CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Austro-Hungarian Monarchy</title><script src="https://dtyry4ejybx0.cloudfront.net/js/cmp/cleanmediacmp.js?ver=0104" async="true"></script><script defer data-domain="newadvent.org" src="https://plausible.io/js/script.js"></script><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02121b.htm"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="description" content="The European monarchy whose dominions have for their main life-distributing artery the River Danube, in its course from Engelhartszell, near Passau, to Orsova. South of the Danube lie the Austrian Alpine provinces and the provinces of Carinthia and Carnola; north of the Danube are the Carpathian and Sudetic provinces"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="RSS" href="http://feeds.newadvent.org/bestoftheweb?format=xml"><link rel="icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><link rel="shortcut icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><meta name="robots" content="noodp"><link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="../utility/screen6.css" media="screen"></head> <body class="cathen" id="02121b.htm">   <div id="capitalcity"><table summary="Logo" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"><tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"><a href="../"><img height=36 width=153 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></td><td align="right"> <form id="searchbox_000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0" action="../utility/search.htm">  <input type="hidden" name="safe" value="active"> <input type="hidden" name="cx" value="000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0"/> <input type="hidden" name="cof" value="FORID:9"/>  <label for="searchQuery" id="searchQueryLabel">Search:</label> <input id="searchQuery" name="q" type="text" size="25" aria-labelledby="searchQueryLabel"/>  <label for="submitButton" id="submitButtonLabel" class="visually-hidden">Submit Search</label> <input id="submitButton" type="submit" name="sa" value="Search" aria-labelledby="submitButtonLabel"/> </form> <table summary="Spacer" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td height="2"></td></tr></table> <table summary="Tabs" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../"> Home </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_white_on_color" href="../cathen/index.html"> Encyclopedia </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../summa/index.html"> Summa </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../fathers/index.html"> Fathers </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../bible/gen001.htm"> Bible </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../library/index.html"> Library </a></td> </tr></table> </td> </tr></table><table summary="Alphabetical index" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"> <a href="../cathen/a.htm"> A </a><a href="../cathen/b.htm"> B </a><a href="../cathen/c.htm"> C </a><a href="../cathen/d.htm"> D </a><a href="../cathen/e.htm"> E </a><a href="../cathen/f.htm"> F </a><a href="../cathen/g.htm"> G </a><a href="../cathen/h.htm"> H </a><a href="../cathen/i.htm"> I </a><a href="../cathen/j.htm"> J </a><a href="../cathen/k.htm"> K </a><a href="../cathen/l.htm"> L </a><a href="../cathen/m.htm"> M </a><a href="../cathen/n.htm"> N </a><a href="../cathen/o.htm"> O </a><a href="../cathen/p.htm"> P </a><a href="../cathen/q.htm"> Q </a><a href="../cathen/r.htm"> R </a><a href="../cathen/s.htm"> S </a><a href="../cathen/t.htm"> T </a><a href="../cathen/u.htm"> U </a><a href="../cathen/v.htm"> V </a><a href="../cathen/w.htm"> W </a><a href="../cathen/x.htm"> X </a><a href="../cathen/y.htm"> Y </a><a href="../cathen/z.htm"> Z </a> </td></tr></table></div> <div id="mobilecity" style="text-align: center; "><a href="../"><img height=24 width=102 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></div>  <div id="mi5"><a href="../">Home</a> > <a href="../cathen">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> > <a href="../cathen/a.htm">A</a> > The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy</div> <div id="springfield2"> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-top' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <h1>The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy</h1> <a href="https://gumroad.com/l/na2">Please help support the mission of New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...</a> By this name is designated the <a href="../cathen/05607b.htm">European</a> monarchy whose dominions have for their main life-distributing artery the River Danube, in its course from Engelhartszell, near <a href="../cathen/11519a.htm">Passau</a>, to Orsova. South of the Danube lie the Austrian Alpine provinces and the provinces of Carinthia and Carnola; north of the Danube are the Carpathian and Sudetic provinces. <h2>Area and population</h2> The monarchy as a whole has an area of about 262,577 square miles (680,887 square kilometres), and a population of about 48,592,000. This gives it the second place in population, among the political divisions of <a href="../cathen/05607b.htm">Europe</a>. The average density of its population is, approximately, 185 to the square mile. The monarchy holds sway over: (a) the kingdoms and provinces represented in the Austrian Parliament, or Reichsrat, which have together an area of 115,695 sq. m. (300,008 sq. km.) and a population of 26,969,812; (b) the provinces of the Hungarian Crown which have a total area of 127,204 sq. m. (329,851 sq. km.) and a population of 19,985,465; (c) Bosnia and Herzegovina, with an area of 19,678 sq. m. (51,028 sq. km.) and a population of 1,737,000, occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary, though still theoretically a part of the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Ottoman Empire</a>. These populations include a great variety of races. In the Austrian territory there are: Germans, 9,171,000; Czechs, 5,955,000; Poles, 4,259,000; <a href="../cathen/13278a.htm">Ruthenians</a>, 3,376,000; Slovenes, 1,193,000; <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italians</a> and Ladinians, 727,000. In <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> the population is composed of: Magyars, 9,180,000; Rumanians, 2,867,000; Germans, 2,138,000; Slovaks, 2,055,000; Croats, 1,734,000; Serbs, 1,079,000; <a href="../cathen/13278a.htm">Ruthenians</a>, 443,000. The inhabitants of <a href="../cathen/02694a.htm">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> are Servo-Croatians. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> The capitals of the three main divisions are: Austria: <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, with 1,675,000 inhabitants; <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>, Budapest, with 732,000 inhabitants; Bosnia and Herzegovina, <a href="../cathen/13725a.htm">Serajevo</a>, with 38,000 inhabitants. The only strip of coast land in Austria-Hungary lies on the Adriatic and has a length of 1,366 miles (2,200 km.). The countries which border on Austria-Hungary are: <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a>, <a href="../cathen/14358a.htm">Switzerland</a>, the principality of Liechtenstein, <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavaria</a>, <a href="../cathen/13497b.htm">Saxony</a>, <a href="../cathen/12519c.htm">Prussia</a>, <a href="../cathen/13231c.htm">Russia</a>, <a href="../cathen/13224b.htm">Rumania</a>, <a href="../cathen/13732a.htm">Servia</a>, <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turkey</a>, and Montenegro. <h2>Church history</h2> The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was created by the union of the Germanic, Slavonic, and Hungarian provinces which now lie within its territory. This union took place in 1526. Upon the death of Louis II of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> at the battle of Mohács, in that year. <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> and <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> were united to the Austrian possessions of Ferdinand I, of the Hapsburg <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a>. This union was in accordance with the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> of succession as well as the result of a free choice. Up to 1536 each of these three divisions of the present empire had its own separate <a href="../cathen/07365a.htm">religious history</a>. <h3 id="A">Early Christianity</h3> The Romans in the time of <a href="../cathen/02107a.htm">Augustus</a> took possession of those provinces of the present Austria-Hungary which lie south of the Danube. In the course of <a href="../cathen/14726a.htm">time</a> they built roads, founded cities, turned the territory into Roman provinces, and here and there converted the inhabitants to <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a>. The cities of <a href="../cathen/01661c.htm">Aquileia</a> and <a href="../cathen/14207a.htm">Salona</a>, <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">episcopal sees</a> from the middle of the first century, were centres of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> for Noricum and Pannonia. In the year 294 five <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> workmen were thrown from the marble bridges of <a href="../cathen/14027b.htm">Sirmium</a> (Mitrowitz) into the Save and drowned. During the <a href="../cathen/11703a.htm">persecution</a> of the <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christians</a> under the <a href="../cathen/05007b.htm">Emperor Diocletian</a>, in 304, the soldier Florianus was thrown into the Ems at Lauriacum (Lorch). The house of <a href="../cathen/03288a.htm">Augustinian canons</a>, at St. Florian, in Upper Austria, now stands on the spot where the body of this saint was buried. A tradition gives the same <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">date</a> for the <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyrdom</a> of the two <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> <a href="../cathen/15414a.htm">Victorinus of Petovia</a> (Pettau in Southern Styria) and Quirinus of Siscia, who met death where the Kulpa empties into the Save. Even at this period <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> must have had a large number of adherents in these districts, for already an established organization is found here. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of Noricum were under the control of the <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">Patriarch</a> of <a href="../cathen/01661c.htm">Aquileia</a>, while Pannonia was subject to the <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">Metropolitan</a> of <a href="../cathen/14027b.htm">Sirmium</a>. The last representative of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> culture among the Roman inhabitants of the Danube district is St. Severinus. The story of his life, by his pupil Eugippius, is the only written document we have for the history of the Danubian provinces during the last years of the Roman occupation. Severinus settled near the present city of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, built a <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> for himself and his companions, and led so austere a life that even in winter, when the Danube was frozen, he walked up and down over the ice barefoot. His journeys upon the frozen river were errands of consolation to the despairing <a href="../cathen/12514b.htm">provincials</a>, who saw themselves threatened on all sides by bands of marauding barbarians. In these journeys Severinus travelled as far as Castra Batava (Passau), and inland from the river up to Juvavum (Salzburg). <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> had granted him the gift of prophecy. When Odovakar (Odoacer), King of the Heruli, set out on his march against <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, he came to the <a href="../cathen/04171a.htm">saint</a> and asked for his blessing. Severinus spoke prophetically: "Go forward, my son. Today thou art still clad in the worthless skins of animals, but soon shalt thou make gifts from the treasures of <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a>." After Odovakar had overthrown the Roman Empire of the West, and had made himself master of <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a>, he sent and invited Severinus to ask from him some favour. Severinus only asked the pardon of one who had been condemned to banishment. The Alamannic king, Gibold, also visited him in Castra Batava, and the <a href="../cathen/04171a.htm">saint</a> begged as a personal grace that the king cease from ravaging the Roman territory. His usual salutation was "Sit nomen Domini benedictum", corresponding to our "Praise be to <a href="../cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a>". When Severinus lay dying the sobs of his disciples prevented their <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">praying</a>; he himself began to recite the last psalm, and with the closing words of this psalm, "Omnis spiritus laudet Dominum", he passed away (482). Six years later the Romans withdrew from this region, taking the body of the <a href="../cathen/04171a.htm">saint</a> with them, and returned to <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a>. Here he was buried with suitable <a href="../cathen/07462a.htm">honour</a> in the castle of Luculanum, near <a href="../cathen/10683a.htm">Naples</a>. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <h3 id="B">The Middle Ages</h3> During the period of migrations which followed the fall of the Roman Empire, Austria was the fighting-ground of the barbaric hordes which poured through it. Vindobona disappeared from the face of the earth; Pannonia was entirely laid waste by the Avars, a people related to the Huns. The same fate befell Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, desolated by the Slovenes, who now took possession of those provinces. The land lying on the upper Drave has since borne the name of "Pustertal" (from the Slovenic pust, "waste"). The Croats and Serbs seized the country south of the Save. The Croats are the <a href="../cathen/06081a.htm">first-born</a> sons of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> among the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a>. They were converted about the year 650, by Roman <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>. The Bajuvari (Bavarians), a people from the West, spread themselves over the whole of Upper Austria. <a href="../cathen/13229a.htm">St. Rupert</a>, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Worms, <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptized</a> the <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavarian</a> duke, Theodo, at <a href="../cathen/12657a.htm">Regensburg (Ratisbon)</a> and became the Apostle of the Austrian Bajuvarii. He travelled and preached nearly as far as Lauriacum, settled in <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a>, and there erected a see and founded the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> of St. Peter (c. 700). St. Peter's is the oldest <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> which has had a continuous existence down to our own times, <a href="../cathen/10526b.htm">Monte Cassino</a> having been repeatedly destroyed and deserted. The <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/04060a.htm">cloister</a> for <a href="../cathen/15687b.htm">women</a>, Nonnberg, founded by Rupert's niece Ehrentraut, is also still standing. The <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavarian</a> Duke Tassilo founded the <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> of Mondsee (748) and Kremsmünster (777). The Bishops of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> brought the <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian Faith</a> and German customs to the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a>. A quarrel broke out, however, between the Carinthians and the <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">Patriarch</a> of <a href="../cathen/01661c.htm">Aquileia</a>. <a href="../cathen/03610c.htm">Charlemagne</a> raised the Carinthian see of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> to an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> in 798, settled the dispute with Aquileia by making the Drave the dividing line of the two provinces, and in 803 established the border territories known as the Mark of Friuli and the East Mark. Moravia was won to <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> by two brothers, <a href="../cathen/04592a.htm">Methodius and Constantine</a>, Greek <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monks</a> from <a href="../cathen/14633a.htm">Thessalonica</a>, known in history as the Apostles of the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a>. Constantine invented the <a href="../cathen/06575b.htm">Glagolitic</a> alphabet, translated the <a href="../bible">Bible</a> into <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavic</a>, and composed the liturgy in that language. But, as Salzburg and Passau had claim to the region in which the brothers worked, complaint was made against them by the German <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a>. <a href="../cathen/01156a.htm">Pope Hadrian II</a>, however, authorized the liturgy in the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavic</a> language. Constantine remained at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> in a <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> and took the name of Cyril, while Methodius, after many fruitful labours as <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of Pannonia and Moravia, died 6 April, 885, at Vehlehrad, on the River March. The Apostles of the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a> are now (pursuant to a <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">decree</a> of <a href="../cathen/09169a.htm">Leo XIII</a>) commemorated throughout the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> on the 5th day of July. The Latin Liturgy was reintroduced in Moravia by Swatopluk, the successor of Duke Ratislaus, and soon after his death the Magyars overthrew the empire of Great <a href="../cathen/10561a.htm">Moravia</a> (906). When Moravia is again heard of in history (founding of the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishopric</a> of <a href="../cathen/11247a.htm">Olmütz</a>, 1063), it is a province of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>. <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> was introduced into <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> from <a href="../cathen/10561a.htm">Moravia</a>. Of the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavic</a> tribes which at the end of the fifth century controlled the interior of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> and drove the <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germans</a> to the outskirts of the country, the Czechs of Prague were the most important division. In A.D. 871 their prince, Borziwoy, and his wife, Ludmilla, consented to receive <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptism</a> from St. Methodius. From this time on the history of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> is an account of the struggles between two contending parties, the Christian-Germanic and the National Heathen. At the instigation of the National Heathen party the saintly Duke Wenzel (Wenceslaus) I was <a href="../cathen/07441a.htm">murdered</a> by his brother, Boleslaw I. But even Boleslaw had to rule according to the wishes of the Christian-Germanic party, and his son Boleslaw II founded the Bishopric of Prague (973). The new see was placed under the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/09550a.htm">Mainz</a>, and its first <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> was the Saxon <a href="../cathen/05047d.htm">Dithmar</a>. His successor, <a href="../cathen/01127c.htm">St. Adalbert</a> (Wojtech), met a <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyr's</a> death (967) at the hands of the <a href="../cathen/11388a.htm">heathen</a> <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a> of <a href="../cathen/12519c.htm">Prussia</a>, whom he sought to bring to the <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">truth</a>. The <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine Order</a> came into <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> with the founding of the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> of Borevnov by Boleslaw II, and Boleslaw's sister, Milada, was the first <a href="../cathen/01007e.htm">abbess</a> of St. George, the <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/04060a.htm">cloister</a> for <a href="../cathen/15687b.htm">women</a> in <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>. Duke Bretislaw seized Gnesen and brought the body of <a href="../cathen/01127c.htm">St. Adalbert</a> in triumph to Prague. Dabrowka, the daughter of Boleslaw I, married the Polish Duke Mieczyslaw, and the latter was <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptized</a> in 966. The son of Mieczyslaw laid the foundation of an enduring church-organization by forming the four <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> of Posen, Kolberg, <a href="../cathen/02761a.htm">Breslau</a>, and Cracow, and placing them under the Archbishopric of <a href="../cathen/06590b.htm">Gnesen</a>, which had been established in the year 1000. The Magyars, a people from the Ural-Altai region, moved forward in 895 into the Avarian Wilderness on the Theiss. Attempts to convert them were made by the court of Byzantium as well as by <a href="../cathen/15682b.htm">St. Wolfgang</a>, a <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monk</a> of Maria <a href="../cathen/05367a.htm">Einsiedeln</a>, by <a href="../cathen/12099a.htm">Piligrim</a>, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11519a.htm">Passau</a>, who, as successor of the Bishops of Lorch, wished to be <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">Metropolitan</a> of all Pannonia, and by Adalbert of Prague. Thus it was brought about that the Magyar ruler Géza, great grandson of Arpad, and his wife Sarolta were favourably inclined to <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a>. The real Apostle of the Magyars, however, was Géza's great son, <a href="../cathen/14287a.htm">St. Stephen</a>. Stephen received a <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a> and was <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptized</a> by <a href="../cathen/01127c.htm">St. Adalbert</a>. Upon the occasion of his marriage with Gisela, sister of the future emperor, <a href="../cathen/07227a.htm">St. Henry II</a>, Stephen vowed to give his people the <a href="../cathen/02599b.htm">blessings</a> of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a>. One of the most important measures taken by him for the security of the new <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> was the founding at <a href="../cathen/06721b.htm">Gran</a> of an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> with ten subordinate <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">sees</a>. As Stephen's <a href="../cathen/11562a.htm">patron saint</a> in battle had been <a href="../cathen/09732b.htm">St. Martin</a>, he founded the <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> of <a href="../cathen/09734c.htm">Martinsberg</a>. He also founded hospices for the reception of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungarian</a> <a href="../cathen/12085a.htm">pilgrims</a> at <a href="../cathen/12662b.htm">Ravenna</a>, <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, and <a href="../cathen/08344a.htm">Jerusalem</a>. Astriens, the <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">Abbot</a> of <a href="../cathen/09734c.htm">Martinsberg</a>, obtained for him, from the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, the title of king. Sylvester II sent Stephen a crown of gold and, according to a tradition (which, however, is not well founded) a <a href="../cathen/03052b.htm">Bull</a> which decreed to the Kings of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> the privilege of the <a href="../cathen/01640b.htm">"Apostolic Majesty"</a>. Having a great <a href="../cathen/15459a.htm">devotion to the Blessed Virgin</a>, Stephen caused himself to be <a href="../cathen/04380a.htm">crowned</a> on the festival of the Assumption, the 15th day of August, in the year 1000, and church historians have given to <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> the title of "Mary's Realm" (Regnum Marianum). <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> The gradual advance of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> in Austria towards the east is shown in the shifting of the abode of the early rulers of the Babenberg (Bamberg) line from <a href="../cathen/10167a.htm">Melk</a>, on the Kahlenberg, to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. One of this <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a>, Leopold I, the Illustrious, had already founded at <a href="../cathen/10167a.htm">Melk</a> an establishment of secular canons. These were replaced in 1089 by twelve <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monks</a> from Lambach. At the time when Leopold's youngest son, Adalbert I, the Victorious, was margrave, three youths left this region to go to <a href="../cathen/11480c.htm">Paris</a> to study. While on their way, they were <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to spend a night in the open and fell to speaking of the future. Each wished to become a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, and each vowed that, if ever a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, he would found a <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a>. One, Gebhard, became <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> and founded Admont and the <a href="../cathen/07088b.htm">Diocese of Gurk</a>; another, Adalbero, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/15718a.htm">Würzburg</a>, founded the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> of Lambach; while the third, St. Altmann of <a href="../cathen/11519a.htm">Passau</a>, founded Göttweig for twelve canons under the <a href="../cathen/02079b.htm">Rule of St. Augustine</a>. The canons at <a href="../cathen/06682b.htm">Göttweig</a> were replaced after the lapse of ten years by <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictines</a> from St. Blasien in the Black Forest. All three of these <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> remained true to <a href="../cathen/06791c.htm">Gregory VII</a> in the controversy of investitures. The <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">Crusades</a> began during the reign of the Margrave Leopold II, the Saint, and many of the <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusading</a> armies traversed Austria. Leopold's mother, Ida, took part in a <a href="../cathen/12085a.htm">pilgrimage</a> of which Thieno, <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a>, was the leader. The <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishop</a> met the death of a <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyr</a>, and Ida was made a <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">prisoner</a>. Leopold erected a church on the Kahlenberg and founded the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> Klosterneuburg and Heiligenkreuz. His wife, Agnes, <a href="../cathen/15617c.htm">widow</a> of the Hohenstaufen Duke Frederick, bore him eighteen children. Their third son, Otto, studied at <a href="../cathen/11480c.htm">Paris</a>, entered the <a href="../cathen/03780c.htm">Cistercian</a> <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> of <a href="../cathen/10570a.htm">Morimond</a>, became <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Freising, and wrote a chronicle, "De Duabus Civitatibus", and a second work, "Libri Duo de Gestis Friderici I". By reason of these two works he is the most noted German historian of the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a>. After a hard struggle, the saintly King Ladislaus (d. 1095) succeeded in regulating the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> and civil affairs of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. He founded the Bishopric of <a href="../cathen/07040a.htm">Grosswardein</a>, and summoned the dignitaries of <a href="../cathen/14250c.htm">the Church and the State</a> to a diet at Szabolcs. This diet is often called a synod, on account of the many decisions arrived at in church matters. The <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> were ordered to observe <a href="../cathen/03481a.htm">celibacy</a> strictly, the <a href="../cathen/08748a.htm">laity</a> were commanded to keep Sunday and feastdays and to abstain from immorality. Ladislaus conquered Croatia, whose duke, Zwonimir, had received from a <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legate</a> of <a href="../cathen/06791c.htm">Gregory VII</a> at <a href="../cathen/14207a.htm">Salona</a> (1076) a banner, sword, crown, and sceptre, with the title of king, in return for which he had sworn fealty to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. Henry II, Jasomirgott, was the first Duke of Austria. He built a residence for himself at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> (Am Hof), in which was the Pancraz <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapel</a>, and founded the Schottenkloster for <a href="../cathen/02443a.htm">Benedictine</a> <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monks</a> from St. Jacob's at <a href="../cathen/12657a.htm">Regensburg</a>. Octavian Wolzner, an architect from Cracow, erected for the new duke the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Stephen, to which the <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> of St. Peter was added. Leopold V, the Virtuous, son of Henry II, took part in the <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm#section3">Third Crusade</a> and fought so <a href="../cathen/06147a.htm">bravely</a> that, as we are told, his armour was stained blood red, and only the part under the sword belt remained white. However, <a href="../cathen/13041b.htm">Richard the Lionhearted</a> tore down the Austrian banner at the storming of <a href="../cathen/01766b.htm">Ascalon</a> and the enraged duke went home at once. While on his way to <a href="../cathen/05445a.htm">England</a>, Richard was seized at Erdberg, and held a <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">prisoner</a> by the duke at Dürrenstein. <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">Crusaders</a> being under the protection of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, <a href="../cathen/03478b.htm">Celestine III</a> put Leopold V under the ban. To this the duke paid no attention; but when he fell with his horse, at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a>, broke a leg, and found himself near death, his <a href="../cathen/04268a.htm">conscience</a> smote him; he sent for Albert III, <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a>, who was in the neighbourhood, and received <a href="../cathen/01061a.htm">absolution</a> from him. <a href="../cathen/06252b.htm">Frederick I</a>, the eldest son of Leopold V, ruled only six years and died while on a <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusade</a>. The reign of his brother, Leopold VI, the Glorious, was a brilliant one. He too went on a <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusade</a> and endeavoured first to capture Damietta, the key to Jerusalem, but was <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to return home without having accomplished anything. He married a Byzantine princess and formed relations with men of Greek learning and culture. The duke built a new castle for himself (Schweizerhof) and the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Michael. The church was intended for the benefit of the duke's attendants, retainers, servants, and the townspeople who settled around the castle. The scheme to form a <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishopric</a> at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> was not carried out, but Eberhard II of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> founded <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> at <a href="../cathen/13672a.htm">Seckau</a> and Lavant, for Styria and Carinthia. Leopold's son and successor, <a href="../cathen/06255a.htm">Frederick II</a>, the last of the Babenberg line, was <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knighted</a> with much religious pomp at the feast of the Purification of the Virgin, 1232, in the castle church. Bishop Gebhard of <a href="../cathen/11519a.htm">Passau</a> celebrated <a href="../cathen/10006a.htm">Mass</a> and gave the <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> sword to the duke, two hundred young nobles receiving <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knighthood</a> at the same time. After the <a href="../cathen/03538b.htm">ceremony</a> the young duke rode at the head of the newly made <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knights</a> to Penzing, where jousts were held. Within a short space of time the national dynasties of the countries under discussion died out in the male lines: the Babenberg Dynasty (Austria) in 1246, the Arpadian (Hungary) in 1301, and the Premyslian (Bohemia) in 1306. In 1282 the German Emperor, Rudolph of Hapsburg, gave Austria in fief to his son Albrecht. To Austria and Styria the dukes of the Hapsburg line soon added Carinthia, Carniola, the Tyrol, and the Mark of the Wends. The rulers of this line are deserving of great praise for their aid in developing church life in these territories. Albrecht I founded the court (Hofburg) <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapel</a> in his castle; Duke Rudolph IV in 1359 laid the <a href="../cathen/14303a.htm">corner-stone</a> of the <a href="../cathen/06665b.htm">Gothic</a> reconstruction of the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Stephen. A hundred and fifty years elapsed before the great tower of the church was completed. With the consent of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> the same duke founded the <a href="../cathen/15421a.htm">University of Vienna</a> in 1365. The <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> was modelled on the one at <a href="../cathen/11480c.htm">Paris</a> and possessed great privileges (freedom from taxation, right of administering <a href="../cathen/08571c.htm">justice</a>). When part of the Council of Basle separated from <a href="../cathen/05601a.htm">Eugenius IV</a> and set up <a href="../cathen/06031b.htm">Felix V</a> as <a href="../cathen/01582a.htm">antipope</a>, the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> faculty of the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a>, of which at that time the celebrated Thomas Ebendorffer of Haselbach was a member, sided with the <a href="../cathen/01582a.htm">antipope</a>. But the <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">papal legate</a>, <a href="../cathen/03393c.htm">John Carvajal</a>, and Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the emperor's governmental secretary, prevailed upon Frederick III to espouse the cause of Eugenius and to sign the Concordat of Vienna (1448). The concordat provided that the annates and the confirmation dues should be restored to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, that the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> should have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to appoint to the <a href="../cathen/03252a.htm">canonries</a> in the uneven months, and that the filling of <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> vacancies at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> should be reserved to him. The concordat was gradually accepted by all of the German rulers, and up to the present time the relations between the German Church and the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papacy</a> are regulated by its provisions. In 1452 Frederick was <a href="../cathen/04380a.htm">crowned</a> emperor at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, being the last emperor to be <a href="../cathen/04380a.htm">crowned</a> in that city. In his reign the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">Bishoprics</a> of <a href="../cathen/08743a.htm">Laibach</a> (1462), <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, and Wiener-Neustadt (both the latter in 1469) were founded. During this period a great many <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">monastic houses</a> were founded in Austria, especially by the more recently established orders: <a href="../cathen/03388a.htm">Carthusian</a> houses were founded at Mauerbach, Gaming, Agsbach; <a href="../cathen/06217a.htm">Franciscan</a> at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, Klosterneuburg, St. Pölten, Maria Enzersdorf, Pupping; <a href="../cathen/12354c.htm">Dominican</a> at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a> and Retz. Under the Luxembourg line <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> attained a high degree of material and spiritual prosperity. Charles IV, before his reign began, succeeded in having Prague raised to an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> (1344), and in this way made the country ecclesiastically independent of <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germany</a>. Charles had been a student at <a href="../cathen/11480c.htm">Paris</a>, and immediately upon ascending the throne he founded the <a href="../cathen/12342a.htm">University of Prague</a> (1348), the first <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> on German soil. Master Matthias of Anras and Peter Parler from Schwäbisch-Gmund began the erection of the stately Cathedral of St. Vitus which is now nearing completion. Parler also erected the Teynkirche (Teyn church) in <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, and the church of <a href="../cathen/02284d.htm">St. Barbara</a> in Kutzenberg, while Matthias of Anras built the fortress-castle of Karlstein. The crown jewels of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> were preserved in the sumptuous <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapel</a> at Karlstein. But <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> had a sudden fall from the height it had attained. King Wenzel (Wenceslaus), son of Charles IV, had no control of his temper, and began a quarrel with the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishop</a>. The <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishop's</a> <a href="../cathen/15402a.htm">vicar-general</a>, John of Pomuk (<a href="../cathen/08467a.htm">St. John Nepomucene</a>), refused to tell what he had heard in confession. He was first tortured and then, gagged and bound, was thrown at night into the River Moldau. At this time the first signs appeared in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> of a religious agitation which was destined to bring the greatest sorrow both to <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> and to the adjoining countries. Jerome of Prague had become acquainted with the writings of <a href="../cathen/15722a.htm">Wyclif</a> at Oxford. He returned home, bringing the teachings of <a href="../cathen/15722a.htm">Wyclif</a> with him, and communicated them to his friend <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a>. <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> came from Husinetz near Prachatitz. He was the child of a peasant, and had become professor of <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophy</a> at the <a href="../cathen/12342a.htm">University of Prague</a>, preacher in the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemian</a> language at the Bethlehem <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapel</a>, and confessor to Queen Sophia. A complaint was brought in the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> against <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> on account of his teaching. Of the four "Nations" (Saxons, <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavarians</a>, Poles, and <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemians</a>), which had votes in the affairs of the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a>, only the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemians</a> voted for <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a>. <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> then turned a personal into a national affair. King Wenzel issued a command that henceforth the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemians</a> should have three votes, and the other "Nations" only one vote. Upon this 5,000 students and the German professors withdrew and founded the <a href="../cathen/09140a.htm">University of Leipzig</a>. The <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> was now simply a national one, and <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> without interference taught the following doctrines: the church consists only of the <a href="../cathen/05374a.htm">elect</a>; no man is temporal ruler, no man is a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, if he be in mortal <a href="../cathen/14004b.htm">sin</a>; the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> dignity is an outcome of the imperial power; obedience to the church is the invention of men. <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> was suspended by Archbishop Zbinko; he appealed to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> (<a href="../cathen/01288a.htm">Alexander V</a>) and then to <a href="../cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus Christ</a>. <a href="../cathen/08434a.htm">John XXIII</a> placed <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> under the ban, Prague under an <a href="../cathen/08073a.htm">interdict</a>, and called the <a href="../cathen/04288a.htm">Council of Constance</a>. The Emperor Sigismund gave <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> a safe-conduct which protected him from acts of <a href="../cathen/15446a.htm">violence</a> on the part of the indignant Germans through whose territory he must pass, but not from the verdict of the council. <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> was repeatedly examined before the council, but would not retract his opinions; the members of the council, therefore, unanimously condemned his <a href="../cathen/05525a.htm">errors</a> and delivered him to the <a href="../cathen/02137c.htm">secular power</a>, by which, in accordance with the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> of the land at the time, he was condemned to <a href="../cathen/12565a.htm">death</a> at the stake (1415). Jerome of Prague suffered the same death the next year. While at <a href="../cathen/04288a.htm">Constance</a> <a href="../cathen/07584b.htm">Hus</a> sanctioned the receiving of the sacrament in both kinds which had been introduced by Master Jacob of Miez (Calixtines). As a former <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monk</a>, John of Selau, was leading a procession a stone was thrown at him from a window of the town hall. The throng, led by the <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knight</a> John Zizka of Trocnov, attacked the town hall and threw the judge, the burgomaster, and several members of the town council out of the window into the street, where they were killed by the fall. This is known in history as the "First Defenestration of Prague". King Wenzel was so excited by the episode that he was struck with apoplexy and died. The Hussite <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">wars</a> caused fearful devastation not only in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>, but in the adjacent countries as well. Fortunately, the <a href="../cathen/07585a.htm">Hussites</a> divided into the more moderate Calixtines, under John of Rokyzana, and the "Taborites", so called from the city and mountain which they named Tabor. The Taborites were led by John Zizka and Procopius the Great, who was also called the "Shaven" (Iloly) because he had been a <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monk</a>. After Zizka's death the extreme radicals took the name of "Orphans" because no one was worthy to take Zizka's place. They were finally conquered, and an agreement, called the Compactata (Treaty of Iglau) based on the Four Articles of Prague, was made with the moderate party (1436). The Compacta provided: that in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> everyone who demanded it should receive <a href="../cathen/04175a.htm">Holy Communion under both kinds</a>; mortal <a href="../cathen/14004b.htm">sins</a> should be punished, but only by legal authorities; the Word of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> should be freely expounded by <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> appointed for the purpose; <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> should manage their <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a> according to the rules of the church. After this, Hussitism lived on in the "Bohemian Brethren", who elected a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> at Lhota near <a href="../cathen/12723a.htm">Reichenau</a> (1467), and were finally carried into the current of the <a href="../cathen/12700b.htm">Reformation</a>. In <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> culture flourished during the reign of the House of Anjou. Louis the Great founded <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">universities</a> at Altofen and Funfkirchen, and built the fine <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a> at Kaschau. When Constantinople was captured by the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a> (29 May, 1453), a cry of horror resounded throughout <a href="../cathen/05607b.htm">Europe</a>, and the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> sent forth John Capistran to preach a <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusade</a>. The saintly <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monk</a> came with an immense following from <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a> to <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germany</a>, <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>, and <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. He preached in the open, as the churches could not hold his hearers. A stone <a href="../cathen/12563b.htm">pulpit</a> with a <a href="../cathen/13641b.htm">statue</a> of the saintly Capistran stands on the east side of St. Stephen's Cathedral, <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. A hundred thousand people crowded the square and the roofs of the houses to hear him. This was the more remarkable because Capistran preached in Latin. Yet all who saw and heard him were moved to their innermost <a href="../cathen/14153a.htm">souls</a>. The <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a>, in 1456, tried to capture Belgrad, the key to <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. The <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">papal legate</a>, <a href="../cathen/03393c.htm">John Carvajal</a>, and John Capistran raised a <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusading</a> army with which <a href="../cathen/07564b.htm">John Hunyady</a> was able to defeat, at Belgrad, a <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turkish</a> army much more numerous. This was called the "Battle of the Three Johns". <a href="../cathen/07564b.htm">Hunyady</a> and Capistran died shortly afterwards from camp fever. <a href="../cathen/10066b.htm">Hunyady's son</a> had been <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">educated</a> by John Vitez, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/07040a.htm">Grosswardein</a>, afterwards <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/06721b.htm">Gran</a>. This <a href="../cathen/12386b.htm">prelate</a> instilled such a <a href="../cathen/09397a.htm">love</a> of learning into his pupil that when the latter ascended the throne as <a href="../cathen/10066b.htm">Matthias Corvinus</a>, he gathered learned men about him, re-established the decayed <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> at Ofen, and founded a new <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> at Pressburg. Thirty copyists were kept busy at Ofen transcribing the Greek and Latin classics. The volumes, which were beautifully illuminated and handsomely bound, were known as Corvinian books. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <h3 id="C">Modern times</h3> If in analyzing <a href="../cathen/07365a.htm">church history</a> <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> antiquity is taken to represent the period of the life and labours fo the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> among the peoples influenced by Greek and Roman civilization, and the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> the period of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church's</a> life and labours among the <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germans</a> and the nations which came into contact with them, then the modern period of history must be taken as that in which the influence of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> began to extend throughout the whole world. Modern times would, according to this theory, begin with the discovery of the <a href="../cathen/01409c.htm">New World</a>. But if the beginning of the modern era is made, as it usually is, to coincide with the <a href="../cathen/12700b.htm">Reformation</a>, then it is further marked by the rise of that monarchy which was formed by the union of the Austrian, Slavonian, and Hungarian provinces under the Hapsburgs in 1526. Ferdinand of Hapsburg, the ruler of the German-Austrian crown provinces, had married, at <a href="../cathen/09273a.htm">Linz</a>, Anna of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>. When Anna's brother, Louis II, was killed in the desperate battle of Mohács (1526), Ferdinand of Austria succeeded by right of inheritance and election as King of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> and <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. The new <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a> taught at <a href="../cathen/15678b.htm">Wittenberg</a> was soon brought into the Austrian provinces. Miners were the first to spread the new teaching. Noble <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">families</a> frequently sent their sons to German <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">universities</a>, and even to <a href="../cathen/15678b.htm">Wittenberg</a>, and these students often returned with <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a>, and even brought <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> preachers with them. The constant danger from the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a> in Austria was exceedingly opportune for the new religious movement. One of the first preachers of the new <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a> in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> was Paul of Spretten (Speratus), a Swabian, who had been driven out of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> on account of his <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheran</a> views. The new <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a> entered <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a> through merchants who brought <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheran</a> books with them, and it took hold, more especially, among the German population of the Zipser region and among the Saxons of <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a>. Mátyás Biro, known as Devay, from the place of his origin, Deva in <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a>, has been called "the <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Luther</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>". Most of the Hungarian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> had fallen at the battle of Mohács, and the subsequent disputes concerning the succession to the throne distracted the monarchy. For these reasons the new doctrines spread rapidly, and Devay was able to bring over to it such noble <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">families</a> as the Batthyany and Bocskay. It was then that <a href="../cathen/03198a.htm">Calvinism</a> began to be called in <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> Magyar hit (Hungarian <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>), <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheranism</a> Nemes hit (German <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>), and <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholicism</a> Igaz hit (Right <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>). Equal success accompanied the preaching of John Gross of Cronstadt in <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a>, despite the efforts of Georgy Utyeszenich to check him. Utyeszenich (also called, after his mother, Marinuzzi) was <a href="../cathen/12427c.htm">prior</a> of the Pauline <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> at Szenstochov near <a href="../cathen/04464c.htm">Cracow</a>, and governed <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a> as guardian of John Sigismund Zápolyas. Gross added Honter to his name in memory of his deliverance by an elder bush (in the <a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvanian</a> dialect hontert) from death by drowning. In order to secure the crown for her son, John Sigismund Zápolyas, his mother, Isabella, was <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to sanction the decisions of the diet which met at Thorenburg (Torda) near Klausenburg. These granted to adherents of the Augsburg Confession equal <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> with the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a>. In <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> and Moravia <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheranism</a> first found adherents among the <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germans</a> and especially among the <a href="../cathen/13674a.htm">sect</a> of the Utraquists. Just as the Hapsburg Dynasty showed itself at this period to be the shield of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> against the advance of <a href="../cathen/10424a.htm">Islam</a>, so also it <a href="../cathen/12454c.htm">proved</a> itself by its constancy and <a href="../cathen/15753a.htm">zeal</a> to be the support of the Faith against the religious innovations. <a href="../cathen/12129a.htm">Pope Pius IV</a> conceded the cup to the <a href="../cathen/08748a.htm">laity</a> in the <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdioceses</a> of <a href="../cathen/06721b.htm">Gran</a> and Prague, a concession, however, withdrawn by <a href="../cathen/12130a.htm">St. Pius V</a>. Ferdinand I sought in many ways to be of aid: by his mandates, by the inspection of <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">convents</a> and <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parishes</a>, by his care in selecting competent <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a>, by the introduction of the newly established <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Society of Jesus</a>, and by proposals which were sent to the <a href="../cathen/15030c.htm">Council of Trent</a> in support of reforms. The mandates of Ferdinand were of little use, but the inspections and the enforcement of the decisions of the <a href="../cathen/15030c.htm">Council of Trent</a> had effect. The Bishops of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, Fabri (Heigerlein), and <a href="../cathen/10719a.htm">Frederick Nausea</a> (a Latinization of <a href="../cathen/06721b.htm">Gran</a>; Nausia, horror, disgust) were unusual men. With unflagging <a href="../cathen/15753a.htm">zeal</a> both preached on <a href="../cathen/14335a.htm">Sundays</a> and feast days in the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">Cathedral</a> of St. Stephen and took part in the religious movement by the publication of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> pamphlets. <a href="../cathen/10719a.htm">Nausea's</a> sermons are characterized in a rude rhyme of the day:— <blockquote>Viel tausend Menschen standen da Es predigt Bischof Nausea, Wie er denn pflegt zu aller Zeit Sein' Schäflein zgebn selbst die Weid.</blockquote> "Many thousands gather where <a href="../cathen/10719a.htm">Bishop Nausea</a> preaches, and himself, as his wont is, feeds his flock".—In the Austrian provinces the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a> were the most important factor in the defence of the Faith and the elevation of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> life. Ferdinand I obtained from St. Ignatius the founding of a <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuit</a> <a href="../cathen/04107b.htm">college</a> in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. The first two <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a> came to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in 1551. They were followed, the next year, by <a href="../cathen/11756c.htm">St. Peter Canisius</a>, the first German member of the order, were assigned the abandoned <a href="../cathen/03354a.htm">Carmelite</a> <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monastery</a> Am Hof, obtained two chairs in the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> faculty, and founded a gymnasium with a <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminary</a> attached. <a href="../cathen/11756c.htm">St. Peter Canisius</a> was named court preacher, and for a time was administrator of the <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Diocese of Vienna</a>. He still influences the present day through his "Summa Doctrinæ Christianæ"; an abridgment of which, called the <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">catechism</a> of <a href="../cathen/11756c.htm">Canisius</a>, is still in use. A few year later the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a> founded at Prague a gymnasium, a <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a>, and a <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> for <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophical</a> and <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> studies, which in contradistinction to the "Carolinum" was called the "Clementinum". They also founded <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> at <a href="../cathen/08024b.htm">Innsbruck</a> and at Tyrnau. The tutor and court preacher of Maximilian II, Ferdinand's eldest son, was Sebastian Pfauser, a man of <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> tendencies. It was feared that Maximilian would embrace the new creed, but the <a href="../cathen/11160a.htm">papal nuncio</a>, <a href="../cathen/07473a.htm">Bishop Hosius of Ermland</a>, pointed out to him those inconsistencies in the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a> which prove its <a href="../cathen/05781a.htm">falsity</a>. Maximilian II gave permission to lords and <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knights</a> to follow the Augsburg Confession in their own castles, cities, and villages. David Chytræus of Rostock drew up for the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> a form of church service. In <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a> the Evangelicals united with the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemian</a> and Moravian Brethren, and called the new agreement the "Bohemian Confession". They had a consistory of fifteen to which the Evangelical <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> were subordinate. Maximilian's position in the part of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> controlled by them was a difficult one, because rebels concealed their political schemes under the cloak of a struggle for religious freedom. His brother Charles was master of the inner Austrian provinces, <a href="../cathen/14318a.htm">Styria</a>, Carinthia, Carniola, and <a href="../cathen/06654b.htm">Görz</a>. He summoned the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a> to Graz and, in the religious pacification of Brück, granted the free exercise of religion at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a>, Klagenfurt, <a href="../cathen/08743a.htm">Laibach</a>, and Judenburg. In return he demanded that the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> should leave him and his coreligionists undisturbed in their <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>, <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a>, and estates; besides this the <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheran</a> preachers and teachers were <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to leave the cities, market towns, and estates under the personal rule of the archduke. In order to counterbalance the endowed <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> of the Styrian provinces the Archduke Charles founded the <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">University of Graz</a> (Carolina) in 1586. Charles's son Ferdinand (later the Emperor Ferdinand II) was <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">educated</a> at <a href="../cathen/08007d.htm">Ingolstadt</a>, and while there he declared, "I would rather give up land and people and go away in nothing but a shirt than sanction what might be injurious to religion". When he became ruler he appointed commissioners who cleared the land of these preachers (ranters). The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> George Stobäus of <a href="../cathen/09049a.htm">Lavant</a> and Martin Brenner of <a href="../cathen/13672a.htm">Seckau</a> (the Hammer of the Heretics) were at the head of these reformatory commissions. But no blood was shed in this counter-reformation. At the distribution of provinces Archduke Ferdinand, husband of Philippina Welser, had received the Tyrol. The diet of 1570 decided the religious position of that province. The governor, Jacob of Pagrsbach, declared firmly that to grant the wishes of the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> would be contrary to the customs and ordinances of the land and, further, that it would be folly to rend religion, the strongest tie which binds hearts together. All classes agreed with him. Rudolph II, Maximilian's eldest son and successor, lived in the Hradschin at <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, where he carried on his studies in <a href="../cathen/01272b.htm">alchemy</a> and art. The Archduchy of Austria was ruled by his brother Ernst. Ernst was aided by Melchior Khlesl, who brought about the counter-reformation in Austria. Khlesl was the child of <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">parents</a>; his <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">father</a> had been a baker in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. He was converted by the court preacher, <a href="../cathen/13527c.htm">George Scherer</a>. From the time of <a href="../cathen/13527c.htm">Scherer</a> until the suspension of the order the court preachers were chosen in unbroken succession from the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a>. Khlesl became Provost of St. Stephen's, Chancellor of the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a>, and <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. During the reigns of Ernst and his brother Matthias, Khlesl was all powerful. Rudolph II having shut himself up in <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, the members of the Hapsburg <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a> chose the Archduke Matthias to be their head. The <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemians</a> held to Rudolph II, but wrung from him a <a href="../cathen/12783b.htm">rescript</a> (Majestätsbrief) in 1609. This confirmed the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemian</a> Confession, granted the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> permission to use the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a>, and gave them the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to choose a consistory; it also allowed them three temporal estates of lords, <a href="../cathen/01695a.htm">knights</a>, and cities having chartered <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> to build <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> churches and <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>. Contrary to the provisions of this agreement, subjects of the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a> built a <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> church at Klostergrab, and subjects of the <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">Abbot</a> of Braunau did the same at Braunau. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> ordered these to be closed, and when the Emperor Matthias supported them the result was (1620) the "Second Defenestration of Prague" with which the <a href="../cathen/14648b.htm">Thirty Years War</a> began. The Elector Palatine Frederick V, the head of the Protestant League and of the German <a href="../cathen/03198a.htm">Calvinists</a>, was elected King of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>. The <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a> was altered to suit <a href="../cathen/03198a.htm">Calvinistic</a> church services. The altars were demolished, the pictures destroyed, and Scultetus, the court preacher, arranged a church service. No ruler ever began to reign under more distressing conditions than Ferdinand II. The insurgents under Thurn stood before the gates of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>; those unfriendly to <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholicism</a> within the city made common cause with the enemy. Ferdinand, however, never lost <a href="../cathen/06147a.htm">courage</a>. Khlesl, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, proved to be too weak and was therefore confined first in the castle of Ambras and then in the castle of Sant' Angelo at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. He lived to have the satisfaction of being restored in state to his <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocese</a>. He founded in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> the Himmelspfortkloster, which commemorates the beautiful legend of the truant <a href="../cathen/11164a.htm">nun</a> whose place as <a href="../cathen/12284b.htm">doorkeeper</a> was taken during her absence by the <a href="../cathen/15464b.htm">Blessed Virgin</a>. After the battle of the White Mountain, Ferdinand took severe measures against the disturbers of the peace; they were driven out of the country, and finally the <a href="../cathen/12783b.htm">rescript</a>, which had been the source of so much trouble, was annulled. A new constitution was published which, among other provisions, made the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> the highest estate of the land. The emperor was <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to give Upper Austria in pledge to <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavaria</a> as security for the cost of the <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a>. The cruelties of the <a href="../cathen/02353c.htm">Bavarian</a> troops and Ferdinand's order, requiring the people either to leave the country or to return to the old <a href="../cathen/02408b.htm">belief</a>, led to a peasant revolt under the leadership of Stephen Fadinger, the proprietor of a farm not far from St. Agatha, which was carried on until Fadinger died of a wound at <a href="../cathen/09273a.htm">Linz</a>. The <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> was now again the dominant religion and the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> retired into the little-frequented mountain districts. In <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> te Government could not accomplish so much. However, Peter Pázmán laboured with success against the spread of the new religious doctrines. Pázmán was born at <a href="../cathen/07040a.htm">Grosswardein</a> (Nagy Várad) of <a href="../cathen/03198a.htm">Calvinistic</a> <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">parents</a>. At sixteen he changed his creed, then entered the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Society of Jesus</a> and studied at <a href="../cathen/04464c.htm">Cracow</a>, <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, and <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. At <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> <a href="../cathen/02411d.htm">Bellarmine</a> and Vasquez were among his teachers. When professor at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a> he published the "Imitatio Christi". He finally returned to <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>, became Primate, and gained great influence for the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> through his eloquence, the gentleness of his character, and his strong patriotic feeling. He brought about the return of fifty noble <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">families</a> to the mother church and was the author of a "Guide to <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> Truth". He founded at Tyrnau a <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> which was later transferred to Budapest, and also the Hungarian College at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. Believing that the preservation of religion requires worthy servants he founded at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, 1623, a <a href="../cathen/04107b.htm">college</a> (Pazmaneum) for the training and instruction of <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> for all the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. Ferdinand II called Pázmán his friend. This emperor raised the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> to the rank of prince-bishops (1631). When this terrible religious <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> came to an end in the Peace of <a href="../cathen/15601b.htm">Westphalia</a>, and the diplomats played with religious establishments and <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> as boys play with nuts, and invented the term "secularization" to express the secular appropriation of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church's</a> estates, the Hapsburg princes were not willing to commit Austria to such a policy. At this crisis the Hapsburg Dynasty obeyed the directions of Providence. Had the house of Hapsburg then come forward as champions of the new <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a> which originated at <a href="../cathen/15678b.htm">Wittenberg</a>, it would have been easy to renew the shattered imperial power in <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germany</a> and give to the crown of the Holy Roman Empire a lustre far exceeding that of any other <a href="../cathen/05607b.htm">European</a> diadem. But reverence for <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> and Holy Church had greater weight with the emperors of this line than worldly advantage. For one hundred and twenty years they battled with the storms which the so-called <a href="../cathen/12700b.htm">Reformation</a> had stirred up, while the armies of <a href="../cathen/10424a.htm">Islam</a> attacked <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> and the edge of the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Ottoman Empire</a> was pushed forward as far as Raab. Even when <a href="../cathen/09371a.htm">Louis XIV</a> forced his way in from the West, bringing calamity in his train, and the <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> cry of the Osmanli was heard within the imperial citadel, the rulers of Austria still trusted in <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. <a href="../cathen/08021a.htm">Innocent XI</a> sent subsidies, and the saintly Father Marco D'Aviano aroused <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> enthusiasm by preaching a <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">crusade</a>. The <a href="../cathen/06021b.htm">feast</a> of the Holy Name of Mary is a reminder that on the 12th of September, 1683, the power of <a href="../cathen/10424a.htm">Islam</a> was forever broken before the walls of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, and that the inheritance of St. Stephen was then freed from the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turkish</a> yoke. <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> sent the rulers of Austria to do His work, and that they did it is an <a href="../cathen/07462a.htm">honour</a> exceeding that of the quickly fading garlands which victory twines about the victor's chariot. During this period the <a href="../cathen/13588a.htm">Piarist</a> and <a href="../cathen/15228b.htm">Ursuline</a> orders were active in the work of <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a>. New <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> were founded at <a href="../cathen/09141a.htm">Leitmeritz</a> (1656) and Königgrätz (1664). Charles VI raised <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in 1722 to an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a>. While <a href="../cathen/06166a.htm">France</a> at this time pointed with <a href="../cathen/12405a.htm">pride</a> and reverence to its famous divines, the great preacher of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> was the always clever, but often eccentric, Augustinian, <a href="../cathen/01056a.htm">Father Abraham a Sanctâ Clarâ</a>, whose family name was Ulrich Megerle. For example, preaching on the feast of the conversion of <a href="../cathen/11567b.htm">St. Paul</a> (Pauli), he announced as his theme Gauli, Mauli, and Fauli. Gauli he interpreted to mean <a href="../cathen/12405a.htm">pride</a> and sensuality (Gaul, "horse"); Mauli, <a href="../cathen/06590a.htm">gluttony</a>, drunkenness, and wrangling (Maul, "mouth"); Fauli, indolence (faul, "lazy"). The fifty years preceeding the <a href="../cathen/13009a.htm">French Revolution</a> are known in history as the period of the "Enlightenment". The <a href="../cathen/12652a.htm">Rationalist</a> writers of this period believed that by enlightenment, in their sense of the word, a cure could be found for the evils of the time, and a means of promoting the <a href="../cathen/07131b.htm">happiness</a> of <a href="../cathen/09580c.htm">mankind</a>. Men were led more and more away from the influence of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, the loftier aspirations of noble and <a href="../cathen/12748a.htm">pious</a> <a href="../cathen/14153a.htm">souls</a> were scorned, and only the claims of a refined sensuality deemed worthy of consideration. The new <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a> made their way into Austria, and that country became the birthplace of Josephinism, so called from the <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Emperor Joseph II</a>, whose policy and legislation embodied these <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a>. <a href="../cathen/09662d.htm">Maria Theresa</a> forbade the sale of the book written by <a href="../cathen/07463a.htm">Febronius</a>, but soon its sale to the learned and discreet was permitted. Urged by her council, <a href="../cathen/09662d.htm">Maria Theresa</a> issued the "Placitum regium", made a stole-tax ordinance and obtained from <a href="../cathen/02432a.htm">Benedict XIV</a> a reduction of the feast days. By this last regulation all the Apostles are commemorated on the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, and all the <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyrs</a> in the Mass and <a href="../cathen/02768b.htm">Breviary</a> on the feast of St. Stephen. The empress also abolished the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">convent</a> <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">prisons</a>, and ordered that passages in the <a href="../cathen/02768b.htm">Breviary</a> lessons for the feast of <a href="../cathen/06791c.htm">St. Gregory VII</a> which are opposed to the increase of the <a href="../cathen/02137c.htm">secular power</a> should be covered over with paper. She also put a stop to public <a href="../cathen/05678a.htm">excommunications</a> and public penances. The last public penance (1769) was that of a merchant at Pyrawart in Lower Austria who had struck an <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastic</a>. He stood for an hour at the church door holding a black candle. When <a href="../cathen/04034a.htm">Clement XIV</a> <a href="../cathen/14096a.htm">suppressed the Society of Jesus</a>, the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Cardinal Migazzi</a>, sought to save that order in Austria. "If the members of the order should be scattered, it would not be easy to fill their places; it would cost much expense and time to bring conditions back to the point at which these <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> had left their work if they were forced to abandon it." Just twenty years later <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Migazzi</a> begged the Emperor Francis II to reestablish the order. "I can prove to Your Majesty", he said, "that even the late French ambassador, who was certainly an unprejudiced witness, did not hesitate to say that but for the <a href="../cathen/14096a.htm">suppression of the Jesuits</a> <a href="../cathen/06166a.htm">France</a> would never have suffered from the <a href="../cathen/13009a.htm">Revolution</a>, which brought such terrible results in its train. Three months before the death of Your Majesty's grandmother I heard her say, 'Oh, if I had only followed your advice and had availed myself of your statements!'" After the <a href="../cathen/14096a.htm">suppression of the Jesuits</a> their <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a> was converted into a fund for the aid of students, and the whole system of <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a> was remodelled from top to bottom. Rautenstrauch, <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">Abbot</a> of Braunau, drew up a new scheme for a <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> course, in which there should be "no squabbles of <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> and scholastic chaos". Father Gratian Marx, of the Congregation of the Pious Schools, planned a Realgymnasium (high school without Greek) with six classes, which <a href="../cathen/12454c.htm">proved</a> very successful. The common <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, which <a href="../cathen/09662d.htm">Maria Theresa</a> had called a political necessity, were reorganized by <a href="../cathen/06027a.htm">Abbot John Ignaz Felbiger</a> of Sagen in <a href="../cathen/12519c.htm">Prussian</a> Silesia, each <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> being given a primary <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a>, each district a high school, and the capital of each province a normal <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> with which an institute for training teachers was connected. <a href="../cathen/06027a.htm">Felbiger</a> wrote the <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> books. The <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> at Kaplitz in southern <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>, under the supervision of the <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a>, Ferdinand Kindermann, was noted as a model <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a>. In ten years <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a> published 6,200 <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> court regulations, and ordinances. Even those measures which were good and appropriate in themselves generally bore the evidences of precipitancy. His very first ordinances were directed against the government of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> and aroused discontent by their interference with the affairs of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. The acceptance of <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> decrees without the sanction of the Government was forbidden. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> were forbidden to apply for, or make use of, the quinquennial faculties of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>, on the ground that they had full authority to act for themselves. On the other hand, they were not allowed to issue pastoral letters or instructions without the sanction of the Government. The Government soon began to close those <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> which were not occupied with the spiritual care of a community, teaching, or nursing, and all the brotherhoods were suspended. About 738 <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">religious houses</a> were closed; 13 in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> alone; 51 in Lower Austria. The <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a> of these conventual institutions was turned into a fund for church expenses, which was to be administered by the several provinces. In Lower Auistria alone 231 new <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parishes</a> were formed. Much discontent was caused by the appointment of an "ecclesiastical court commission" which issued a number of arbitrary regulations concerning public worship; only one Mass was to be celebrated in a church, and that at the <a href="../cathen/07346b.htm">high altar</a>; in <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> churches, during the seasons of <a href="../cathen/05789c.htm">fasting</a>, only two fast-day sermons, on Wednesday and Friday, must be preached; afternoon devotions, the <a href="../cathen/09286a.htm">Litany</a> of Loretto, and the <a href="../cathen/13184b.htm">Rosary</a> were forbidden; a requiem might be celebrated in a <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> church upon the occasion of a death, but not upon the anniversary; it was forbidden to expose the <a href="../cathen/05584a.htm">Blessed Sacrament</a> in a <a href="../cathen/11344a.htm">monstrance</a>, the <a href="../cathen/03767a.htm">ciborium</a> must be used instead; only when the Host was displayed could more than six candles be placed on the altar. A special regulation forbade the dressing of <a href="../cathen/13641b.htm">statues</a> of the Virgin and ordered that the bodies of the dead should be buried in sacks and covered with quicklime. Further ordinances forbade the illumination and ornamentation of sacred pictures, the exhibition of <a href="../cathen/12734a.htm">relics</a>, and <a href="../cathen/12085a.htm">pilgrimages</a>. The Edict of Toleration (1781) granted the private exercise of their religion to <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutherans</a> and <a href="../cathen/03198a.htm">Calvinists</a>. The marriage law of 1783 runs: "Marriage in itself is regarded as a purely civil contract. Both this contract and the privileges and <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligations</a> arising from it are entirely dependent for their character and force on the secular <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> of the land." In 1783, also, all <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, episcopal and monastic, for the training of the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> were abolished, and general <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminaries</a> were founded at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, Budapest, <a href="../cathen/11592b.htm">Pavia</a>, and <a href="../cathen/09391a.htm">Louvain</a>, with branches at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a>, <a href="../cathen/11247a.htm">Olmütz</a>, <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, <a href="../cathen/08024b.htm">Innsbruck</a>, <a href="../cathen/06264a.htm">Freiburg</a>, and Pressburg. This measure was intended to check the influence of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in the training of <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a>, and to obtain devoted servants of the State. The Minister of State, Van Swieten, took care that the new <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> were supplied with suitable teachers and superintendents. The first lodge of <a href="../cathen/09771a.htm">Freemasons</a>, "Zu den drei Kanonen", was formed at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in 1742; a lodge called "Zu den gekrönten Sternen und zur Redlichkeit" was formed soon after at Prague. <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a>, however, had no alliance with <a href="../cathen/09771a.htm">Freemasons</a>. "I know little about their secrets", he said, "as I never had the curiosity to take part in their mummeries". Still, his words, "The Freemason societies increase and are now to be found in the smallest cities", show the rapid growth of the order. Although many of the representatives of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> failed to meet the new tendencies with force and <a href="../cathen/06147a.htm">courage</a>, the Prince-Archbishop of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Cardinal Migazzi</a>, attacked them boldly. He wrote vigorously and defended the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> with energy. He was well supported by the <a href="../cathen/12423b.htm">Primate</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>, Count Joseph Batthyányi, and in the lower provinces by the Cardinal Count von Frankenberg. But their efforts were in vain; the movement continued to grow. In this condition of affairs <a href="../cathen/12131a.htm">Pius VI</a> felt it <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> to take some action, and he resolved to visit <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. This visit (1782) was very opportune for the emperor and the leaders of the new tendency in the empire. Hybel issued the libellous pamphlet, "Was ist der Papst?" The value of the pamphlet literature of the Josephinist movement is not in proportion to its amount. The roads traversed by the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> cortège were lined with the faithful who were eager to obtain the blessing of the <a href="../cathen/12131a.htm">Holy Father</a>. The emperor met the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> at <a href="../cathen/15618c.htm">Wiener-Neustadt</a>, and on the 22d of March the two heads of the <a href="../cathen/03699b.htm">Christian world</a> entered the imperial city. The emperor showed the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> every attention, but his chancellor of state, <a href="../cathen/08611b.htm">Prince Kaunitz</a>, was less considerate. At <a href="../cathen/05224d.htm">Easter</a> the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> celebrated High Mass in the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Stephen and afterwards blessed, from the balcony of the church facing Am Hof, the vast throng which filled the square. But the object of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope's</a> visit was gained only in part, although it may be said that the Josephinist fanaticism began to give place to a more sober mood. When the Holy Father left <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, 22 April, after a stay of just one month, the emperor accompanied him as far as Mariabrunn. Here, after <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">praying</a> in the church, the two parted. The next year the emperor visited <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, where the Spanish ambassador, Azara, and Cardinal Bernis are said to have had a moderating effect upon him. There was no break with the <a href="../cathen/13147a.htm">Curia</a>. One work of lasting value which this emperor undertook was in connexion with <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocesan</a> boundaries. He took from the <a href="../cathen/11519a.htm">Diocese of Passau</a> that part which lies in Austria and formed with it the <a href="../cathen/09273a.htm">See of Linz</a>; the episcopal residence was transferred from <a href="../cathen/15618c.htm">Wiener-Neustadt</a> to St. Polten, Bregenz was made the seat of a <a href="../cathen/15402a.htm">vicar-general</a>, and a <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishopric</a> was founded at Leoben. The worst blunder committed by <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a> in his latter years was his obstinate adherence, in spite of the warnings of Cardinal Frankenberg, to the scheme of erecting a general <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminary</a> at <a href="../cathen/09391a.htm">Louvain</a>. Van Swieten put Stöger in charge of it. Stöger was one of the few <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> who had committed themselves unreservedly to the "Enlightenment" movement. <a href="../cathen/09662d.htm">Maria Theresa</a> had dismissed him from his position as teacher of <a href="../cathen/07365a.htm">church history</a>, and his opinions were to be found in print in his compendium of <a href="../cathen/07365a.htm">church history</a>. The career of Aurelius Fessler is a still more distressing example of the influence of the new spirit. Fessler was born in <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and came to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> as a <a href="../cathen/03320b.htm">Capuchin</a> <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monk</a>. There he became acquainted with Eybel, and as an offset to Eybel's "Was ist der Papst?" issued "Was ist der Kaiser?" Appointed professor of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theology</a> at <a href="../cathen/09144a.htm">Lemberg</a>, he entered the <a href="../cathen/09771a.htm">Freemason</a> lodge "Phönix zur runden Tafel", but was soon <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to leave Lemberg "on account of <a href="../cathen/04663b.htm">debt</a> and frivolous demeanour unsuited to his calling". He became a <a href="../cathen/09438b.htm">Lutheran</a>, established himself in Berlin as legal counsellor in <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> and <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> cases, got a <a href="../cathen/05054c.htm">divorce</a> in order to marry again, and accepted a professorship in the academy at St. Petersburg. His "Reminischeces of My Seventy Years' Pilgrimage" presents a melancholy picture of long and weary wanderings. Although the reforms of <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a> were well-intentioned, yet the independence of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> suffered detriment through them. His enactments were drafted by Austrian canonists without any previous understanding with the authorities of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, and in violation of her <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> (jus circa sacra). In many instances the tender germs of religion were killed, and a careless, frivolous way of thinking resulted. Leopold II, the successor of <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a>, entered <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, 12 March, 1790, and on the 21st of the same month <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Cardinal Migazzi</a> presented a memorial concerning the painful position of the Austrian Church. As a result, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> received an intimation that they were at liberty to point out any serious defects in the existing <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> conditions. This they did, but, more especially, <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Cardinal Migazzi</a> enumerated "thirteen grievances and their remedies" in his memorandum. Among these grievances were "the lack of monastic discipline, the general <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminaries</a>, the marriage <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> and the Ecclesiastical Commission which had assumed to be the judge of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and their <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a>". Leopold II virtually suspended the general <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminaries</a>, permitted the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to have <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminaries</a> under their own control, and granted to the <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to give <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> courses. Religious processions were permitted "to a point not far distant" and Saturday evening devotions were also allowed (without Benediction, however), as well as the exposition of <a href="../cathen/12734a.htm">relics</a>. Francis II was a devout and conscientious <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a>, and a ruler who wished to be a father to his people. Nevertheless, it was during his reign that what is called the Josephinist system struck firmer roots. In the first place, the struggle with <a href="../cathen/06166a.htm">France</a>, which lasted over twenty years, demanded all the energies of the Government, and during this reign both <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> and people grew more accustomed to the Josephinist regulations. But in addition to this Francis II clung with a childlike devotion to the memory of his uncle <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a>, whom he called his second father. And, furthermore, whenever any concession was made to the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, the supporters of Josephinism raised an outcry. In 1793, for instance, the Government was informed that in the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Stephen <a href="../cathen/10006a.htm">Mass</a> was celebrated simultaneously at several altars, and that in several places, at the afternoon <a href="../cathen/09286a.htm">litanies</a>, Benediction was given with the <a href="../cathen/11344a.htm">monstrance</a>. A <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> had been the informant. After repeated conferences the cardinal obtained permission to have two Masses said at the same time in the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. Stephen, but "the Benediction could be given only once at the close of the service". The almost insurmountable difficulty in the way of reform was the <a href="../cathen/04447a.htm">ecclesiastical court</a> commission. It was the only means of communication between a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> and the emperor. <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Migazzi</a> wished, above everything, to eliminate this difficulty. "I am in all things", he said, "Your Majesty's most dutiful subject. But in his <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> character the chief shepherd must say boldly that the placing of such fetters upon the guardians of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> is an offence to all <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a>, and it is a still greater offence that this power is given to men of worldly or untrustworthy reputation, and even to men known to be dangerous or of <a href="../cathen/11126b.htm">notorious</a> character." The emperor, indeed, sought to do away with the worst features of the system which had come down to him from his predecessors. He authorized the <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">prayer</a>, the solemn benediction of graves, and the <a href="../cathen/12085a.htm">pilgrimages</a> to Mariazell (the first of which, in 1792, was led by <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Migazzi</a> himself), and the draping of "the poor <a href="../cathen/13641b.htm">statues</a> of the <a href="../cathen/15464b.htm">Mother of God</a>". <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> Man cannot at will be stirred to activity or lulled to sleep. However, at the beginning of the nineteenth century a number of circumstances combined to bring about an increase of the religious spirit in Austria. In 1802, the emperor issued two circulars, the first on "the means of elevating the <a href="../cathen/13675a.htm">secular clergy</a>" and the second on "the means of improving the <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">regular</a> <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>". To remedy the lack of <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>, the first order increased the number of gymnasia, directed the establishment of a <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> training <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a>, with a <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminary</a> attached, for each <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocese</a>, and granted stipends to divinity students. Ecclesiastics belonging to an order were to wear the habit of their order, and must not live alone; a profession might be made in the twenty-first year, instead of the twenty-fifth. Soon after this the emperor transferred to the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> the supervision of religious instruction (1808) and the censorship of theological works (1814). Repeated commands to officials required them to attend Sunday church-services. A <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> service, with a <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> preacher, was founded for <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> students. Two days before his death the emperor directed his successor to "complete the work he had begun of rectifying those <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> principles, and methods of managing church affairs which had been introduced since 1780". The <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> acted in a manner worthy of their high office. <a href="../cathen/10288a.htm">Migazzi's</a> successor, in 1803, was Sigismund Anton Count Hohenwarth, the instructor of the emperor, and a <a href="../cathen/11537b.htm">pastor</a> <a href="../cathen/15753a.htm">zealous</a> for <a href="../cathen/14153a.htm">souls</a>, who devoted himself especially to the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>. After him came <a href="../cathen/10302a.htm">Vincenz Eduard Milde</a> (d. 1853) who had gained a good reputation as a theorist in pedagogics and as a practical teacher. An important part in arousing the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> was taken by the following court preachers of that period: Vincenz Darnaut, who prepared an <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> history; Frint, author of a compendium of religious <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">knowledge</a> (6 vols.), the man at whose suggestion the emperor in 1816 established the advanced <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> for <a href="../cathen/13675a.htm">secular clergy</a> at <a href="../cathen/02084a.htm">St. Augustine</a>, and the founder of the <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> "Theologische Zeitschrift"; <a href="../cathen/10302a.htm">Vincenz Eduard Milde</a> was the author of a textbook of the general theory of pedagogics (2 vols.); Johann Michael Leonhard, who published "Christian Doctrines" in four parts and textbooks for grammar <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>; Johann Platz, who continued Frint's periodical and published "Dogmatic Sermons"; Job, confessor to the queen mother, Caroline Augusta; Albert Schlör, who produced "Meditations upon the Entire Gospel for Ecclesiastics and Priests", a work still fruitful. The <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> whom the emperor received into Austria after the secularization of the <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">abbeys</a> in the empire were also very active. Thirty-five <a href="../cathen/10487b.htm">monks</a> who came from St. Blasien, in the Black Forest to St. Paul in Carinthia pursued serious studies; twenty-five from Wiblingen entered Austrian <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">abbeys</a>. Among these were Sebastian Zängerle, who, "praying, working, and bravely fighting", bequeathed his <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocese</a> of <a href="../cathen/13672a.htm">Seckau</a> in excellent condition to his successor; and <a href="../cathen/15758b.htm">Gregor Thomas Ziegler</a>, who, while professor of dogmatics at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, wrote "On Theological Rationalism", "Foundation of the Catholic Faith", and a "Life of Job". Their efforts were aided by the converts Frederick von Schlegel and Zacharias Werner. <a href="../cathen/10245a.htm">Metternich</a> was Schlegel's patron. Schlegel's lectures on modern history and on ancient and modern literature, delivered at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, had a beneficial effect, and the "Konkordia", which he founded, advocated <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> interests. Werner's conversion was finally effected by the confession of St. Peter. In reading the <a href="../cathen/07674c.htm">"Imitation of Christ"</a> his eye happened to fall on the only words of Peter contained in the work (Im., III, liii, 1). He called the <a href="../cathen/07674c.htm">"Imitation of Christ"</a> the "pith of all books". (Tolle, lege.) During the sessions of the Congress he preached at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> with such intense feeling that at times he wept as he recalled with remorse his youthful <a href="../cathen/05525a.htm">errors</a>. For a while Hohenwarth entertained him in his palace and Dalberg gave him a gold pen which he presented to the shrine at Mariazell. Werner, who died eleven days after preaching a notable sermon on the feast of the Epiphany, in 1823, was buried at Maria Enzersdorf beside <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Blessed Clement Maria Hofbauer</a>. <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Hofbauer</a> was a man of saintly character and <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">prayerful</a> life who, as confessor and preacher, exercised an extraordinary influence over many and was a source of light and instruction for <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> and Austria. He was born at Tasswitz in <a href="../cathen/10561a.htm">Moravia</a>, entered the <a href="../cathen/12683a.htm">Redemptorist</a> Order at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> as its first German member, and was active in the order at <a href="../cathen/15555a.htm">Warsaw</a>. He suffered for the Faith, being confined in the fortress of Küstrin, and after coming to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> was appointed assistant to the <a href="../cathen/12676c.htm">rector</a> of the Italian church through the influence of Archbishop Hohenwarth. He was finally made confessor to the <a href="../cathen/15228b.htm">Ursulines</a>. Without noisy effort he produced deep effects. Among his penitents were: Adam von Müller, court councillor and author, whose last words were "Only those facts are worthy of notice which the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> recognizes as <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">true</a>"; Schlegel; Zacharias Werner; the Princess Jablonowska and Princess Bretzenheim; Privy Councillor Francis de Paul Szechenyi; Professors Fourerius Ackermann, Zängerle, Ziegler; Bishops <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> and Baraga. He converted Silbert <a href="../cathen/08667b.htm">Klinkowström</a> and <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">Veith</a>. <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Hofbauer</a> learned on his death-bed that the emperor had recognized the congregation as an order, and, filled with <a href="../cathen/07131b.htm">joy</a>, he passed away, praising <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, 15 March, 1820. Tondler, who followed in <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Hofbauer's</a> footsteps, was born only six days after his death. <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Hofbauer</a> was <a href="../cathen/02364b.htm">beatified</a> in 1886. <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Cardinal Rauscher</a> said of him: "Father Hofbauer made the final arrangement of the Concordat possible; he gave to the spirit of the time a better direction". There were at this time, unfortunately, <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> who instead of offering to their fellow-men the pure wheat of the <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">truth</a> sought to give them the chaff of fantastic dreams. Among others, Martin Boos taught that "the Saviour only demands from sinners that they <a href="../cathen/02408b.htm">believe</a> in him and make his merits their own. For this reason the formation of a particular <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">society</a> of believers in the living <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> is <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a>". Boos supported his views by referring to Professor Sailer, but was <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">imprisoned</a> a whole year by the consistory at <a href="../cathen/02073b.htm">Augsburg</a>. After this he had a <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> at Gallenkirchen, in Upper Austria, but was <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to resign his position. Thomas Pöschel, a <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curate</a>, at Ampfelwang, in Upper Austria, received a heavenly revelation that the <a href="../cathen/10307a.htm">millennium</a> had begun. This was to be preceeded by the arrival of <a href="../cathen/01559a.htm">Antichrist</a>, who had just appeared in the <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> of <a href="../cathen/10687a.htm">Napoleon</a>. Pöschel died at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in the infirmary for <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>. The <a href="../cathen/09590a.htm">"Manharter"</a> in Tyrol took the name of the peasant Manhart, who, influenced by the assistant <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curate</a> Kaspar Hagleitner, maintained that the acts of the Tyrolese <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> who had sworn fealty to <a href="../cathen/10687a.htm">Napoleon</a> were invalid. The <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a>, <a href="../cathen/02084a.htm">Augustine</a> Gruber, and Cardinal Cappellari (<a href="../cathen/07006a.htm">Gregory XVI</a>) quieted the peasants. In 1848, when, as was said at the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops'</a> conference at <a href="../cathen/15718a.htm">Würzburg</a>, "the judgment of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> was passed on thrones and peoples", the devastating storm broke out in Austria. Even Füster, a professor of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theology</a> at the <a href="../cathen/15421a.htm">University of Vienna</a> and a <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> preacher, led students astray. The Prince-Archbishop of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, <a href="../cathen/10302a.htm">Vincenz Eduard Milde</a>, issued a warning to the entire <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> "to keep within the limits of their calling". Nevertheless, the revolutionary spirit soon threatened the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. Public demonstrations were made against <a href="../cathen/10302a.htm">Archbishop Milde</a> and the <a href="../cathen/11160a.htm">papal nuncio</a>, because <a href="../cathen/12134b.htm">Pius IX</a> was said to have blessed the <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italians</a> who marched out to fight the Austrians. The <a href="../cathen/12683a.htm">Redemptorists</a> were driven out of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, and the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a> out of Graz. Ronge, whose followers abused the words German and Catholic by calling themselves "German-Catholic", preached in the Odeon at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> and in the taverns at <a href="../cathen/06733d.htm">Graz</a>. Unfortunately, Ronge was joined by Hermann Pauli, assistant at Erdberg, and by Hirschberger, <a href="../cathen/03579b.htm">chaplain</a> at the home for disabled soldiers. Pauli and Hirschberger came to a sad end: the former died in an insane asylum, the latter committed <a href="../cathen/14326b.htm">suicide</a>. With these exceptions, the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> behaved admirably. In May the <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curate</a>, <a href="../cathen/03013a.htm">Sebastian Brunner</a>, came to the defence of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> against the hostile press by issuing the "Kirchenzeitung", and the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of various <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> sent memorials and addresses to the ministry, the imperial diet and the emperor, such as: a statement of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of the Archdiocese of Moravia drawn up by Kutschker, petition of the Prince-Bishop of <a href="../cathen/09049a.htm">Lavant</a> to the Imperial Diet; petition of the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/06654b.htm">Görz</a> to the Ministry; "What are the Relations of <a href="../cathen/14250c.htm">Church and State</a>? An Answer by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>"; memorial of the Archbishopric of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a> to the Imperial Diet; memorial of the <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Archdiocese of Vienna</a> to the Diet; memorial of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of the Archdiocese of the maritime district to the constitutional imperial diet at Kremsier. All these brochures sought the independence of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, the breaking of her fetters so that she might be free to raise her hand to <a href="../cathen/02599b.htm">bless</a>. As the appeals of individual <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> had little effect, the minister of the interior, Count Stadion, summoned the Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in order to obtain a unanimous expression of their wishes. <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and the Lombardo-Venetian provinces were not included, as they were not yet pacified. This first conference of the Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> met, 29 April to 20 June, 1849, in the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archiepiscopal</a> palace. Sixty sittings were held. Schwarzenberg, the "German cardinal", presided, and the lately <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Bishop Rauscher</a> was secretary. <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> was represented by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Pécs, Scitvosky. Among the <a href="../cathen/14580a.htm">theologians</a> were Court Councillor Zenner, of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>; Professor Kutschker, of <a href="../cathen/11247a.htm">Olmütz</a>; Canon Tarnoczy, of <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Salzburg</a>; Canon Wiery, of <a href="../cathen/09049a.htm">Lavant</a>; <a href="../cathen/06051a.htm">Professor Fessler</a>, of <a href="../cathen/02793d.htm">Brixen</a>; Canon Jablinsky, of <a href="../cathen/14458b.htm">Tarnow</a>; and Canon Ranolder of Pécs. The voluminous memorials presented to the Government by the conference discussed marriage, the endowment funds for religion, <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a>, and student-stipends, livings and endowments for church-services, instruction, the administration of the church, <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> offices and church services, <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">monastic houses</a>, <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">ecclesiastical jurisdiction</a>. In the resolutions, which cover 207 paragraphs, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> marked out for themselves a common course of action. The resolutions of this first conference of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of Austria were the foundation on which the new structure of the Austrian Church has been built. Before the close of the conference an episcopal committee of five members was formed to press the settlement of the memorials, and to protect the interests of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. The chairman of the committee was <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a>, the secretary was <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Prince-Bishop Rauscher</a> of <a href="../cathen/13672a.htm">Seckau</a>. Count Leo Thun, Minister of Instruction, presented the matter at last to His Majesty at two audiences, and the important imperial decrees of 18 and 23 April, 1850, were the results of these interviews. The first ordinance defined the relations of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> to the State: <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> "are at liberty to apply in spiritual matters to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>"; <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> might issue regulations in matters pertaining to their office without previous permission from state officials; <a href="../cathen/07322c.htm">ecclesiastical authorities</a> were allowed to order church punishments; careless administrators of church offices could be suspended. The ordinance of 23 April defined the relations of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> to public instruction: teachers of religion and <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> professors could not be appointed without the consent of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, who could at any time withdraw his ratification; the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> named one-half of the examining committee at <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> examinations; a candidate for a <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> doctorate had to subscribe to the <a href="../cathen/15030c.htm">Tridentine</a> Confession of Faith in the presence of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> before obtaining his degree. On the 14th of September, 1852, the Emperor Francis Joseph empowered <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Prince-Bishop Rauscher</a> to act as his representative in drawing up a Concordat, and <a href="../cathen/12134b.htm">Pope Pius IX</a> named as his representative, Viale Prelá, the <a href="../cathen/11160a.htm">papal nuncio</a> in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. In important questions <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> was to consult with the committee on the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. This committee was composed of Thun, Minister of Instruction; Buol Schauenstein, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Bach, Minister of the Interior; R. von Salvotti, Member of the Imperial Diet; and Freiherr von Kübeck, President of the Imperial Diet. The results of the conferences were to be laid from time to time before the emperor for decision. The negotiations advanced very slowly. The Hungarian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> presented special desideria (requests), the <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">Patriarch</a> of <a href="../cathen/15333a.htm">Venice</a> presented postulata et desideria (demands and requests). In order to expedite matters, <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> spent seven consecutive months in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, busied with negotiations. The Concordat was at last signed on the emperor's birthday, 1855. It contains 36 articles. Arts. 5-8 regulate instruction: "All <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> instruction of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> children must be in accordance with the teachings of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>; the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> are to have charge of religious training; professors of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theology</a> are to be chosen from men whom the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> holds to be most suited to the position; only <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> shall be appointed professors in the gymnasia [middle <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>] set aside for <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> children; the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> are to select the religious text-books". The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to condemn books injurious to religion and <a href="../cathen/10559a.htm">morals</a>, and to forbid <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> reading them (Art. 8). The <a href="../cathen/08545a.htm">ecclesiastical judge</a> decides matrimonial suits of an <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> character (Art. 10). The <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a> does not forbid <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> who have committed misdemeanours and crimes to be brought before the secular courts (Art. 14). The emperor, in exercising the Apostolic prerogative inherited from his ancestors, of nominating the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to be canonically confirmed by the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>, will in the future, as in the past, avail himself of the advice of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, especially of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of the archdiocese in which the vacant see lies (Art. 19). In all <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">metropolitan</a> churches the Holy Father appoints the highest dignitary. The emperor still appoints all other dignitaries and the canons of the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a> (Art. 22). The Holy Father empowers the emperor and his successors to present to all <a href="../cathen/03252a.htm">canonries</a> and <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parishes</a> where the right of patronage is derived from the endowment fund for religious or <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">educational</a> foundations, but in such cases the appointee must be one of three candidates nominated by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> as suitable for the position (Art. 25). The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to bring <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">religious</a> orders into their <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> (Art. 28). The estates which form the endowment fund for religious and <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">educational</a> foundations are the <a href="../cathen/12466a.htm">property of the Church</a> and are managed in its name, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> having the supervision of affairs; the emperor is to aid in making up what is lacking in the fund (Art. 31). The Concordat was intended to be binding upon the entire monarchy, and to be carried out with uniformity in all parts. Thun, therefore, in the emperor's name, called the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of the entire empire to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. On the 6th of April, 1856, the inhabitants of the imperial city saw 66 <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">princes of the Church</a> enter the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">Cathedral</a> of St. Stephen in state. These <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> represented the Latin, Greek, and <a href="../cathen/04312d.htm">Oriental Rites</a>; among them were German, <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungarian</a>, Italian, and Polish <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>. The procession was closed by pro-nuncio, Cardinal Viale Prelá. The assembly presented to the Government proposals, requests, and resolutions concerning <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, marriage, church estates, appointment to <a href="../cathen/02473c.htm">ecclesiastical benefices</a>, <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a>, patronage of livings. The closing session was held 17 June. The emperor received the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in a farewell audience. On the occasion <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a> said: "After <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, our hope and trust rest on Your Majesty's <a href="../cathen/12748a.htm">piety</a>, wisdom, and <a href="../cathen/08571c.htm">justice</a>. When we have reached our <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> we shall strive most <a href="../cathen/15753a.htm">zealously</a> to extend the benefits of the agreement in all directions". In order to make the Concordat effectual, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> held <a href="../cathen/14388a.htm">synods</a> in their <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>: at <a href="../cathen/06721b.htm">Gran</a>, 1858; Vienna, 1858; Prague, 1860; Kalocsa, 1863. Fresh life showed itself everywhere. It is now acknowledged that <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> of all grades accomplished great things under the Concordat. The primary <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> were excellently arranged, a course of study which is still in force was drawn up for the gymnasia, and the <a href="../cathen/15421a.htm">University of Vienna</a> gained a world wide reputation under Thun, the author of the Concordat. In 1855 the Institute for Research in Austrian history was formed. Famous members of the medical faculty of the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> were the professors: Skodra (percussion and auscultation); Rokitansky (pathological <a href="../cathen/01457e.htm">anatomy</a>); Oppolzer; Hebra; Stellwag; <a href="../cathen/07611b.htm">Hyrtl</a>; Brücke, and Billroth, the last named being the leading surgeon of the century. Upon <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher's</a> suggestion the number of professors in the department of <a href="../cathen/14580a.htm">dogmatic theology</a> of the <a href="../cathen/15421a.htm">University of Vienna</a> was increased, in order to ensure a more extended course in this branch. The new men called were, Father Philip Guidi, O.P., and <a href="../cathen/13590a.htm">Father Clemens Schrader, S.J.</a>, both from <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The lectures were <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligatory</a> on divinity students in any year of the four years' course, and were intended also for <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> desirous of instruction. The successful developments of art during this period is shown in the church of Altlerchenfeld in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, which was <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> in 1861. This fine structure was built from the designs of the architect John George Müller, and was decorated with a series of mural <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a> by Joseph Führich, professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. These <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a> combine art and <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">true</a> <a href="../cathen/05089a.htm">dogma</a> most admirably, and Führich is in them a veritable teacher of the Faith. He was born at Krazau in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>, studied art first at the academy in <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, afterwards for two years at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, and coming to <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> passed forty-two studious and fruitful years there (d. 1876). Among the large number of his <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">religious paintings</a> the most famous are: The Pater-noster; the Way of the Cross, in the <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">church</a> of St. John on the Prater, <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, copies of which can be found in all parts of the world; the Way to Bethlehem; illustrations of the <a href="../cathen/12543b.htm">Psalter</a> and the Imitation of Christ; the Prodigal Son; the Book of Ruth. The manner in which Führich developed his scheme of thought in the series of pictures in the Altlerchenfeld church is extremely impressive. Pictures in churches, according to his view, were not merely decorative; through the senses they must unfold to the spirit that inner life of <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> which finds its full development in the church. In the <a href="../cathen/15387a.htm">vestibule</a> of the church, six pictures portray the work of creation, and a seventh sets forth the rest of the Creator on the Sabbath. The <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a> in the two side <a href="../cathen/01237c.htm">aisles</a> represent the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> of the <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a>, which kept alive the longing for <a href="../cathen/13407a.htm">salvation</a> and proclaimed its coming. The <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a> of the middle aisle portray the fulfillment of the promise by scenes from the life of Christ. Between the historical pictures are placed at intervals the figure of the Saviour with appropriate historical emblems, such as Christ as a gardener, with a hoe on the shoulder. This is followed by a picture of the owner of the vineyard commanding the gardener to cut down the unfruitful tree. Then Christ as shepherd, followed by an allegorical picture of the transferring of the office of shepherd to Peter; Christ the wayfarer, followed by a representation of the man who fell among thieves; Christ the sower, followed by the approaching harvester with his sickle. These <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a>, with those representing the Sermon on the Mount, decorate the church as far as the <a href="../cathen/12563b.htm">pulpit</a>. The <a href="../cathen/07346b.htm">high altar</a> is adorned with a picture of the <a href="../cathen/15047a.htm">Most Holy Trinity</a>. The conception running through the whole series of <a href="../cathen/11395a.htm">paintings</a>, from those in the <a href="../cathen/15387a.htm">vestibule</a> to that of the <a href="../cathen/07346b.htm">high altar</a>, is that the <a href="../cathen/14519a.htm">paradise</a> lost by the first <a href="../cathen/09580c.htm">human beings</a> is offered to us again by the second Adam in the new <a href="../cathen/07170a.htm">heaven</a>. At this moment of renewed energy in the church, Austria possessed <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> who would have excited the <a href="../cathen/08326b.htm">envy</a> of little Cappadocia at the time of the three great Cappadocians. Among these Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> were: <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a> (d. 1885) and <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Cardinal Rauscher</a> (d. 1875; life by Wolfsgruber); Francis Joseph Rudigier, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/09273a.htm">Linz</a> (d. 1879; life by Meindl); Vincenz Gasser, Prince-Bishop of <a href="../cathen/02793d.htm">Brixen</a> (d. 1879; life by Zobl); <a href="../cathen/06051a.htm">Joseph Fessler</a>, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of St. Pölten (d. 1872; life by Erdinger); John B. Zwerger, Prince-Bishop of <a href="../cathen/13672a.htm">Seckau</a> (d. 1893; life by Oer). The description of this period would not be complete without mention of the foremost German preacher and most fruitful German <a href="../cathen/14580a.htm">theologian</a> of the nineteenth century, <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">John Emanuel Veith</a>, and of the <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosopher</a> and <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a>, Anton Günther. <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">Veith</a> was born at Kuttenplan, in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>, and was of Jewish parentage. When he was nine years old his spiritual struggle began. In his twenty-first year, led by <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Father Hofbauer</a>, he found peace in the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. He faithfully kept the <a href="../cathen/15511a.htm">vow</a> he had made: "I will devote my entire life to the only thing that is eternal, and therefore, the only thing that is important." <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">Veith</a> became a <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a>, preached for fourteen years in the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">Cathedral</a> of St. Stephen at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> and died in 1876. At the time of his last illness he was preparing a translation, with commentary, of the Canticle of Canticles. On the day of his death he wrote down the words of Sulamit: <blockquote>Neu auch wollen wir dort oben Lieb und Treue ihm geloben.</blockquote> —"Afresh, will we there above <a href="../cathen/15511a.htm">vow</a> to him our <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> and <a href="../cathen/09397a.htm">love</a>." Then, putting the pen aside, he said, "It is finished", and breathed his last. (Life by Löwe.) Richness of thought and a classic elegance of speech characterized <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">Veith's</a> sermons. Among those published are: "Die Leidenswerkunge Christi"; "Denkbüchlein von der göttlicken Liebe"; "Das Friedensopfer"; "Lebensbilder aus der Passionsgeschichte"; "Die heiligen Berge" (2 vols.); "Homilienkranz" (5 vols.); "Der verlorne Sohn"; "Die Samaritin"; "Die Erweckung des Lazarus"; "Mater Dolorosa"; "Festpredigten" (2 vols.); "Homiletische Vortrage" (7 vols.); "Der Blindgeborne"; "Politische Passionspredigten"; "Eucharistie"; "Weltleben und Christentum"; "Charitas"; "Worte der Feinde Christi"; "Misericordia" (Psalm Miserere); "Das Vaterunser"; "Weg, Wahrheit, und Leben"; "Dodekatheon" (2 vols.); "Die Mächte des Unheils"; "Die Anfänge der Menschenwelt"; "Die Stufenpsalmen"; "Prophetie und Glaube"; "Homiletische Aehrenlese" (2 vols.); "Meditationen über den 118. Psalm"; "Hundert Psalmen"; "Der Leidenweg des Herrn"; "Stechpalmen"; "Dikaiosyne, Die Epistelreihe des Kirchenjahres". Karl Werner, the son of a teacher, was born at Hafnerbach in Lower Austria and died in 1888. He was first professor of <a href="../cathen/14601a.htm">moral theology</a> at St. Pölten, then professor of higher <a href="../cathen/05692b.htm">exegesis</a> at the <a href="../cathen/15421a.htm">University of Vienna</a>. In <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> he was appointed member of the advisory council of the minister of instruction, and was elected member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Among the many works of learned research Werner published are: "System der Ethik" (2 vols.); "Grundlinien der Philosophie"; "Der hl. Thomas von Aquino" (3 vols.); "Franz Francisco Suárez und die Scholastik der letzten Jahrhunderte" (2 vols.); "Geschichte der apologetischen und polemischen Literature der chirstlichen Theologie"; "Geschichte der katholischen Theologie seit dem Trienter Konzil bis zur Gegenwartf"; "Spekulative Anthropologie vom christlich-philosophischen Standpunkt"; "Beda der Ehrwürdige und seine Zeit"; "Alkuin und sein Jahrhundert"; "Gerbert von Aurillac, die Kirche und Wissenschaft seiner Zeit"; "Giambattista Vico als Philosoph und gelehrter Forscher"; "Johannes <a href="../cathen/05194a.htm">Duns Scotus</a>"; "Geschichte der Scholastik des späteren Mittelalters" (5 vols.); "Geschichte der italienischen Philosophie des 19. Jahrh." Many of Werner's treatises are to be found in the reports of the sessions of the philosophico-historical section of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Anton Günther, founder of the Guntherian school of <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophy</a>, was born at Lindenau, near <a href="../cathen/09141a.htm">Leitmeritz</a>, in <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>. He studied <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">jurisprudence</a> and philosophy at <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, and came under the influence of the <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophical</a> <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a> of <a href="../cathen/08603a.htm">Kant</a>, Fichte, and Jacobi. <a href="../cathen/04044a.htm">Blessed Clement Hofbauer</a> led him back to the <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">truth</a>. Günther was <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a>, and became teacher of <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophy</a> in noble <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">families</a>, especially in that to which Schwarzenberg, afterwards <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm">Cardinal</a>, belonged. For many years he filled the modest position of <a href="../cathen/13322a.htm">sacristan</a> of St. Ruprecht, the oldest church in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>. After a life spent in <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophical</a> study he died in 1876 (life by Knoodt). Günther's chief works are: "Vorschule zur spekulativen Theologie des Christentums"; "Peregrins Gastmal"; "Sud- und Nordlichter am Horizont spekulativer Theologie"; "Janusköpfe für Philosophie und Theologie"; "Möhler der letzte Symboliker"; "Thomas a Scrupulis, zur Transfiguration der Persönlichkeits Pantheismen neuster Zeit"; "Die Justes-Milieux in der deutschen Philosophie gegenwartiger Zeit"; "Eurystheus und Herakles"; "Lydia" (a <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophical</a> annual, in collaboration with <a href="../cathen/15322b.htm">Veith</a>). Honestly intending to defend <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> against the <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophical</a> doubtings which are constantly arising in modern times, Günther fell into the mistake of making the mysteries of <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> dependent on their recognition by the understanding, so that <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">knowledge</a> was substituted for <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>. A learned <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> broke out in <a href="../cathen/06484b.htm">Germany</a>, in which Günther's position was damaged by the vagaries of his followers, and at the end of five years' examination the Congregation of the Index condemned his writings. After the first excitement had subsided Günther gave a <a href="../cathen/12454c.htm">proof</a> of the honesty of opinion which had characterized his action from the start. The verdict of the Congregation of the Index was sent to him 23 January, 1857; on 10 "February he handed <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Cardinal Rauscher</a> his submission, to be forwarded to the Holy Father and to Cardinal Andrea, Prefect of the Congregation of the Index. The thought which consoled Günther in these days of trial was that <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> demanded of every man the sacrifice of his Isaac, and that this sacrifice was what he now made to <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. Goethe says that the subject of profoundest interest in the history of the world is the battle of disbelief against <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>. This is still more <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">true</a> of the <a href="../cathen/07365a.htm">history of the Church</a>. In 1860 Austria became a constitutional monarchy, and in the next year the foundations of a representative government were laid. The Imperial Parliament was to consist of a House of Peers, to which the <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a> and prince-bishop were to belong, and a House of Deputies. During the first session of the Parliament, Manger, a <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> deputy, attacked the Concordat and demanded its revision. Upon this the members of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">episcopacy</a> in the Upper House and some other <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> met and prepared a memorial which was sent to the emperor. "Of all the party cries", it ran, "which are put to effective use in electioneering, none has so much prominence at present as the word toleration. True toleration is exercised by the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> while the harshest intolerance is practised on all sides against the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. All its ordinances and institutions are <a href="../cathen/14035b.htm">slandered</a> and mistrusted, and every exhibition of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> conviction is overwhelmed with scorn and derision." The events just noted were merely the forerunners of a terrible storm which broke after the disastrous <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> of 1866. In July of the next year Deputy Herbst moved the preparation of three bills concerning marriage, <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, and the mutual relations of the different <a href="../cathen/13674a.htm">religious denominations</a>. A conference of twenty-four <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> was held at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, and a second memorial was sent to the emperor which contained the following: "A party has arisen which has chosen this time of distress for an attack on the religion to which Your Majesty, the Imperial <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a>, and a great majority of the inhabitants of the land belong. We are in the presence of a spectacle which causes the enemies of Austria to smile derisively, and which fills Austria's sons with shame rather than with anxiety." Marriage without the blessing of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> without religion were demanded. In order to obtain suitable teachers for these <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> it was proposed to found for the training of teachers institutions where contempt for all that is holy should be instilled. It was not possible, however, to resist the liberal pressure. On the 21st of December, 1867, the new fundamental <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> received the imperial approval. The first granted full freedom of <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> and <a href="../cathen/04268a.htm">conscience</a> and freedom in scientific opinion. The second declared: "All <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> in the state is exercised in the name of the emperor". Thereby the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church's</a> exclusive <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> over marriage was impugned. The third law <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> all officials to take an <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a> to support the constitution. Two professors of dogmatics did not take the <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a>; these were <a href="../cathen/13590a.htm">Schrader</a>, the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuit</a>, and Hyacinth Pellgrinetti, the <a href="../cathen/12354c.htm">Dominican</a> successor of Guidi. They were <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to resign their professorships, and their places have not yet been filled. During the same period the dual constitution was sanctioned, by which the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy as it now exists, was formed "of two distinct co-ordinate States having the same constitutional, legal, and administrative <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a>". After a long struggle the emperor signed, 25 May, 1808, the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> concerning marriage, <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, and the status of the several <a href="../cathen/13674a.htm">denominations</a>. The first of these <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> declares marriage to be a civil contract, makes the <a href="../cathen/09691b.htm">civil marriage</a> <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligatory</a>, and takes from the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> the judicial power pro foro externo in matrimonial suits. The law concerning <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> takes from the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> any control of the management as well as the right of supervision. These powers are given to an official <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> committee of the district and town, of which committee <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> can be chosen members. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> select the books used by the catechist and instructors in religious <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">doctrine</a>. The third law grants everyone the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to choose his own religion on attaining the age of fourteen years, but a child between seven and fourteen years of age cannot change his or her religion even at the wish of the <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">parents</a>. As these <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> infringed the Concordat in essentials, a secret consistory was held at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, 22 June, at which the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> declared: "Leges auctoritate Nostrâ apostolicâ reprobamus, damnamus et decreta ipsa irrita proursus nulliusque roboris fuisse ac fore declaramus." ("By the Apostolic authority we reprobate and condemn these <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> and declare that their purport was, and shall be, wholly invalid and of no force.") The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> upon this issued pastorals. The joint letter of 3 June issued by the <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemian</a> <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> and their joint pastoral of 24 June were condemned by the imperial civil courts of all three instances, on the ground that they were a disturbance of the public peace, and suppressed. Penal proceedings were not brought against <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a>, but Bishop Francis Joseph Rudigier, of <a href="../cathen/09273a.htm">Linz</a>, was prosecuted for his pastoral of 7 September. "On account of the misdemeanour committed in the pastoral letter"—of calling the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> of 24 May a lie—he was brought before the Supreme Court, found guilty by the jury, and condemned to fourteen days' <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">imprisonment</a> with costs. The pastoral was ordered to be destroyed. Next day the emperor in a <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">decree</a> remitted the punishment and the legal consequences. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> disagreed as to whether the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> should permit themselves to be chosen members of the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> committees, but <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> and Schwarzenberg, who were for the permission, carried their point. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> The definition of the <a href="../cathen/07790a.htm#IIIB">pope's infallibility</a> afforded von Stremayr, the Austrian Minister of Instruction, a pretext to demand the abrogation of the Concordat, on the plea that the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, one of the contracting parties, had received from the definition a new character, which invalidated the original agreement. Beust, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, addressed to Palomba a note which declared: "The Concordat exists no longer; it is annulled." The abrogation of the Concordat produced a gap in religious legislation. To remedy this four bills were introduced January, 1874, for regulating the legal status of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, the taxing of the fund for the support of religion, the legal status of <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a>, and the recognition of new religious <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">societies</a>. The <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> expressed, on the 7th of March, his grief at the attack on the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, implied in the assertion that the supreme power in all matters concerning the external life belonged to the State. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> assembled again at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> and sent this statement to the Ministry and the Upper House: "We repeat that we are ready to agree to the demands which the State makes on us in the bill concerning the legal status of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> as far as these demands are in harmony with the Concordat concerning these matters. We cannot and will not acquiesce in a proposition the consummation of which would endanger the welfare of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>." One of the chief causes of the scarcity of <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> which now began to be marked was the new law of national defence. By this <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> youths in their twentieth year during their course at a gymnasium were subject to military <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a>. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> again and again begged for a relaxation of the provisions of the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a>. But they had, for the time being, no redress except to appeal in individual cases to the indulgence of the emperor. When the bills reached the upper house the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> defended themselves <a href="../cathen/06147a.htm">bravely</a>. <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> closed his address of 10 April with these words: "So-called progress no longer considers it <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> to conceal its real aim, and has unmasked its hate against <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> and eternal <a href="../cathen/15073a.htm">truth</a>. But Providence has set a natural limit to all things. The destruction of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> is impossible, but Austria may be destroyed if the <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> against religion is not checked in good time." Yet, for all this, the first two bills became law, 7 May, 1874. Among other things, the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> concerning the legal status of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> declares that: In order to obtain any <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> appointment or living, a candidate's record of past conduct must be blameless when judged by the standard of the <a href="../cathen/09066a.htm">civil law</a> (§1); if the Government finds that an <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> regulation respecting a public church service is not consistent with the public interest, the Government shall then forbid it (§17); the total number of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> living in the district of a <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> form the <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> community (§35); in order to cover the expenses of a <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> a tax is to be laid on its members (§36); the ministry of public worship and instruction is authorized to oversee the management of the funds of the churches and church instituitions (§38); the ministry of public worship and instruction is to take care that the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> journals do not go beyond the sphere of their proper activity (§60). The law concerning contributions to the fund for the support of religion declares that: Assessments shall be made on incumbents of livings and the communities of the regular orders for the fund for the support of religion in order to meet the expenses of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> worship and especially in order to increase the incomes of <a href="../cathen/11537b.htm">pastors</a> which have been until now very small (§1); the value of the entire <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a> of the living or of the community shall be taken as the basis (of the assessment) (§2); the amount of the assessments shall be fixed every ten years for the next ten years (§9); and they were to be "one-half of one per cent on amounts up to 10,000 florins [$4,000], one-and-a-half per cent on amounts from 10,000 florins to 20,000 florins [$4,000 to $8,000], and 10 per cent on all amounts over 90,000 florins [$36,000]". The law (signed 20 May) in regard to the legal recognition of religious <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">societies</a> "accepts in full" the principle of religious equality. Since the passage of these three <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> no further enactments have so far been made, with regard to the status of the various <a href="../cathen/13674a.htm">denominations</a> in Austria. In the year following their passage <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Cardinal Rauscher</a> died (24 Nov., 1875). It was due to his wise moderation and caution that Austria escaped the evils of a <a href="../cathen/08703b.htm">Kulturkampf</a> (religious conflict). In 1874, von Stremayr offered four projects for bills in the House of Deputies, one of which dealt with the legal status of monastic communities. <a href="../cathen/12660b.htm">Rauscher</a> said that it "bore on its forehead unusual marks of mistrust, arbitrariness, and harshness. According to its provisions, the authority of the minister of worship of the time being would be sufficient to sweep from the earth a monastic house which had existed for a thousand years and to enforce the sequestration of its <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a>." The bill reached the Upper House by the middle of January, 1876. But <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a> succeeded, by means of a memorial of the Austrian <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a> and <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, in inducing the emperor not to sign it, and the bill has not yet become law. The parliamentary election of 1879 increased the number of conservative members so that the Right (hohenwart) Party was in the majority. In 1882, the Karl Ferdinand University, at <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Prague</a>, was divided into a German and a Czech <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a>. <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a>, however, would not consent to a division of the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> faculty. He wrote to the minister, Conrad von Eybesfeld: "The Church does not wish the separation of the nations, but their union in one body, the head of which is Christ. She dedicates the <a href="../cathen/02599b.htm">blessings</a> of her activity to all nations, she recognizes the right of every people to independence, she respects and supports the demands of a people for its own language and its own form of instruction. But the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> cannot give to the claims of nationality the first place, they must always be for her a secondary interest. The <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> faculty must impress this <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">idea</a> upon their pupils and must not, therefore, drive them apart. They should not deepen and embitter the national differences by a separation; they should strive rather to compose these differences. This <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> is above all necessary among the various nationalities of <a href="../cathen/02612b.htm">Bohemia</a>. In this country it is a special <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> of the <a href="../cathen/12409a.htm">priesthood</a> to seek to soothe and unify." The separation took place, however, directly after Schwarzenberg's death. An amendment to the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> law which somewhat improved matters was laid before the Upper House in 1883. This amendment was the result of numerous memorials from the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to the Government and much effort of other kinds. During the debate on the amendment <a href="../cathen/13595a.htm">Cardinal Schwarzenberg</a> said: "The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> for whom I speak today recognize the value of the amendment and are ready to work for its passage. But this does not justify the presumption that we consider the amendment as remedying all defects of the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> and that our votes are a corroboration of these <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a>. Only a denominational system of common <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> can satisfy the claims of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> and of the <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> community. The present system is unsatisfactory. While we now give our support, we reserve the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to press our just demands by way of legislation in the future." The amendment made certain concessions to children who had attended <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> for six years, and permitted only such <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">persons</a> to be made the principals of <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> as were competent to give instruction in the <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> to which the majority of the scholars belonged. Cardinal Schwarzenberg had presided over every meeting of the Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> since 1849, and had always fulfilled faithfully the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duties</a> of the <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm">cardinalate</a>. At the meeting of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> at <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> in 1885 he was unable, through illness, to preside at the 8th session. The next day he appeared, although unfit to attend. He was not able to be present again and died of pneumonia 27 March. A bill called the Prince Alfred Liechtenstein <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> bill was introduced in October, 1888. It was intended to give the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> greater power over the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>. But while the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> pressed the demand of "Catholic schools for <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> children", the social-democratic convention which met the same year at Hainburg, took its stand upon "common <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> without religious teaching, the separation of <a href="../cathen/14250c.htm">Church and State</a>, religious <a href="../cathen/02408b.htm">belief</a> is a private matter". Gregr, of the Young Czech party, also declared in behalf of his party associates: "A Leichtenstein has come again to dig a grave for the Bohemian nation, the grave of ignorance and demoralization." This was an allusion to what had happened after the battle of the White Mountain (1620). Against such opposition the bill could not be carried. In 1891 <a href="../cathen/09169a.htm">Leo XIII</a> regulated the meetings of the Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in a manner which has <a href="../cathen/12454c.htm">proved</a> fruitful in <a href="../cathen/02599b.htm">blessings</a>. A meeting is to be held in <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a> every year. These meetings are either special or general. At these special meetings committees prepare elaborate and exact reports which are laid before the general assembly that meets at least once every five years. These assemblies of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> decide the course of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. The Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> feel and act as a unit, as a harmonious <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">episcopacy</a>. Schwarzenberg's successor, Cardinal Count Schönborn, died in 1899. Cardinal Gruscha, <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, followed him at the head of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">episcopacy</a>. In reviewing the action of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in their conferences since this time, it is clear that the matter which has chiefly occupied their attention has been the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> of every grade. In all their memorials to state officials, and in all their pastorals to the <a href="../cathen/05769a.htm">faithful</a>, one thought continually appears like a vein of gold: a child should learn in <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duties</a> of a <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> and a citizen. This end can be realized only when religion is made the central point of <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a> from which everything radiates, to which everything returns. For this reason the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> sought (1897, 1898) to obtain the consent of the ministry to an increase in the time given to religious instruction in the primary and secondary <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>. Prizes were offered for the preparation of a Bible (1898). Two catechisms, a larger and a smaller one, were prepared after eight years' work. These were accepted by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in 1897 and issued with explanatory directions. During this period religious instruction in the middle <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> was rearranged, and religious exercises were again introduced. Religious <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">societies</a> (Sodalities of the Blessed Virgin Mary) were organized in 1897 and 1902. Religious instruction was introduced into the Sunday industrial <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> (1898). Proposals were made as to the <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a> of teachers of religion in the middle and normal <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> (1901). The preparation of a correct textbook of <a href="../cathen/12545b.htm">psychology</a> was urged (1894). Prizes were offered for textbooks on religion (1897). The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> succeeded in obtaining a systematized course in <a href="../cathen/12025c.htm">philosophy</a> for the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> (1892); they obtained, further, a rearrangement of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> studies and examinations. (Dissertations must be suitable for publication and three examinations are <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligatory</a> for a doctorate.) They complained of the spirit prevalent at the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">universities</a> (1891) and of the unfair treatment of the student-societies composed of faithful <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> students (1901). During the reign of <a href="../cathen/09662d.htm">Maria Theresa</a> an <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">educational</a> fund was created from confiscated <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a> of the <a href="../cathen/14081a.htm">Jesuits</a>. Under <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a> a religious fund was created from the <a href="../cathen/12466a.htm">church property</a> administered by the State only. But <a href="../cathen/08508b.htm">Joseph II</a> acknowledged that the State was bound to pay the expenses of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> worship, for which the church revenues did not suffice. The salary of <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> was fixed at 400 florins ($160), that of <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a> at 200 florins ($80). The retiring pension was made 200 florins ($80). These sums remained unchanged for one hundred years, although the cost of living and the value of money had varied. The speech from the throne in 1871 and 1879 referred to the improvement of the material condition of the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> as an object of solicitude on the part of the Government, and since 1872 state subventions have been granted for this purpose. In order to obtain the money for this subvention, a tax for the maintenance of the religious fund was created in 1874. But although a sum reaching ten per cent of the capital fund was demanded every ten years, few <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> received from it assistance amounting to more than 100 florins ($40). As this subvention was called an "advance" to the fund for the support of religion in the different provinces, the <a href="../cathen/04663b.htm">debts</a> of the provinces grew every year, and the entire religious fund was in danger of being used up. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, therefore, sent repeated appeals to the Government, <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">praying</a> for a suitable increase of the salaries of the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>. In 1903 they agreed to demand for active <a href="../cathen/11537b.htm">pastors</a>: (a) for <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a> a minimum salary of 1,000 crowns ($200); for <a href="../cathen/11537b.htm">pastors</a> of second-class <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parishes</a> 1,600 crowns ($320); for <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> without <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a>, 2,000 crowns ($400); for <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> with <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a>, 2,200 crowns ($440); (b) four retroactive decennial allowances to be reckoned from the <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">date</a> of the grant; the first allowance to be 100 crowns ($20), the second, 200 crowns ($40), the third and fourth to be each 250 crowns ($50), in all 800 crowns ($160). (c) Surplus of money destined for pastoral salaries is not to be drawn upon for the pensions of retired <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergymen</a>. For retired <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a> the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> suggested a minimum pension of 100 crowns for <a href="../cathen/04570a.htm">curates</a>, and of 1,900 crowns ($380) for <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>. In 1891 and 1894 the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> requested from the Minister of Worship an exact list of all the <a href="../cathen/04663b.htm">debts</a> due by the religious fund in the hands of the Government and of all <a href="../cathen/12748a.htm">pious</a> foundations. In 1891 and 1897 they deliberated concerning the delicate question of <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clerical</a> fees. After a ten years' trial (1893) the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> pointed out the hardship of the tax on the religious fund, and pointed out where amendment should be made. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> repeatedly discussed (1898, 1899, 1900) the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> which promised the formation of <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parishes</a>. The difficult question of the patronage of livings was also taken up (1899). The <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> character of the <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a> life, the <a href="../cathen/05295b.htm">education</a> of the young, the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> of voting ("Vote, vote right") were repeatedly the subjects of joint pastoral letters (1891, 1901). The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> discussed the question of founding and supporting a daily religious newspaper (1891, 1982). They assured the Holy Father of their agreement with his letter to Cardinal Guibert, <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11480c.htm">Paris</a>, concerning the disrespectful utterances of <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> papers about <a href="../cathen/07322c.htm">ecclesiastical authorities</a>. They discussed uniform action in carrying out the Apostolic constitution "Officiorum ac munerum" as applied to <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> newspapers (1898). As in our day large results are only obtained by association, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> have especially encouraged the formation of workingmen's unions, of <a href="../cathen/06538a.htm">Gesellenvereine</a>, the St. Boniface Society (March, 1901), the Holy Childhood Society, and benevolent <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">societies</a> (November, 1897). In these days much that is unsound rises to the surface. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> issued warnings against irreligion and national embitterment (1891). They encouraged lectures on <a href="../cathen/09771a.htm">Freemasonry</a> (1897), complained of the destructive tendencies which are undoing the strength and force of Austria, and condemned the bad press, "the dangerous foe of <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>" (December, 1901). In 1897 a movement was set on foot which ten years before would have been held to be impossible. Its name, the Los von Rom, is an insult to <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a>, its existence a mortal blow to Austrians. Every possible misuse of speech and writing was employed to rob <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> of their confidence in their <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>, of their attachment to the <a href="../cathen/07386a.htm">holy</a> <a href="../cathen/13295a.htm">sacraments</a>, and even to the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. These ribald foes spread desolation over a good part of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God's</a> vineyard in Austria. The "Free from <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>" movement will remain a disgraceful stain, but not in the history of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>. Filled with a sense of the sacredness of their <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> as <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and Austrians, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">episcopacy</a> warned the faithful in pastorals against the movement and its schemes (1899, 1901). They addressed an earnest memorial to the emperor on the subject (1901), as well as one to Körber, the head of the ministry (November, 1902). In 1891 the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> deliberated on <a href="../cathen/04481c.htm">cremation</a> and funeral addresses by non-Catholic <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergymen</a> in <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> cemeteries; in 1898 they drew up a form of reconciliation for <a href="../cathen/05184b.htm">duellists</a> and their seconds. They exhorted <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> "to observe faithfully the ordinances against <a href="../cathen/05184b.htm">duelling</a>, whether issued by <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, or the State". After due deliberations, they also adopted resolutions on the position of catechists and the admission of <a href="../cathen/05075b.htm">catechetical</a> teachers into the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> organization and arranged the manner in which <a href="../cathen/05525a.htm">erring</a> <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> "should be led back to their calling and to the service of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> by their fellow-clergymen". In 1891 they issued regulations concerning the social activity of the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>, and in 1901 concerning <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clerical</a> conventions and legal <a href="../cathen/14074a.htm">societies</a>. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> aided the several <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">religious</a> communities, and watched over the loyalty of the <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">religious</a> orders. In 1889 the relation of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to the election and <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> of the <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a> of new religious foundations was defined. In 1891, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> granted permission to the strictly <a href="../cathen/04060a.htm">cloistered</a> orders of <a href="../cathen/15687b.htm">women</a> (<a href="../cathen/15228b.htm">Ursulines</a>) to attend <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">university</a> lectures. The Austrian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> celebrated the diamond jubilee of the <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> of <a href="../cathen/09169a.htm">Leo XIII</a> to the <a href="../cathen/12409a.htm">priesthood</a> and the golden jubilee of his <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> to the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">episcopacy</a> by joint letters of veneration to the Holy Father and by joint pastorals to the <a href="../cathen/05769a.htm">faithful</a>. In these letters they did not fail to express their regret on the subject of the so-called Roman question, of the offensive <a href="../cathen/03016a.htm">Giordano Bruno</a> celebration, and of the 25th anniversary of the taking of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. In 1903 they sent a magnificent letter of congratulation to the Holy Father, <a href="../cathen/12137a.htm">Pius X</a>. We must go back five hundred years in the history of Austria to find another ruler who reigned fifty years. On the semi-centennial anniversary, 2 December, 1989, of the reign of the Emperor Francis Joseph, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> issued a joint pastoral and sent it with a dedication to the emperor. In the dedication they say: "The mysterious counsels of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> have <a href="../cathen/11279a.htm">ordained</a> that Your Majesty should spend this day in sorrow. [Empress Elizabeth was assassinated 10 September.] We all suffer with our gracious emperor and ruler. But our grief cannot silence our gratitude; our gratitude to <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">our Lord God</a> who has preserved Your Majesty for us, our gratitude to Your Majesty for fifty years of strong and fatherly protection, for fifty years of self-sacrificing <a href="../cathen/09397a.htm">love</a>, for fifty years of exemplary devotion to Your Majesty's exalted but arduous calling." Since 1851 all the provinces of the Austrian Crown have been under one uniform government. Since 1867, however, <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> has been an independent part of the Hapsburg monarchy, enjoying equal <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> with the rest. During the battle over the Concordat which raged in 1867, the Hungarian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> did not appeal to the Concordat, for fear that the agitation might spread to <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. In point of fact, however, they held fast to the Concordat. John Simor, <a href="../cathen/12423b.htm">Primate</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> from 1866-91, preserved the peace of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> in the kingdom. There was a conflict, however, respecting the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> concerning <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptism</a>. A law of 1868 enacted that in the case of <a href="../cathen/09698a.htm">mixed marriages</a> the boys should be brought up in the <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> of the father, the girls in that of the mother, even if this were contrary to the desire of the <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">parents</a>. But, when <a href="../cathen/11478c.htm">parents</a> so requested, <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptized</a> those children who according to the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> should be brought up non-Catholic. This practice was called Wegtaufen. Even when, in 1879, the criminal code made the conferring of <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptism</a> under such circumstances punishable, the <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> were not dismayed—"Go, <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptize</a>". Besides this, they were regularly acquitted by the court of last resort in the suits which were brought against them by the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> <a href="../cathen/11537b.htm">pastors</a>. In 1890 "dununciation" of such <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptisms</a> was forbidden by <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, and the excitement gradually subsided. <a href="../cathen/13194a.htm">Augustine von Roskovány</a>, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/10774c.htm">Neutra</a>, was the most learned man among the Hungarian <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of this time. <a href="../cathen/13194a.htm">Von Roskovány</a> was Doctor of Philosophy and Theology, secretary to <a href="../cathen/12586b.htm">Ladislaus Pyrker</a>, <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of Erlan, and died in 1892. His works are important authorities: "De Matrimoniis mixtis" (7 vols.); "Monumenta pro independentiâ potestatis eccles. ab imperio civili" (13 vols.); "Celibatus et Breviarium" (2 vols.); "Beata Virgo Maria in suo Conceptu immaculata" (9 vols.); "Romanuis Pontifex Primas ecclesiæ et Princeps civilis e monumentis omnium sæculorum" (16 vols.); "Matrimonium in ecclesiâ Catholicâ potestati ecclesiasticæ subjectum" (4 vols.); "Supplementa ad Collectiones Monumentorum et Literaturæ" (10 vols.). In 1893 the Hungarian Parliament began to meddle with religion. The head of the ministry, Wekerle, introduced three bills enacting that returns of <a href="../cathen/09707a.htm">marriages</a>, births, and deaths should be made by a civil registrar; that the <a href="../cathen/08399a.htm">Jewish religion</a> should be legally recognized, that permission should be given for its free exercise, and the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to enter or leave the Jewish <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> should be granted. These bills were soon followed by others for the amendment of the marriage <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> (<a href="../cathen/09691b.htm">civil marriage</a> made compulsory) and concerning <a href="../cathen/09698a.htm">mixed marriages</a>. Wekerle carried the first three bills, and they became law. Baron Desiderius Banffy was made the head of the ministry, January, 1895. In order to prevent the passage of the two remaining bills by Banffy, the <a href="../cathen/11160a.htm">papal nuncio</a>, Agliardi, went to <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a>. But the Hungarian Parliament declared that such interference in the internal affairs of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> would not be permitted. Count Kalnocky, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who had supported the <a href="../cathen/11160a.htm">nuncio</a>, was replaced by Count Agenor Goluchowsky, and Agliardi was made a <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm">cardinal</a> and recalled to <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The road was now clear. Count Ferdinand Zichy formed the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> people's party in opposition to Banffy's aims; but without avail. The two bills became law. The Lutz amendment on <a href="../cathen/12563b.htm">pulpits</a> could not be passed during the lifetime of the <a href="../cathen/12423b.htm">primate</a>, Simor, but after his death it was adopted (1899). Article 26 of the Diet of 1790 guaranteed to the <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestants</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> the entire control of the affairs of their religion. The Government has hardly any power in regard to either their churches, their <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, or religious foundations. Since 1848 the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> have been endeavouring to obtain autonomy. The <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> congress of 1870 prepared a bill to this end. The <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> Autonomy Association, consisting of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, the <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a>, and certain elected members, <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clerical</a> and lay, exists to represent the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> in regard to the <a href="../cathen/05769a.htm">faithful</a>, on the one hand, and the Government, on the other, in all questions of <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a>, of <a href="../cathen/12466a.htm">church property</a>, and especially (since the minister of public worship might happen to be a non-Catholic) to advise the king in the exercise of his prerogative of nominating <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>. It is plain that the advantage or disadvantage to the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> of autonomy would depend on the composition of the commission. For this reason a commission such as Wekerle wished to form in 1894 was rejected by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, and Zichy's motion, made on occasion of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> congress of 1897, did not receive government approval. In order to strengthen the claim for autonomy, the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, with the exception of Bishop Count Maylath, and the heads of the orders, in 1903, accepted three propositions. These are: that the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to present to <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> shall remain in the hands of the minister of worship; that the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">school</a> system shall remain unaltered; that the fund for the support of religion shall be controlled by the minister of instruction. In 1906 the turning-point in the history of the autonomy question was probably reached in the address from the throne. The Minister of Public worship and Instruction, Count Albert Apponyi, has already requested the <a href="../cathen/12423b.htm">primate</a> to state the position of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> in regard to autonomy, so that the bill may be properly prepared. <h2>Ecclesiastical organization</h2> The <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> in Austria-Hungary is administered on the system of <a href="../cathen/12514a.htm">archiepiscopal provinces</a> with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>, as follows:— (a) In the territories represented in the Imperial (Austrian) Parliament there are seven <a href="../cathen/12514a.htm">archiepiscopal provinces</a> of the <a href="../cathen/09022a.htm">Latin Rite</a> and one each of the Greek and <a href="../cathen/01736b.htm">Armenian</a> Rites. These provinces comprise in the aggregate 34 <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">sees</a>. <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Archdiocese of Vienna</a> (<a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishopric</a> 1468, prince-bishopric 1631, prince-archbishopric 1722), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of St. Pölten (or St. Hippolytus; transferred from <a href="../cathen/15618c.htm">Wiener-Neustadt</a>, 1784) and Linz (founded 1784). <a href="../cathen/13411b.htm">Archdiocese of Salzburg</a> (founded c. 700), <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 800), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of <a href="../cathen/15035a.htm">Trent</a> (founded in second century), Brixen (transferred from Säben in tenth century) with the general vicariate of Feldkirch for Vorarlberg, Gurk (belonging to Klagenfurt, founded 1071), Seckau (belonging to Graz, founded 1219), and Lavant (belonging to Marburg, founded 1228). <a href="../cathen/12338a.htm">Archdiocese of Prague</a> (973-1344 subject to <a href="../cathen/09550a.htm">Mainz</a>, 1344 <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a>), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Budweis (founded 1785), Königgrätz (or Regina Hradecensis, founded 1664), and Leitmeritz (founded 1665). Archdiocese of <a href="../cathen/11247a.htm">Olmütz</a> (founded 1063, <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 1777), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocese</a> of Brünn (founded 1777). Archdiocese of <a href="../cathen/06654b.htm">Görz</a> (transferred from <a href="../cathen/01661c.htm">Aquileia</a> 1751), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Laibach (founded 1461), Triest and Capo d'Istria, Parenzo and Pola founded sixth century), Veglia (founded 990). <a href="../cathen/15752a.htm">Archdiocese of Zara</a> (Jadera, founded fourth century, <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 1146), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Sebenico (founded 1298), Spolato and Macarska (Spalato erected into an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 650), Lesina (Pharus, founded in twelfth century), Cattaro (founded in eleventh century), Ragusa (founded 990). <a href="../cathen/09144a.htm">Archdiocese of Lemberg</a> (Leopolis, <a href="../cathen/09022a.htm">Latin Rite</a>; transferred from Halic 1412), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Tarnów (founded 1783, transferred to Tynice, then to Bochnia, 1816), and Przemysl (founded 1340). The Prince-Bishopric of Cracow (founded about 700) is subject <a href="../cathen/05706a.htm">directly</a> to the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>. The <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> in Silesia are under the <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> of the Prince-Bishop of <a href="../cathen/02761a.htm">Breslau</a>, who has a <a href="../cathen/15402a.htm">vicar-general</a> at Teschen and a summer residence at Johannesberg. The county of Glatz belongs to Prague. Lemberg, <a href="../cathen/13277a.htm">Greek-Ruthenian Rite</a> (united in 1597, became an <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> in 1808), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Przemysl (subject to Lemberg since 1818) and Stanislawow (founded 1882). Lemberg, <a href="../cathen/01736b.htm">Armenian</a> Rite, was founded 1367. (b) In <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> there are four <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archdioceses</a> of the <a href="../cathen/09022a.htm">Latin Rite</a>, with 17 suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>; and one archdiocese of the <a href="../cathen/06774a.htm">Greek Rite</a>, with six suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>, making altogether 28 <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">sees</a>. Archdiocese of Esztergom (Strogonium, Gran; founded 1000), the incumbent of which is <a href="../cathen/12423b.htm">Primate</a> of <a href="../cathen/07547a.htm">Hungary</a> and ex-officio Legate (Legatus Natus), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Nyitra (founded 1029), Vácz (Vacium, Waitzen; founded in eleventh century), Györ (Jaurinum, Raab; founded in eleventh century), Veszprém (founded 1009), Szombathly (Sabaria, Steinamanger; founded 1777), Beszterczebanya (Neusohl; founded 1776), Székes-Fehérvár (Alba Regalis, Stuhlweissenburg; founded 1777), Pécs (Serbinum, Quinque Ecclesiæ, Fünfkirchen; founded 1009), Eperjes (Ruthenian-Greek; founded 1820), Munkács (Munkaczinum; Ruthenian-Greek; founded 1771). Archdiocese of Kalocsa and Bács (founded 1000), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Nagy-Várad (Varadinum Majus, Grosswardein; founded 1077), Csaná [Chronadium (Magyarscanad-Tenesvár); founded 1035], and Erdely [<a href="../cathen/15022a.htm">Transylvania</a> (Karlsburg); founded in twelfth century]. Archdiocese of Eger (Agria, Erlau; founded 1000, <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 1804), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Rozsnyó (Rosnavia, Rosenau; founded 1776), Szatmár-Németi (Szathmarium; founded 1804), Szepes [Scepusia, Zips (Szepesváralya); founded 1776], Kassa (Cassovia, Kaschau; founded 1804), and Sabaria (Sacer Mons Pannoniæ, <a href="../cathen/09734c.htm">Martinsberg</a>; founded 997). <a href="../cathen/01225b.htm">Archdiocese of Zagreb</a> (Zagrabia, Agram; founded 1903, <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 1853), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Djakovár (founded 1781), Zengg-Modrus (founded 1460), and Kriz (Crisium, Kreutz, <a href="../cathen/13277a.htm">Greek-Ruthenian Rite</a>; founded 1777). <a href="../cathen/06123a.htm">Archdiocese of Fogaras</a>, of the <a href="../cathen/13277a.htm">Greek-Ruthenian Rite</a> (founded 1721, <a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">archbishopric</a> 1854), has for suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> Nagy-Várad (Varadinum Majus, Grosswardein; founded 1777), Lugos (Lugosium; founded 1853), and Szamos-Ujvár (Armenopolis; founded 1777). (c) In Bosnia and Herzegovina there is one archdiocese: Serajevo (founded 1881), with suffragan <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Banjaluka (founded 1881), Trebinje (Tribonium; founded in ninth century), Mostar (Mandatrium; founded 1881). The Apostolic field-vicariate for the army and navy is directly under the control of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>. <h2>Statistics of religious orders</h2> The following table presents a summary of the parent and branch houses of the <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">religious</a> orders in Austria, together with the number of their inmates:– <div style="overflow-x:auto;"><table summary="Table" border="1" cellpadding="0"><tr> <th> </th><th colspan="2">Male Orders</th><th colspan="2">Female Orders</th></tr> <tr><th>Diocese</th><th>Houses</th><th>Inmates</th> <th>Houses</th><th>Inmates</th></tr> <tr><td>Vienna (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) St. Pölten Linz Salzburg (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) <a href="../cathen/15035a.htm">Trent</a> Brixen and Vorarlberg Lavant Seckau Gurk <a href="../cathen/06654b.htm">Görz</a> (Archdiocese) <a href="../cathen/08743a.htm">Laibach</a> Veglia Pola Triest Prague (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) Königgrätz Leitmeritz Budweis Olmütz (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) Brünn Lemberg (Archd., Lat Rite) Przemysl (Lat. Rite) Tarnów Lemberg (Archd., Gr. Rite) Przemysl (Gr. Rite) Stanislawow (Gr. Rite) <a href="../cathen/15752a.htm">Zara</a> (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) Sebenico Spalato and Macarska Cattaro Ragusa Cracow (<a href="../cathen/01694b.htm">Archdiocese</a>) Breslau Lemberg (Arm. Rite)</td> <td>41 (62) 16 29 11 35 43 9 31 12 7 12 11 1 7 16 12 21 15 25 13 41 (43) 27 6 6 6 4 5 7 15 3 19 30 6  </td> <td>1,611 505 670 216 817 1,171 163 825 230 105 264 64 21 81 704 88 180 188 220 136 151 1369 72 276 134 25 20 83 91 9 93 604 33  </td> <td>104 (195) 73 (94) 124 (126) 102 130 222 13 67 (90) 22 (26) 7 19 24 6 (8) 13 76 48 (55) 61 33 (36) 80 (87) 28 (30) 153 97 (99) 54 (55) 8 1 10 4 4 9 (14) 2 1 58 (73) 30 1</td> <td>4,230 874 1,765 998 1,527 2,656 181 1,359 357 238 492 68 132 174 1,517 442 442 396 1,547 327 1,271 698 340 86 19 44 23 23 125 8 51 1,166 425 16</td></tr> <tr><td>Totals</td> <td>542</td> <td>9,970</td> <td>1,667</td> <td>24,018</td> </table></div> <h2>Denominational statistics</h2> The forty-nine million inhabitants of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy are divided, as to their religious <a href="../cathen/02408b.htm">beliefs</a>, as follows: <div style="overflow-x:auto;"><div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <img alt="Image" src="../images/02121bxx.gif" style="width:100%; height: auto;"></div> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-bottom' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <div class="cenotes"><h2>Sources</h2>KENNER, Noricum und Pannonien (Vienna, 1870); SAUPPE (ed.), Eugippii Vita S. Severini (Berlin, 1877); s. c. Kirchen und reichsrechtliche Verhältnisse des Salzburg Suffragenbistums Benedictiner in &OElig;sterreich, in Seitenletterer Gymnasialprogramma, 1868-77; JANAUSCHEK, Originum Cisterciensium (Vienna, 1877), I; FRIND, Die Kirchengeschichte Böhmens (3 vols., Prague, 1864-77); ENDLICHER, Ber. Hungar. Monumenta Arpadiana (Sang, 1848); MAILATH, Geschichte der der Magyaren (2d ed., Ratisbon, 1852); WAHRMUND, Das Kirchenpatronat und seine Entwickelung in &OElig;sterreich (Vienna, 1894); SOCHER, Historia Provinciæ Austriæ S. J. (Vienna, 1740); GRAF VON KHEVENHILLER, Annales Ferdinandei (Ratisbon, 1640-46); GINDELT, Kaiser Rudolph II und seine Zeit (2 vols., Prague, 1863); SCHUSTER, Fürst-Bischof Brenner (Graz, 1898); HAMMER-PURGSTALL, Geschichte des Kardinals Khlesl (4 vols., 847-51); SCHLITTER, Die Reise des Papstes Pius VI nach Wien in Fontes Rer. Austriac. (Vienna, 1892-94), XLVII; BRUNNER, Mysterien der Aufklärung in &OElig;sterreich (Mainz, 1869); Die theol. Dienerschaft am Hofe Josephs II (Vienna, 1868); WOLFSGRUBER, Kardinal Migazzi (Saulgau, 1891); MAASSEN, Neun Kapitel über frei Kirche und Gewissensfreiheit (Graz, 1876), ch. viii, pp. 370-447, Das &OElig;sterr. Konkordat; ZSCHOKKE, Die theologischen Studien und Anstalten der katholischen Kirche in &OElig;sterreich (Vienna and Leipzig, 1894); WAPPLER, Geschichte der theol. Fakultät an der K. K. Universität Wien (Vienna, 1884); WOLFSGRUBER, Die Konferenzen der Bischöfe &OElig;sterreichsf (Linz, 1905); HÜRNER-TWASCHEK, Geographisch-Statistische Tabellen (Frankfort on the Main, 1906); VON WÜRZBACH, Der grosse &OElig;sterreich Hausschatz, ein nat. Bibliothek biog. Lexikon (Vienna, 1759-1850, 1857-91); LEGER, Hist. of Austro-Hungary, tr. HILL (London, 1889); Statesman's Year-Book (London, 1907); VON LÖSCHE, Geschichte des Protestantismus in &OElig;sterreich in Umrissen (1902).</div> <div class="pub"><h2>About this page</h2>APA citation. Wolfsgrüber, C. (1907). The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02121b.htmMLA citation. Wolfsgrüber, Cölestin. "The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02121b.htm>.Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by WGKofron. With thanks to Fr. John Hilkert and St. Mary's Church, Akron, Ohio.Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.</div> </div> <div id="ogdenville"><table summary="Bottom bar" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"><center>Copyright © 2023 by <a href="../utility/contactus.htm">New Advent LLC</a>. Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of Mary.</center></td></tr></table><a href="../utility/contactus.htm">CONTACT US</a> | <a href="https://cleanmedia.net/p/?psid=491-308-20180429T2217479770">ADVERTISE WITH NEW ADVENT</a></div> <ins class="CANBMDDisplayAD" data-bmd-ad-unit="30849120210203T1734389107AB67D35C03D4A318731A4F337F60B3E" style="display:block"></ins> <script src="https://secureaddisplay.com/au/bmd/"></script>  <ins class="CMAdExcludeArticles"></ins> </body> </html>