informed consents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Obtaining informed consents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To document that informed consent has been given for a procedure, healthcare organisations have traditionally used paper-based consent forms on which the procedure and its risks and benefits are noted, and is signed by both patient and clinician. In a number of healthcare organisations consent forms are scanned and maintained in an electronic document store. The paper consent process has been demonstrated to be associated with significant errors of omission,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and therefore increasing numbers of organisations are using digital consent applications where the risk of errors can be minimised, a patient's decision making and comprehension can be supported by additional lay-friendly and accessible information, consent can be completed remotely, and the process can become paperless. One form of digital consent is <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_consent" title="Dynamic consent">dynamic consent</a>, which invites participants to provide consent in a granular way, and makes it easier for them to withdraw consent if they wish. </p><p>Electronic consent methods have been used to support indexing and retrieval of consent data, thus enhancing the ability to honor to patient intent and identify willing research participants.<sup id="cite_ref-healthsciencessc_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-healthsciencessc-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_Sciences_South_Carolina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Health Sciences South Carolina (page does not exist)">Health Sciences South Carolina</a>, a statewide research collaborative focused on transforming healthcare quality, health information systems and patient outcomes, developed an open-source system called Research Permissions Management System (RPMS).<sup id="cite_ref-github_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-github-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-healthsciencessc2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-healthsciencessc2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competency_of_the_patient">Competency of the patient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Competency of the patient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Informed_consent" title="Special:EditPage/Informed consent">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ability to give informed consent is governed by a general requirement of competency. In common law jurisdictions, adults are presumed competent to consent. This presumption can be rebutted, for instance, in circumstances of mental illness or other incompetence. This may be prescribed in legislation or based on a common-law standard of inability to understand the nature of the procedure. In cases of incompetent adults, a <a href="/wiki/Health_care_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care proxy">health care proxy</a> makes medical decisions. In the absence of a proxy, the medical practitioner is expected to act in the patient's best interests until a proxy can be found. </p><p>By contrast, '<a href="/wiki/Minor_(law)" title="Minor (law)">minors</a>' (which may be defined differently in different jurisdictions) are generally presumed incompetent to consent, but depending on their age and other factors may be required to provide <a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a>. In some jurisdictions (e.g. much of the U.S.), this is a strict standard. In other jurisdictions (e.g. England, Australia, Canada), this presumption may be rebutted through proof that the minor is 'mature' (the '<a href="/wiki/Gillick_competence" title="Gillick competence">Gillick standard</a>'). In cases of incompetent minors, informed consent is usually required from the parent (rather than the 'best interests standard') although a <a href="/wiki/Parens_patriae" title="Parens patriae">parens patriae</a> order may apply, allowing the court to dispense with parental consent in cases of refusal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deception">Deception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Deception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research involving deception is controversial given the requirement for informed consent. Deception typically arises in social psychology, when researching a particular psychological process requires that investigators deceive subjects. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a>, researchers wanted to determine the willingness of participants to obey authority figures despite their personal conscientious objections. They had authority figures demand that participants deliver what they thought was an electric shock to another research participant. For the study to succeed, it was necessary to deceive the participants so they believed that the subject was a peer and that their electric shocks caused the peer actual pain. </p><p>Nonetheless, research involving deception prevents subjects from exercising their basic right of autonomous informed decision-making and conflicts with the ethical principle of <a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">respect for persons</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ethical_Principles_of_Psychologists_and_Code_of_Conduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct">Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct</a> set by the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> says that psychologists may conduct research that includes a deceptive compartment only if they can both justify the act by the value and importance of the study's results and show they could not obtain the results by some other way. Moreover, the research should bear no potential harm to the subject as an outcome of deception, either physical pain or <a href="/wiki/Emotional_distress" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional distress">emotional distress</a>. Finally, the code requires a debriefing session in which the experimenter both tells the subject about the deception and gives subject the option of withdrawing the data.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abortion">Abortion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Abortion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some U.S. states, informed consent laws (sometimes called "right to know" laws) require that a woman seeking an elective <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> receive information from the abortion provider about her legal rights, alternatives to abortion (such as <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a>), available public and private assistance, and other information specified in the law, before the abortion is performed. Other countries with such laws (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>) require that the information giver be properly certified to make sure that no abortion is carried out for the financial gain of the abortion provider and to ensure that the decision to have an abortion is not swayed by any form of incentive.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some informed consent laws have been criticized for allegedly using "loaded language in an apparently deliberate attempt to 'personify' the fetus,"<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but those critics acknowledge that "most of the information in the [legally mandated] materials about abortion comports with recent scientific findings and the principles of informed consent", although "some content is either misleading or altogether incorrect."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Within_research">Within research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Within research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Informed consent is part of ethical <a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">clinical research</a> as well, in which a human subject voluntarily confirms his or her willingness to participate in a particular <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trial</a>, after having been informed of all aspects of the trial that are relevant to the subject's decision to participate. Informed consent is documented by means of a written, signed, and dated informed consent form.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a> set a base international standard in 1947, in response to the ethical violation in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. Standards continued to develop. Nowadays, medical research is overseen by an <a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">ethics committee</a> that also oversees the informed consent process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_sciences">Social sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the medical guidelines established in the Nuremberg Code were imported into the ethical guidelines for the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, informed consent became a common part of the research procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, while informed consent is the default in medical settings, it is not always required in the social sciences. Here, firstly, research often involves low or no risk for participants, unlike in many medical experiments. Secondly, the mere knowledge that they participate in a study can cause people to alter their behavior, as in the <a href="/wiki/Hawthorne_Effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawthorne Effect">Hawthorne Effect</a>: "In the typical lab experiment, subjects enter an environment in which they are keenly aware that their behavior is being monitored, recorded, and subsequently scrutinized."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168">: 168 </span></sup> In such cases, seeking informed consent directly interferes with the ability to conduct the research, because the very act of revealing that a study is being conducted is likely to alter the behavior studied. Author J.A. List explains the potential dilemma that can result: "if one were interested in exploring whether, and to what extent, race or gender influences the prices that buyers pay for used cars, it would be difficult to measure accurately the degree of discrimination among used car dealers who know that they are taking part in an experiment."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a case where such interference is likely, and after careful consideration, a researcher may forgo the informed consent process. This may be done after the researcher(s) and an <a href="/wiki/Ethics_Committee" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Ethics Committee">Ethics Committee</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Institutional_Review_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional Review Board">Institutional Review Board</a> (IRB) weigh the risk to study participants against the benefits to society and whether participants participate voluntarily and are to be treated fairly.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The birth of new online media, such as social media, has complicated the idea of informed consent. In an online environment people pay little attention to <a href="/wiki/Terms_of_Use" class="mw-redirect" title="Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> agreements and can subject themselves to research without thorough knowledge. This issue came to the public light following a study conducted by <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> in 2014, and published by that company and <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facebook conducted a study without consulting an Ethics Committee or IRB where they altered the Facebook News Feeds of roughly 700,000 users to reduce either the amount of positive or negative posts they saw for a week. The study then analyzed if the users' status updates changed during the different conditions. The study was published in the <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. The lack of informed consent led to outrage among many researchers and users.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many believed that by potentially altering the mood of users by altering what posts they see, Facebook put at-risk individuals at higher dangers for depression and suicide. However, supporters of Facebook claim that Facebook details that they have the right to use information for research in their terms of use.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others say the experiment is just a part of Facebook's current work, which alters News Feeds algorithms continually to keep people interested and coming back to the site. Others pointed out that this specific study is not unique but rather news organizations constantly try out different headlines using <a href="/wiki/A/B_testing" title="A/B testing">algorithms</a> to elicit emotions and garner clicks or Facebook shares.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They say this Facebook study is no different from things people already accept. Still, others say that Facebook broke the law when conducting the experiment on users that did not give informed consent.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Facebook study controversy raises numerous questions about informed consent and the differences in the ethical review process between publicly and privately funded research. Some say Facebook was within its limits and others see the need for more informed consent and/or the establishment of in-house private review boards.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duty_to_share_findings">Duty to share findings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Duty to share findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Return_of_results" title="Return of results">Return of results</a></div> <p>Some researchers and ethicists advocate for researchers to share experimental results with their subjects in a way they can understand, both as an ethical obligation and as a way to encourage more participation.<sup id="cite_ref-return_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-return-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023, the government of the United Kingdom proposed making this a requirement.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/ELSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ELSI">Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications</a> research program of the <a href="/wiki/National_Human_Genome_Research_Institute" title="National Human Genome Research Institute">National Human Genome Research Institute</a> in the United States has provided some funding for researchers to do this.<sup id="cite_ref-return_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-return-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflicts_of_interest">Conflicts of interest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Conflicts of interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other, long-standing controversies underscore the role for <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflicts of interest</a> among medical school faculty and researchers. For example, in 2014 coverage of University of California (UC) medical school faculty members has included news of ongoing corporate payments to researchers and practitioners from companies that market and produce the very devices and treatments they recommend to patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Petersen2014_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen2014-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robert Pedowitz, the former chairman of UCLA's orthopedic surgery department, reported concern that his colleague's financial conflicts of interest could negatively affect patient care or research into new treatments.<sup id="cite_ref-Terhune2014_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terhune2014-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a subsequent lawsuit about whistleblower retaliation, the university provided a $10 million settlement to Pedowitz while acknowledging no wrongdoing.<sup id="cite_ref-Terhune2014_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terhune2014-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consumer Watchdog, an oversight group, observed that University of California policies were "either inadequate or unenforced...Patients in UC hospitals deserve the most reliable surgical devices and medication…and they shouldn't be treated as subjects in expensive experiments."<sup id="cite_ref-Petersen2014_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen2014-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other UC incidents include taking the eggs of women for implantation into other women without consent<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and injecting live bacteria into human brains, resulting in potentially premature deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_(Spanish).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="old paper document" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg/150px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg/225px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg/300px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28Spanish%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2347" data-file-height="3869" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Spanish</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_(English).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="old paper document" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg/150px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg/225px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg/300px-Informed_Consent_Agreement_Between_Antonio_Benigno_and_Walter_Reed_%28English%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2489" data-file-height="3873" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">English</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a> authored these informed consent documents in 1900 for his research on <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a></div></div></div></div> <p><i>Informed consent</i> is a technical term first used by attorney, Paul G. Gebhard, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Salgo_v._Leland_Stanford_Jr._University_Board_of_Trustees" title="Salgo v. Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of Trustees">Salgo v. Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of Trustees</a></i> court case in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tracing its history, some scholars have suggested tracing the history of checking for any of these practices:<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 54">: 54 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li>A patient agrees to a health intervention based on an understanding of it.</li> <li>The patient has multiple choices and is not compelled to choose a particular one.</li> <li>The consent includes giving permission.</li></ol> <p>These practices are part of what constitutes informed consent, and their history is the history of informed consent.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup> They combine to form the modern concept of informed consent—which rose in response to particular incidents in modern research.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup> Whereas various cultures in various places practiced informed consent, the modern concept of informed consent was developed by people who drew influence from <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western tradition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_history">Medical history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medical history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png/220px-First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png/330px-First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png/440px-First_informed_consent_document_Turkey_1539.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>In this Ottoman Empire document from 1539 a father promises to not sue a surgeon in case of death following the removal of his son's urinary stones.<sup id="cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selek_2010-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Historians cite a series of medical guidelines to trace the history of informed consent in medical practice. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a>, a Greek text dating to 500 B.C.E., was the first set of Western writings giving guidelines for the conduct of medical professionals. Consent by patients as well as several other, now considered fundamental issues, is not mentioned. The <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic Corpus</a> advises that physicians conceal most information from patients to give the patients the best care.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 61">: 61 </span></sup> The rationale is a <a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">beneficence</a> model for care—the doctor knows better than the patient, and therefore should direct the patient's care, because the patient is not likely to have better ideas than the doctor.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 61">: 61 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Mondeville" title="Henri de Mondeville">Henri de Mondeville</a>, a French surgeon who in the 14th century, wrote about medical practice. He traced his ideas to the Hippocratic Oath.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63">: 63 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his recommendations were that doctors "promise a cure to every patient" in hopes that the good prognosis would inspire a good outcome to treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63">: 63 </span></sup> Mondeville never mentioned getting consent, but did emphasize the need for the patient to have confidence in the doctor.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63">: 63 </span></sup> He also advised that when deciding therapeutically unimportant details the doctor should meet the patients' requests "so far as they do not interfere with treatment".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Ottoman Empire records there exists an agreement from 1539 in which negotiates details of a surgery, including fee and a commitment not to sue in case of death.<sup id="cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selek_2010-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the oldest identified written document in which a patient acknowledges risk of medical treatment and writes to express their willingness to proceed.<sup id="cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selek_2010-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> was an 18th-century United States physician who was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> cultural movement.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65">: 65 </span></sup> Because of this, he advised that doctors ought to share as much information as possible with patients. He recommended that doctors educate the public and respect a patient's informed decision to accept therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65">: 65 </span></sup> There is no evidence that he supported seeking a consent from patients.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65">: 65 </span></sup> In a lecture titled "On the duties of patients to their physicians", he stated that patients should be strictly obedient to the physician's orders; this was representative of much of his writings.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65">: 65 </span></sup> John Gregory, Rush's teacher, wrote similar views that a doctor could best practice beneficence by making decisions for the patients without their consent.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66">: 66 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Percival" title="Thomas Percival">Thomas Percival</a> was a British physician who published a book called <i>Medical Ethics</i> in 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> Percival was a student of the works of Gregory and various earlier Hippocratic physicians.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> Like all previous works, Percival's <i>Medical Ethics</i> makes no mention of soliciting for the consent of patients or respecting their decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> Percival said that patients have a right to truth, but when the physician could provide better treatment by lying or withholding information, he advised that the physician do as he thought best.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> was founded they in 1847 produced a work called the first edition of the <i>American Medical Association Code of Medical Ethics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69">: 69 </span></sup> Many sections of this book are verbatim copies of passages from Percival's <i>Medical Ethics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69">: 69 </span></sup> A new concept in this book was the idea that physicians should fully disclose all patient details truthfully when talking to other physicians, but the text does not also apply this idea to disclosing information to patients.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> Through this text, Percival's ideas became pervasive guidelines throughout the United States as other texts were derived from them.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Worthington_Hooker" title="Worthington Hooker">Worthington Hooker</a> was an American physician who in 1849 published <i>Physician and Patient</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> This medical ethics book was radical demonstrating understanding of the AMA's guidelines and Percival's philosophy and soundly rejecting all directives that a doctor should lie to patients.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> In Hooker's view, benevolent deception is not fair to the patient, and he lectured widely on this topic.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> Hooker's ideas were not broadly influential.<sup id="cite_ref-historytheory_51-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> </p><p>The US <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_v._Spence" title="Canterbury v. Spence">Canterbury v. Spence</a> case established the principle of informed consent in US law. Earlier legal cases had created the underpinnings for informed consent, but his judgment gave a detailed and thought through discourse on the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgment cites cases going back to 1914 as precedent for informed consent.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 56">: 56 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_history">Research history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians cite a series of <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">human subject research</a> experiments to trace the history of informed consent in research. </p><p>The U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission "is considered the first research group in history to use consent forms."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1900, Major <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a> was appointed head of the four man U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> that determined <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a> were the vector for <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> transmission. His earliest experiments were probably done without formal documentation of informed consent. In later experiments he obtained support from appropriate military and administrative authorities. He then drafted what is now "one of the oldest series of extant informed consent documents."<sup id="cite_ref-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three surviving examples are in Spanish with English translations; two have an individual's signature and one is marked with an X.<sup id="cite_ref-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Tearoom_Trade" title="Tearoom Trade">Tearoom Trade</a></i> is the name of a book by American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Laud_Humphreys" title="Laud Humphreys">Laud Humphreys</a>. In it he describes his research into male <a href="/wiki/Homosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual">homosexual</a> acts.<sup id="cite_ref-babbie_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-babbie-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conducting this research he never sought consent from his research subjects and other researchers raised concerns that he violated the right to <a href="/wiki/Privacy_for_research_participants" title="Privacy for research participants">privacy for research participants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-babbie_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-babbie-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Henrietta Lacks on January 29, 1951, shortly after the birth of her son Joseph, Lacks entered Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore with profuse bleeding. She was diagnosed with cervical cancer and was treated with inserts of radium tubes. During her radiation treatments for the tumor, two samples—one of healthy cells, the other of malignant cells—were removed from her cervix without her permission. Later that year, 31-year-old Henrietta Lacks died from the cancer. Her cells were cultured creating Hela cells, but the family was not informed until 1973, the family learned the truth when scientists asked for DNA samples after finding that HeLa had contaminated other samples. In 2013 researchers published the genome without the Lacks family consent. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a> is the name of a 1961 experiment conducted by American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Milgram" title="Stanley Milgram">Stanley Milgram</a>. In the experiment Milgram had an authority figure order research participants to commit a disturbing act of harming another person.<sup id="cite_ref-baumrind_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baumrind-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the experiment he would reveal that he had deceived the participants and that they had not hurt anyone, but the research participants were upset at the experience of having participated in the research.<sup id="cite_ref-baumrind_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baumrind-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experiment raised broad discussion on the ethics of recruiting participants for research without giving them full information about the nature of the research.<sup id="cite_ref-baumrind_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baumrind-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chester_M._Southam" title="Chester M. Southam">Chester M. Southam</a> used HeLa cells to inject into cancer patients and <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_Penitentiary" title="Ohio State Penitentiary">Ohio State Penitentiary</a> inmates without informed consent to determine if people could become immune to cancer and if cancer could be transmitted.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_areas">New areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: New areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the growth of <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a> in the 21st century to include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental sustainability">environmental sustainability</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some authors, such as Cristina Richie have proposed a "green consent". This would include information and education about the climate impact of pharmaceuticals (carbon cost of medications) and climate change health hazards.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_(BDSM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consent (BDSM)">Consent (BDSM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_(criminal_law)" title="Consent (criminal law)">Consent (criminal law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensual_crime" title="Consensual crime">Consensual crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Geneva" title="Declaration of Geneva">Declaration of Geneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">Deliberative democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_consent" title="Dynamic consent">Dynamic consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free,_prior_and_informed_consent" title="Free, prior and informed consent">Free, prior and informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_refusal" title="Informed refusal">Informed refusal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Harmonisation_of_Technical_Requirements_for_Registration_of_Pharmaceuticals_for_Human_Use" class="mw-redirect" title="International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use">International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minors_and_abortion" title="Minors and abortion">Minors and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_consent" title="Parental consent">Parental consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe,_sane_and_consensual" title="Safe, sane and consensual">Safe, sane and consensual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Medical_Association" title="World Medical Association">World Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_misconception" title="Therapeutic misconception">Therapeutic misconception</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Informed_consent&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShahThorntonTurrinHipskind2022" class="citation journal cs1">Shah, Parth; Thornton, Imani; Turrin, Danielle; Hipskind, John E. 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Genève: Schulthess. p. 545. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783725550227" title="Special:BookSources/9783725550227"><bdi>9783725550227</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+drug+trials+Studying+the+safety+and+efficacy+of+new+pharmaceuticals&rft.place=Gen%C3%A8ve&rft.pages=545&rft.pub=Schulthess&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9783725550227&rft.aulast=Junod&rft.aufirst=Val%C3%A9rie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive-ouverte.unige.ch%2Funige%3A43019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reservations-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reservations_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-4&chapter=4&clang=_en">"UN Treaty Collection - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights"</a>. <q>Status of ratification</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UN+Treaty+Collection+-+International+Covenant+on+Civil+and+Political+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2FPages%2FViewDetails.aspx%3Fsrc%3DTREATY%26mtdsg_no%3DIV-4%26chapter%3D4%26clang%3D_en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2012" class="citation journal cs1">Murray B (Jul 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/informed-consent-what-must-physician-disclose-patient/2012-07">"Informed Consent: What Must a Physician Disclose to a Patient?"</a>. <i>AMA Journal of Ethics</i>. <b>14</b> (7): 563–566. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fvirtualmentor.2012.14.7.hlaw1-1207">10.1001/virtualmentor.2012.14.7.hlaw1-1207</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23351294">23351294</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 Sep</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AMA+Journal+of+Ethics&rft.atitle=Informed+Consent%3A+What+Must+a+Physician+Disclose+to+a+Patient%3F&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=563-566&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fvirtualmentor.2012.14.7.hlaw1-1207&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23351294&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournalofethics.ama-assn.org%2Farticle%2Finformed-consent-what-must-physician-disclose-patient%2F2012-07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sturman, E (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272735805000498">"The capacity to consent to treatment and research: A review of standardized assessment tools"</a>. <i>Clinical Psychology Review</i>. <b>25</b> (7): 954–974. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2005.04.010">10.1016/j.cpr.2005.04.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15964671">15964671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Psychology+Review&rft.atitle=The+capacity+to+consent+to+treatment+and+research%3A+A+review+of+standardized+assessment+tools&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=954-974&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2005.04.010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15964671&rft.aulast=Sturman&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0272735805000498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodruff" class="citation journal cs1">Woodruff, William A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.campbell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1085&context=fac_sw">"Letting Life Run Its Course: Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders and Withdrawal of Life-Sustaining Treatment"</a>. <i>Scholarly Works</i>: 7 – via Scholarly Repository @Campbell University School of Law.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarly+Works&rft.atitle=Letting+Life+Run+Its+Course%3A+Do-Not-Resuscitate+Orders+and+Withdrawal+of+Life-Sustaining+Treatment&rft.pages=7&rft.aulast=Woodruff&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.campbell.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3D%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1085%26context%3Dfac_sw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadenBeauchamp1986" class="citation book cs1">Faden, R. R.; Beauchamp, T. L. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historytheoryofi0000fade"><i>A History and Theory of Informed Consent</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503686-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503686-2"><bdi>978-0-19-503686-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+and+Theory+of+Informed+Consent&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503686-2&rft.aulast=Faden&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rft.au=Beauchamp%2C+T.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorytheoryofi0000fade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeauchampChildress1994" class="citation book cs1">Beauchamp, Tom L.; Childress, James F. 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New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508536-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508536-5"><bdi>978-0-19-508536-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Biomedical+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508536-5&rft.aulast=Beauchamp&rft.aufirst=Tom+L.&rft.au=Childress%2C+James+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofbiom00beau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAP_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_on_Bioethics1995" class="citation journal cs1">Committee on Bioethics (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/95/2/314.full.pdf">"Informed consent, parental permission, and assent in pediatric practice"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Pediatrics</i>. <b>95</b> (2): 314–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.95.2.314">10.1542/peds.95.2.314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7838658">7838658</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22221051">22221051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Informed+consent%2C+parental+permission%2C+and+assent+in+pediatric+practice&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=314-7&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22221051%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7838658&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.95.2.314&rft.au=Committee+on+Bioethics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F95%2F2%2F314.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annas,_Glantz,_Katz_1977_63–93_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnasGlantzKatz1977" class="citation book cs1">Annas, George J.; Glantz, Leonard; Katz, Barbara (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/informedconsentt0000anna/page/63"><i>Informed Consent to Human Experimentation</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishing Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/informedconsentt0000anna/page/63">63–93</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88410-147-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88410-147-5"><bdi>978-0-88410-147-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Informed+Consent+to+Human+Experimentation&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=63-93&rft.pub=Ballinger+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-88410-147-5&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rft.au=Glantz%2C+Leonard&rft.au=Katz%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finformedconsentt0000anna%2Fpage%2F63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCouncil_for_International_Organization_of_Medical_Sciences_(CIOMS)_and_World_Health_Organization_(WHO)_Geneva,_Switzerland,_2002" class="citation web cs1">Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) and World Health Organization (WHO) Geneva, Switzerland, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100823205120/http://www.cioms.ch/publications/layout_guide2002.pdf">"International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 26,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Freedom+to+Tinker&rft.atitle=After+the+Facebook+emotional+contagion+experiment%3A+A+proposal+for+a+positive+path+forward&rft.date=2014-07-07&rft.aulast=Salganik&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreedom-to-tinker.com%2Fblog%2Fmjs3%2Fafter-the-facebook-emotional-contagion-experiment-a-proposal-for-a-positive-path-forward%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-return-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-return_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-return_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2024/01/22/1225670770/if-you-donate-dna-what-should-scientists-give-in-return-a-pathbreaking-new-model">If you donate DNA, what should scientists give in return? A 'pathbreaking' new model</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/consultation-on-proposals-for-legislative-changes-for-clinical-trials/outcome/government-response-to-consultation-on-legislative-proposals-for-clinical-trials">Government response to consultation on legislative proposals for clinical trials</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Petersen2014-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Petersen2014_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Petersen2014_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ocregister.com/2014/05/27/uc-system-struggles-with-professors-outside-earnings/">"UC system struggles with professors' outside earnings"</a>. <i>Orange County Register</i>. 2014-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Orange+County+Register&rft.atitle=UC+system+struggles+with+professors%27+outside+earnings&rft.date=2014-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocregister.com%2F2014%2F05%2F27%2Fuc-system-struggles-with-professors-outside-earnings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Terhune2014-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Terhune2014_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Terhune2014_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Terhune, Chad (2014, April 25). More scrutiny for UCLA's School of Medicine. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ucla-outside-money-20140426-story.html#ixzz30BvcCJIV">http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ucla-outside-money-20140426-story.html#ixzz30BvcCJIV</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jan-20-me-uci20-story.html">"UC Irvine Fertility Scandal Isn't Over"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. 2006-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=UC+Irvine+Fertility+Scandal+Isn%27t+Over&rft.date=2006-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2006-jan-20-me-uci20-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Sacramento Bee. (2013, August 25). UC Davis surgeons resign after bacteria-in-brain dispute. Retrieved from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160202041826/http://www.sacbee.com/news/investigations/article2578591.html">"UC Davis surgeons resign after bacteria-in-brain dispute | the Sacramento Bee"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacbee.com/news/investigations/article2578591.html">the original</a> on 2016-02-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UC+Davis+surgeons+resign+after+bacteria-in-brain+dispute+%26%23124%3B+the+Sacramento+Bee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacbee.com%2Fnews%2Finvestigations%2Farticle2578591.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPace1997" class="citation news cs1">Pace, Eric (26 August 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/26/us/p-g-gebhard-69-developer-of-the-term-informed-consent.html">"P. G. Gebhard, 69, Developer Of the Term 'Informed Consent' - New York Times"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York,_NY" class="mw-redirect" title="New York, NY">New York</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=P.+G.+Gebhard%2C+69%2C+Developer+Of+the+Term+%27Informed+Consent%27+-+New+York+Times&rft.date=1997-08-26&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Pace&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F08%2F26%2Fus%2Fp-g-gebhard-69-developer-of-the-term-informed-consent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-historytheory-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytheory_51-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadenBeauchampKing1986" class="citation book cs1">Faden, Ruth R.; Beauchamp, Tom L.; King, Nancy M.P. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historytheoryofi0000fade"><i>A history and theory of informed consent</i></a></span> (Online ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-5036862" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-5036862"><bdi>978-0-19-5036862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+and+theory+of+informed+consent&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-5036862&rft.aulast=Faden&rft.aufirst=Ruth+R.&rft.au=Beauchamp%2C+Tom+L.&rft.au=King%2C+Nancy+M.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorytheoryofi0000fade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selek_2010-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selek_2010_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelek2010" class="citation journal cs1">Selek, Salih (1 October 2010). "A written consent five centuries ago". <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>36</b> (10): 639. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.2010.037713">10.1136/jme.2010.037713</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20817814">20817814</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30806638">30806638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+written+consent+five+centuries+ago&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=639&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30806638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20817814&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.2010.037713&rft.aulast=Selek&rft.aufirst=Salih&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1977" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Chester R. (1977). <i>Legacies in ethics and medicine</i>. New York: Science History Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780882021669" title="Special:BookSources/9780882021669"><bdi>9780882021669</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+in+ethics+and+medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Science+History+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780882021669&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Chester+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span> In this book see Mary Catherine Welborn's excerpts from her 1966 <i>The long tradition: A study in fourteenth-century medical deontology</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzAlexander_Morgan_Capron2002" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Jay; Alexander Morgan Capron (2002). <i>The silent world of doctor and patient</i> (Johns Hopkins Paperbacks ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 7–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801857805" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801857805"><bdi>978-0801857805</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+silent+world+of+doctor+and+patient&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=7-9&rft.edition=Johns+Hopkins+Paperbacks&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0801857805&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft.au=Alexander+Morgan+Capron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1977" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Chester R. (1977). <i>Legacies in ethics and medicine</i>. New York: Science History Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780882021669" title="Special:BookSources/9780882021669"><bdi>9780882021669</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+in+ethics+and+medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Science+History+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780882021669&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Chester+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span> In this book see De Mondeville's "On the morals and ethics of medicine" from <i>Ethics in Medicine</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory1772" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, John (1772). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30515427"><i>Lectures on the Duties and Qualifications of a Physician</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Duties+and+Qualifications+of+a+Physician&rft.date=1772&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb30515427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandra_H._Johnson2009" class="citation book cs1">Sandra H. Johnson, ed. (2009). "Chapter 1: Canterbury vs Spence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/294067618"><i>Health Law and Bioethics : Cases in Context</i></a>. New York: Aspen Publishers/Wolters Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-7767-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-7767-1"><bdi>978-0-7355-7767-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/294067618">294067618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Canterbury+vs+Spence&rft.btitle=Health+Law+and+Bioethics+%3A+Cases+in+Context&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Aspen+Publishers%2FWolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F294067618&rft.isbn=978-0-7355-7767-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F294067618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaden1986" class="citation book cs1">Faden, Ruth R. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/228168485"><i>A history and theory of informed consent</i></a>. Tom L. Beauchamp, Nancy M. P. King. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4237-6352-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4237-6352-1"><bdi>1-4237-6352-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228168485">228168485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+and+theory+of+informed+consent&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228168485&rft.isbn=1-4237-6352-1&rft.aulast=Faden&rft.aufirst=Ruth+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F228168485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutter2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cutter, Laura (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7205%2Fmilmed-d-15-00430">"Walter Reed, Yellow Fever, and Informed Consent"</a>. <i>Military Medicine</i>. <b>181</b> (1): 90–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7205%2Fmilmed-d-15-00430">10.7205/milmed-d-15-00430</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26741482">26741482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Medicine&rft.atitle=Walter+Reed%2C+Yellow+Fever%2C+and+Informed+Consent&rft.volume=181&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-91&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7205%2Fmilmed-d-15-00430&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26741482&rft.aulast=Cutter&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7205%252Fmilmed-d-15-00430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._Army_Yellow_Fever_Commission_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/yellowfever/yellow-fever-commission-work/">"The U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in Cuba - U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission"</a>. <i>U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Army+Yellow+Fever+Commission&rft.atitle=The+U.S.+Army+Yellow+Fever+Commission+in+Cuba+-+U.S.+Army+Yellow+Fever+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexhibits.hsl.virginia.edu%2Fyellowfever%2Fyellow-fever-commission-work%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-babbie-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-babbie_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-babbie_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabbie2010" class="citation book cs1">Babbie, Earl (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780495598428"><i>The practice of social research</i></a></span> (12th ed.). Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495598411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495598411"><bdi>978-0495598411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+practice+of+social+research&rft.place=Belmont%2C+Calif&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0495598411&rft.aulast=Babbie&rft.aufirst=Earl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780495598428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baumrind-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baumrind_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baumrind_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baumrind_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumrind1964" class="citation journal cs1">Baumrind, D. 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"Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram's "Behavioral Study of Obedience."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>19</b> (6): 421–423. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0040128">10.1037/h0040128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Some+thoughts+on+ethics+of+research%3A+After+reading+Milgram%27s+%22Behavioral+Study+of+Obedience.%22&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=421-423&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0040128&rft.aulast=Baumrind&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkloot2010" class="citation book cs1">Skloot, Rebecca (2010). <i>The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks</i>. New York: Braodway Paperbacks. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Life+of+Henrietta+Lacks&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Braodway+Paperbacks&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Skloot&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeane-Drummond2020" class="citation journal cs1">Deane-Drummond, Celia E. (2020-04-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/20502877.2020.1767915">"Principles of Green Bioethics"</a>. <i>The New Bioethics</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 190–194. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20502877.2020.1767915">10.1080/20502877.2020.1767915</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2050-2877">2050-2877</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221052407">221052407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Bioethics&rft.atitle=Principles+of+Green+Bioethics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190-194&rft.date=2020-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221052407%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2050-2877&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F20502877.2020.1767915&rft.aulast=Deane-Drummond&rft.aufirst=Celia+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F20502877.2020.1767915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichieKesselheimJones2023" class="citation journal cs1">Richie, Cristina; Kesselheim, Aaron S.; Jones, David S. (2023-01-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)02545-4/abstract">"Climate change and the prescription pad"</a>. <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>401</b> (10372): 178–179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2822%2902545-4">10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02545-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736">0140-6736</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36566765">36566765</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254990042">254990042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=Climate+change+and+the+prescription+pad&rft.volume=401&rft.issue=10372&rft.pages=178-179&rft.date=2023-01-21&rft.issn=0140-6736&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254990042%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36566765&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2822%2902545-4&rft.aulast=Richie&rft.aufirst=Cristina&rft.au=Kesselheim%2C+Aaron+S.&rft.au=Jones%2C+David+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelancet.com%2Fjournals%2Flancet%2Farticle%2FPIIS0140-6736%2822%2902545-4%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformed+consent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Doctrine of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theories</a></th><td 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death">Cardiac death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Court_intervention&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Court intervention (page does not exist)">Court intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ethics committee (disambiguation)">Ethics committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">Executor</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Family_meeting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Family meeting (page does not exist)">Family meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next_of_kin" title="Next of kin">Next of kin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_proxy" title="Healthcare proxy">Health care proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transplant_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transplant ethics (page does not exist)">Transplant ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural differences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medical_ethics" title="Jewish medical ethics">Jewish medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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title="Competence (law)">Competence (law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">Competency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompetency" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompetency">Incompetency</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Termination_of_the_patient-physician_relationship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Termination of the patient-physician relationship (page does not exist)">Termination of the patient-physician relationship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_challenge_study" title="Human challenge study">Human challenge study</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Research_participant_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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(ethics)">Beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice (ethics)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">Respect for persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_for_research_participants" title="Privacy for research participants">Privacy for research participants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_withdraw" title="Right to withdraw">Right to withdraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_of_results" title="Return of results">Return of results</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informed consent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethical systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical research ethics">Clinical research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biobank_ethics" title="Biobank ethics">Biobank ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Guidelines_for_human_subject_research" title="Guidelines for human subject research">Guidelines for human subject research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">List of medical ethics cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Rule" title="Common Rule">Common Rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monitoring_in_clinical_trials" title="Monitoring in clinical trials">Monitoring in clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">Ethics committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_monitoring_committee" title="Data monitoring committee">Data monitoring committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_advisory_board" title="Community advisory board">Community advisory board</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medical_sociology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_Sociology" title="Template:Medical Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Medical_Sociology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Medical Sociology (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medical_sociology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">of sexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_paternalism" title="Medical paternalism">Medical paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medical care</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">Doctor-patient relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared decision making">Shared decision making</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Medical_sociology">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics#Medical_sociology" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">Health professionals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden curriculum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sick_role" title="Sick role">Sick role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labelling_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Labelling theory">Labelling theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Anthropology">Medical Anthropology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Freidson" title="Eliot Freidson">Eliot Freidson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_advocacy" title="Patient advocacy">Patient advocacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table 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