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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extreme_dynamic_markings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation_by_notation_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation_by_notation_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Interpretation by notation programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation_by_notation_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_audio_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_audio_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relation to audio dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_audio_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dynamics (music)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(musiek)" title="Dinamika (musiek) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Dinamika (musiek)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamik_(Musik)" title="Dynamik (Musik) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Dynamik (Musik)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%89)" title="حركية (موسيقى) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركية (موسيقى)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Дынаміка (музыка) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дынаміка (музыка)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Динамика (музика) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Динамика (музика)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinami%C4%8Dke_oznake" title="Dinamičke oznake – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dinamičke oznake" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Din%C3%A0mica_(m%C3%BAsica)" title="Dinàmica (música) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinàmica (música)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamika_(hudba)" title="Dynamika (hudba) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dynamika (hudba)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamik_(musik)" title="Dynamik (musik) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dynamik (musik)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamik_(Musik)" title="Dynamik (Musik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dynamik (Musik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCnaamika_(muusika)" title="Dünaamika (muusika) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Dünaamika (muusika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Din%C3%A1mica_(m%C3%BAsica)" title="Dinámica (música) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinámica (música)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamiko_(muziko)" title="Dinamiko (muziko) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinamiko (muziko)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%AF%D8%AA_(%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C)" title="شدت (موسیقی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شدت (موسیقی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuance_(musique)" title="Nuance (musique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nuance (musique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%85%88%EC%97%AC%EB%A6%BC%ED%91%9C" title="셈여림표 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="셈여림표" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1_(%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6)" title="Դինամիկա (երաժշտություն) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դինամիկա (երաժշտություն)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinami%C4%8Dke_oznake" title="Dinamičke oznake – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinamičke oznake" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(musik)" title="Dinamika (musik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinamika (musik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamica_(musica)" title="Dinamica (musica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinamica (musica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A2_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="הוראות ביצוע מוזיקליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הוראות ביצוע מוזיקליות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90)" title="დინამიკა (მუსიკა) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დინამიკა (მუსიკა)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(m%C5%ABzika)" title="Dinamika (mūzika) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dinamika (mūzika)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(zene)" title="Dinamika (zene) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dinamika (zene)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Динамика (музика) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Динамика (музика)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82_(%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82)" title="ഭാവം (സംഗീതം) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭാവം (സംഗീതം)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamik_(muzik)" title="Dinamik (muzik) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinamik (muzik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamiek_(muziek)" title="Dynamiek (muziek) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dynamiek (muziek)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E5%BC%B1%E6%B3%95" title="強弱法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="強弱法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamikk_(musikk)" title="Dynamikk (musikk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dynamikk (musikk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuan%C3%A7a_(solfegi)" title="Nuança (solfegi) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nuança (solfegi)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(musiqa)" title="Dinamika (musiqa) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dinamika (musiqa)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamika_(muzyka)" title="Dynamika (muzyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynamika (muzyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Din%C3%A2mica_musical" title="Dinâmica musical – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinâmica musical" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Динамика (музыка) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Динамика (музыка)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(music)" title="Dynamics (music) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dynamics (music)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost_(notni_zapis)" title="Glasnost (notni zapis) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glasnost (notni zapis)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Динамика (музика) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Динамика (музика)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinami%C4%8Dke_oznake" title="Dinamičke oznake – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinamičke oznake" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamiikka_(musiikki)" title="Dynamiikka (musiikki) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Dynamiikka (musiikki)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamik_(musik)" title="Dynamik (musik) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dynamik (musik)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamika_(musika)" title="Dinamika (musika) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinamika (musika)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Динаміка (музика) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Динаміка (музика)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E5%BC%B1%E6%B3%95" title="強弱法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="強弱法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Volume of a sound or note</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fortissimo" and "Pianissimo" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Fortissimo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fortissimo (disambiguation)">Fortissimo (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pianissimo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pianissimo (disambiguation)">Pianissimo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:432px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:430px;"> <div class="mw-ext-score noresize" data-midi="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/r/r/rrrmufiwsknoaii2j8utr9qk68hvhmd/rrrmufiw.midi"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/r/r/rrrmufiwsknoaii2j8utr9qk68hvhmd/rrrmufiw.png" width="419" height="65" alt="
 \relative c' {
 \set Score.currentBarNumber = #37
 \key f \major
 \time 6/8

 f4.\pp f8( g a)
 bes4( g8) bes( a g)
 \override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = #2
 f(\< f'4)\sf f8(\> e d)\!
 d4.( c8)
 }
" /></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">The beginning of the principal <a href="/wiki/Theme_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme (music)">theme</a> to the third movement of <a href="/wiki/Berlioz" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlioz">Berlioz</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Symphonie_fantastique" title="Symphonie fantastique">Symphonie fantastique</a></i> showing examples of <i>pianissimo</i> (<span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pp</b></i></span>) and hairpins</div></div></div> <p>In music, the <b>dynamics</b> of a piece are the variation in <a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">loudness</a> between <a href="/wiki/Note_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Note (music)">notes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phrase_(music)" title="Phrase (music)">phrases</a>. Dynamics are indicated by specific <a href="/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">musical notation</a>, often in some detail. However, dynamics markings require interpretation by the performer depending on the musical context: a specific marking may correspond to a different volume between pieces or even sections of one piece. The execution of dynamics also extends beyond loudness to include changes in <a href="/wiki/Timbre" title="Timbre">timbre</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Tempo_rubato" title="Tempo rubato">tempo rubato</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose_and_interpretation">Purpose and interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose and interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dynamics_(music)" title="Special:EditPage/Dynamics (music)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Dynamics are one of the <a href="/wiki/Musical_expression" title="Musical expression">expressive elements of music</a>. Used effectively, dynamics help musicians sustain variety and interest in a musical performance, and communicate a particular emotional state or feeling. </p><p>Dynamic markings are always relative.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span> (<i>piano</i> - "soft") never indicates a precise level of <a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">loudness</a>; it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be considerably quieter than <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span> (<i>forte</i> - "loud"). There are many factors affecting the interpretation of a dynamic marking. For instance, the middle of a <a href="/wiki/Phrase_(music_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrase (music theory)">musical phrase</a> will normally be played louder than the beginning or end, to ensure the phrase is properly shaped, even where a passage is marked <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span> throughout. Similarly, in <a href="/wiki/Polyphony" title="Polyphony">multi-part music</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Part_(music)" title="Part (music)">voices</a> will naturally be played louder than others, for instance, to emphasize the melody and the bass line, even if a whole passage is marked at one dynamic level. Some instruments are naturally louder than others – for instance, a <a href="/wiki/Tuba" title="Tuba">tuba</a> playing <i>mezzo-piano</i> will likely be louder than a guitar playing <i>forte</i>, while a high-pitched instrument like the <a href="/wiki/Piccolo" title="Piccolo">piccolo</a> playing in its upper <a href="/wiki/Register_(music)" title="Register (music)">register</a> can sound loud even when its actual decibel level is lower than that of other instruments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dynamic_markings">Dynamic markings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dynamic markings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_musical_terminology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of musical terminology">Glossary of musical terminology</a></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Scale of dynamic markings<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Letters</th> <th>Level </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>fortississimo</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fff</b></i></span> </td> <td>very very loud </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>fortissimo</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ff</b></i></span> </td> <td>very loud </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>forte</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span> </td> <td>loud </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>mezzo-forte</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>mf</b></i></span> </td> <td>moderately loud </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>mezzo-piano</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>mp</b></i></span> </td> <td>moderately quiet </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>piano</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span> </td> <td>quiet </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>pianissimo</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pp</b></i></span> </td> <td>very quiet </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"><i>pianississimo</i></div> </td> <td><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> </td> <td>very very quiet </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The two basic dynamic indications in music are: </p> <ul><li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span> or <i>piano</i>, meaning "soft or quiet".<sup id="cite_ref-harvard_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vtp_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vtp-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span> or <i>forte</i>, meaning "loud or strong".<sup id="cite_ref-harvard_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vtf_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vtf-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by: </p> <ul><li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>mp</b></i></span>, standing for <i>mezzo-piano</i>, meaning "moderately quiet".</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>mf</b></i></span>, standing for <i>mezzo-forte</i>, meaning "moderately loud".<sup id="cite_ref-vtd_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vtd-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">più <b>p</b></span></i>, standing for <i>più piano</i> and meaning "quieter".</li> <li><i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">più <b>f</b></span></i>, standing for <i>più forte</i> and meaning "louder".</li></ul> <p>Use of up to three consecutive <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s is also common: </p> <ul><li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pp</b></i></span>, standing for <i>pianissimo</i> and meaning "very quiet".</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ff</b></i></span>, standing for <i>fortissimo</i> and meaning "very loud".</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> ("triple <i>piano</i>"), standing for <i>pianississimo</i> or <i>piano pianissimo</i> and meaning "very very quiet".</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fff</b></i></span> ("triple <i>forte</i>"), standing for <i>fortississimo</i> or <i>forte fortissimo</i> and meaning "very very loud".<sup id="cite_ref-vtd_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vtd-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>There are additional special markings that are not very common: </p> <ul><li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>sfz</b></i></span> or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>sf</b></i></span>, standing for <i>sforzando</i> and meaning "suddenly very loud", which only applies to a given beat.</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>rfz</b></i></span> or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>rf</b></i></span>, standing for <i>rinforzando</i> and meaning "reinforced", which refers to a sudden increase in volume that only applies to a given phrase.</li> <li><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>n</b></i></span> or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ø</b></i></span>, standing for <i>niente</i> and meaning "nothing", which refers to silence; it is generally used in combination with other markings for special effect.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes">Changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Abrupt_changes"></span><span class="anchor" id="Gradual_changes"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Crescendo" and "Diminuendo" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crescendo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Crescendo (disambiguation)">Crescendo (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diminuendo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Diminuendo (disambiguation)">Diminuendo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>Three Italian words are used to show gradual changes in volume: </p> <ul><li><i><b>crescendo</b></i> (abbreviated <i>cresc.</i>) translates as "increasing" (literally "growing")</li> <li><i><b>decrescendo</b></i> (abbreviated to <i>decresc.</i>) translates as "decreasing".</li> <li><i><b>diminuendo</b></i> (abbreviated <i>dim.</i>) translates as "diminishing".</li></ul> <p>Dynamic changes can be indicated by angled symbols. A crescendo symbol consists of two lines that open to the right (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Music-crescendo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-crescendo.svg/15px-Music-crescendo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-crescendo.svg/23px-Music-crescendo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-crescendo.svg/30px-Music-crescendo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span>); a decrescendo symbol starts open on the left and closes toward the right (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Music-diminuendo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-diminuendo.svg/15px-Music-diminuendo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-diminuendo.svg/23px-Music-diminuendo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Music-diminuendo.svg/30px-Music-diminuendo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span>). These symbols are sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Hairpin" title="Hairpin">hairpins</a> or wedges.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following notation indicates music starting moderately strong, then becoming gradually stronger and then gradually quieter: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><div class="mw-ext-score noresize" data-midi="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/j/s/jsu9tr1iz30ibqhltyi49cau8fvz0oi/jsu9tr1i.midi"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/j/s/jsu9tr1iz30ibqhltyi49cau8fvz0oi/jsu9tr1i.png" width="244" height="68" alt="
 \relative c'' {
 \time 4/4
 \override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = #2.5
 a4._\mf\< gis16 a\! c4.\> b8\! a4
 }
" /></div></div> <p>Hairpins are typically positioned below the <a href="/wiki/Staff_(music)" title="Staff (music)">staff</a> (or between the two staves in a <a href="/wiki/Grand_staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand staff">grand staff</a>), though they may appear above, especially in vocal music or when a single performer plays multiple melody lines. They denote dynamic changes over a short duration (up to a few <a href="/wiki/Bar_(music)" title="Bar (music)">bars</a>), whereas <i>cresc.</i>, <i>decresc.</i>, and <i>dim.</i> signify more gradual changes. Word directions can be extended with dashes to indicate the temporal span of the change, which can extend across multiple pages. The term <i>morendo</i> ("dying") may also denote a gradual reduction in both dynamics and tempo. </p><p>For pronounced dynamic shifts, <i>cresc. molto</i> and <i>dim. molto</i> are commonly used, with <i>molto</i> meaning "much". Conversely, <i>poco cresc.</i> and <i>poco dim.</i> indicate gentler changes, with "poco" translating to <i>a little</i>, or alternatively <i>poco a poco</i> meaning "little by little". </p><p>Sudden dynamic changes are often indicated by prefixing or suffixing <i>subito</i> (meaning "suddenly") to the new dynamic notation. <i>Subito piano</i> (abbreviated as <i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">sub. <b>p</b></span></i> or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><b>p</b> sub.</span>) ("suddenly soft") implies a quick, almost abrupt reduction in volume to around the <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span> range, often employed to subvert listener expectations, signaling a more intimate expression. Likewise, <i>subito</i> can mark sudden increases in volume, as in <i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">sub. <b>f</b></span></i> or <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><b>f</b> sub.</span>) ("suddenly loud"). </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Sudden_changes_and_accented_notes"></span> <a href="/wiki/Accent_(music)" title="Accent (music)">Accented notes</a> are generally marked with an <i>accent</i> sign <b>></b> placed above or below the note, emphasizing the <a href="/wiki/Attack_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attack (music)">attack</a> relative to the prevailing dynamics. A sharper and briefer emphasis is denoted with a <i>marcato</i> mark <b>^</b> above the note. If a specific emphasis is required, variations of <i>forzando</i>/<i>forzato</i>, or <i>fortepiano</i> can be used. </p><p><i>forzando</i>/<i>forzato</i> signifies a forceful accent, abbreviated as <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fz</b></i></span>. To enhance the effect, <i>subito</i> often precedes it as <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>sfz</b></i></span> (<i>subito forzato/forzando</i>, <i>sforzando</i>/<i>sforzato</i>). The interpretation and execution of these markings are at the performer's discretion, with <i>forzato/forzando</i> typically seen as a variation of <i>marcato</i> and <i>subito forzando/forzato</i> as a <i>marcato</i> with added <i>tenuto</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fortepiano_(musical_dynamic)" title="Fortepiano (musical dynamic)">fortepiano</a> notation <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fp</b></i></span> denotes a <i>forte</i> followed immediately by <i>piano</i>. Contrastingly, <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pf</b></i></span> abbreviates <i>poco forte</i>, translating to "a little loud", but according to Brahms, implies <i>a forte character with a piano sound</i>, although rarely used due to potential confusion with <i>pianoforte</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Messa_di_voce" title="Messa di voce">Messa di voce</a> is a singing technique and musical ornament on a single pitch while executing a crescendo and diminuendo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extreme_dynamic_markings">Extreme dynamic markings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Extreme dynamic markings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:377px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:375px;"> <div class="mw-ext-score noresize" data-midi="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/c/w/cwzmmrt5zao2ie19yeh67iege25hb0a/cwzmmrt5.midi"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/c/w/cwzmmrt5zao2ie19yeh67iege25hb0a/cwzmmrt5.png" width="363" height="342" alt=" {
#(set-global-staff-size 14)
\new StaffGroup
\with {
 \omit SystemStartBracket
 \override StaffGrouper.staffgroup-staff-spacing.basic-distance = #15
 } <<
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff \with { \magnifyStaff #3/4 } <<
\relative c'' { \time 4/4 \clef treble \key cis \minor \tempo "Tempo I" \tempo 4 = 50 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f r8\fff _\markup {\left-align \italic m.d.} <cis e gis cis>-> <e gis b e>->_\markup { \italic pesante} <dis fisis ais dis>-> r <d fis bis d>-> r <bis dis fis bis>-> r <cis e gis cis>->_\markup {\dynamic sffff} <e gis b e>-> <dis fisis ais dis>-> r <d fis bis d>-> r <bis dis fis bis>->}
>>
\new Staff \with { \magnifyStaff #3/4 } <<
\relative c { \time 4/4 \clef treble \key cis \minor <cis e gis cis>2-> <a' a'>4-> <gis gis'>-> <cis, e gis cis>2-> <a' a'>4-> <gis gis'>->}
>>
>>

\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff \with { \magnifyStaff #3/4 } <<
\relative c { \time 4/4 \clef bass \key cis \minor \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f r8\fff _\markup {\left-align \italic m.s.} <e gis cis e>-> <gis b e gis>->_\markup { \italic pesante} <fisis ais dis fisis>-> r <fis bis d fis>-> r <dis fis bis dis>-> r <e gis cis e>->_\markup {\dynamic sffff} <gis b e gis>-> <fisis ais dis fisis>-> r <fis bis d fis>-> r <dis fis bis dis>->}
>>
\new Staff \with { \magnifyStaff #3/4 } <<
\relative c,, { \time 4/4 \clef bass \key cis \minor <cis e gis cis>2->\sustainOn <a' a'>4-> \sustainOff \sustainOn <gis gis'>->\sustainOn <cis, e gis cis>2-> \sustainOn <a' a'>4->\sustainOff \sustainOn <gis gis'>->\sustainOn}
>>
>>
>>
} " /><div style="margin-top: 3px;"><audio controls=""><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/c/w/cwzmmrt5zao2ie19yeh67iege25hb0a/cwzmmrt5.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" /><div>Audio playback is not supported in your browser. You can <a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/c/w/cwzmmrt5zao2ie19yeh67iege25hb0a/cwzmmrt5.mp3">download the audio file</a>.</div></audio></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Two measures of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Vasilievich_Rachmaninoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Prelude_in_C-sharp_minor_(Rachmaninoff)" title="Prelude in C-sharp minor (Rachmaninoff)">Prelude in C<span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="music-sharp">♯</span></span> minor</a> showing dynamic markings <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>sffff</b></i></span>. The top two staves are both played by the right hand, the bottom two by the left.</div></div></div> <p>While the typical range of dynamic markings is from <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> to <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fff</b></i></span>, some pieces use additional markings of further emphasis. Extreme dynamic markings imply either a very large dynamic range or very small differences of loudness within a normal range. This kind of usage is most common in orchestral works from the late 19th century onward. Generally, these markings are supported by the <a href="/wiki/Orchestration" title="Orchestration">orchestration</a> of the work, with heavy <i>forte</i> passages brought to life by having many loud instruments like brass and percussion playing at once. </p> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Holst" title="Gustav Holst">Holst</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Planets" title="The Planets">The Planets</a></i>, <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffff</b></i></span> occurs twice in "Mars" and once in "Uranus", often punctuated by organ.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Stravinsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Firebird" title="The Firebird"><i>The Firebird Suite</i></a>, <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffff</b></i></span> is marked for the <a href="/wiki/String_section" title="String section">strings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodwind_section" title="Woodwind section">woodwinds</a> at the end of the Finale.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a> marks a bassoon solo <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pppppp</b></i></span> (6 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s) in his <a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._6_(Tchaikovsky)" title="Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)"><i>Pathétique</i> Symphony</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and uses <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffff</b></i></span> in passages of his <i><a href="/wiki/1812_Overture" title="1812 Overture">1812 Overture</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his <a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Tchaikovsky)" title="Symphony No. 5 (Tchaikovsky)">Fifth Symphony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The baritone passage "<i>Era la notte</i>" from <a href="/wiki/Verdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verdi">Verdi</a>'s opera <i><a href="/wiki/Otello_(Verdi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Otello (Verdi)">Otello</a></i> uses <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pppp</b></i></span>, though the same spot is marked <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> in the full score.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Vasilievich_Rachmaninoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a> uses <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>sffff</b></i></span> in his <a href="/wiki/Prelude_in_C-sharp_minor_(Rachmaninoff)" title="Prelude in C-sharp minor (Rachmaninoff)">Prelude in C<span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="music-sharp">♯</span></span>, Op. 3 No. 2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Gustav Mahler</a>, in the third movement of his <a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._7_(Mahler)" title="Symphony No. 7 (Mahler)">Seventh Symphony</a>, gives the celli and basses a marking of <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fffff</b></i></span> (5 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s), along with a footnote directing '<a href="/wiki/Bartok_pizzicato" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartok pizzicato">pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On the other extreme, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Nielsen" title="Carl Nielsen">Carl Nielsen</a>, in the second movement of his <a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Nielsen)" title="Symphony No. 5 (Nielsen)">Fifth Symphony</a>, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppppp</b></i></span> (5 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>΄</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Ferneyhough" title="Brian Ferneyhough">Brian Ferneyhough</a>, in his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lemma-Icon-Epigram&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lemma-Icon-Epigram (page does not exist)">Lemma-Icon-Epigram</a></i>, uses <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffffff</b></i></span> (6 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s).<sup id="cite_ref-:17_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a>, in Scene 5 (Act II from his opera <a href="/wiki/Otello" title="Otello">Otello</a>), uses <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppppppp</b></i></span> (7 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti" title="György Ligeti">György Ligeti</a> uses extreme dynamics in his music: the <a href="/wiki/Cello_Concerto_(Ligeti)" title="Cello Concerto (Ligeti)">Cello Concerto</a> begins with a passage marked <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pppppppp</b></i></span> (8 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tudes_(Ligeti)" title="Études (Ligeti)">Piano Études</a> Étude No. 9 (<i>Vertige</i>) ends with a diminuendo to <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pppppppp</b></i></span> (8 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>p</b></i></span>s),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Étude No. 13 (<i>L'Escalier du Diable</i>) contains a passage marked <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffffff</b></i></span> (6 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s) that progresses to a <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffffffff</b></i></span> (8 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his opera <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Grand_Macabre" title="Le Grand Macabre">Le Grand Macabre</a></i> has <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ffffffffff</b></i></span> (10 <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>f</b></i></span>s) with a stroke of the hammer.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>On Music</i>, one of the <i><a href="/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia">Moralia</a></i> attributed to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> in the first century AD, suggests that ancient Greek musical performance included dynamic transitions – though dynamics receive far less attention in the text than does <a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a> composer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli" title="Giovanni Gabrieli">Giovanni Gabrieli</a> was one of the first to indicate dynamics in <a href="/wiki/Music_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Music notation">music notation</a>. However, much of the use of dynamics in early Baroque music remained implicit and was achieved through a practice called <i>raddoppio</i> ("doubling") and later <i>ripieno</i> ("filling"), which consisted of creating a contrast between a small number of elements and then a larger number of elements (usually in a ratio of 2:1 or more) to increase the mass of sound. This practice was pivotal to the structuring of instrumental forms such as the <a href="/wiki/Concerto_grosso" title="Concerto grosso">concerto grosso</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Solo_concerto" title="Solo concerto">solo concerto</a>, where a few or one instrument, supported by harmonic <a href="/wiki/Basso_continuo" title="Basso continuo">basso continuo</a> instruments (organ, <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theorbo" title="Theorbo">theorbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lirone" title="Lirone">lirone</a>, and low register strings, such as <a href="/wiki/Cello" title="Cello">cello</a> or <a href="/wiki/Viol" title="Viol">viola da gamba</a>, often used together) variously alternate or join to create greater contrasts. This practice is usually called t<i>erraced dynamics</i>, i.e. the alternation of <i>piano</i> and <i>forte</i>. </p><p>Later baroque musicians, such as <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>, tended to use more varied dynamics. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">J.S. Bach</a> used some dynamic terms, including <i>forte</i>, <i>piano</i>, <i>più piano</i>, and <i>pianissimo</i> (although written out as full words), and in some cases it may be that <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> was considered to mean <i>pianissimo</i> in this period. In 1752, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Quantz" title="Johann Joachim Quantz">Johann Joachim Quantz</a> wrote that "Light and shade must be constantly introduced ... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to this, the <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a> in fact becomes louder or softer depending on the thickness of the musical texture (four notes are louder than two). </p><p>In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic changes in their scores. Where <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a> specified six levels (<span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>pp</b></i></span> to <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ff</b></i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a> used also <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> and <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fff</b></i></span> (the latter less frequently), and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a> used a range of terms to describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of Brahms's <a href="/wiki/Horn_Trio_(Brahms)" title="Horn Trio (Brahms)">trio for violin, horn and piano (Opus 40)</a>, he uses the expressions <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span>, <i>molto piano</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Quasi_niente" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi niente">quasi niente</a></i> to express different qualities of quiet. Many Romantic and later composers added <i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">più <b>p</b></span></i> and <i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">più <b>f</b></span></i>, making for a total of ten levels between <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>ppp</b></i></span> and <span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i><b>fff</b></i></span>. </p><p> An example of how effective contrasting dynamics can be may be found in the overture to <a href="/wiki/Smetana" class="mw-redirect" title="Smetana">Smetana</a>’s opera <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bartered_Bride" title="The Bartered Bride">The Bartered Bride</a></i>. The fast scurrying quavers played pianissimo by the second violins form a sharply differentiated background to the incisive thematic statement played fortissimo by the firsts.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="11" data-mwtitle="Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture,_bars_30-36.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture,_bars_30-36.wav"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/19/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.wav/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.wav.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/19/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.wav/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture,_bars_30-36.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png/500px-Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png/750px-Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png/1000px-Smetana_Bartered_Bride_overture%2C_bars_30-36.png 2x" data-file-width="1902" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>Smetana Bartered Bride overture, bars 30-36</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretation_by_notation_programs">Interpretation by notation programs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interpretation by notation programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg/350px-Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg/525px-Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg/700px-Dynamic%27s_Note_Velocity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>Note Velocity is a <a href="/wiki/MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> measurement of the speed that the key travels from its rest position to completely depressed, with 127, the largest value in a 7-bit number, being instantaneous, and meaning as strong as possible. <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e8\/MIDI_dynamics_fff_to_ppp.mid\/MIDI_dynamics_fff_to_ppp.mid.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"Play a C major chord at each dynamic from fff to ppp"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"MIDI dynamics fff to ppp.mid"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/MIDI_dynamics_fff_to_ppp.mid/MIDI_dynamics_fff_to_ppp.mid.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">Play a C major chord at each dynamic from fff to ppp</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:MIDI_dynamics_fff_to_ppp.mid" title="File:MIDI dynamics fff to ppp.mid">ⓘ</a></sup></span></figcaption></figure><p>In some <a href="/wiki/Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">music notation programs</a>, there are default <a href="/wiki/Musical_Instrument_Digital_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical Instrument Digital Interface">MIDI</a> key velocity values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed. These defaults are listed in the following table for some applications, including Apple's <a href="/wiki/Logic_Pro" title="Logic Pro">Logic Pro</a> 9 (2009–2013), Avid's <a href="/wiki/Sibelius_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibelius (software)">Sibelius</a> 5 (2007–2009), musescore.org's <a href="/wiki/MuseScore" title="MuseScore">MuseScore</a> 3.0 (2019), MakeMusic's <a href="/wiki/Finale_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Finale (software)">Finale</a> 26 (2018-2021), and Musitek's <a href="/wiki/SmartScore" title="SmartScore">SmartScore</a> X2 Pro (2016) and 64 Pro. (2021). MIDI specifies the range of key velocities as an integer between 0 and 127: </p><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Symbols </th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>ppppp</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>pppp</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>ppp</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>pp</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>p</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>mp</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>mf</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>f</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>ff</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>fff</i></span></th> <th><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><i>ffff</i></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Logic Pro 9 dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>16</td> <td>32</td> <td>48</td> <td>64</td> <td>80</td> <td>96</td> <td>112</td> <td>127</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Sibelius 5 dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>20</td> <td>39</td> <td>61</td> <td>71</td> <td>84</td> <td>98</td> <td>113</td> <td>127</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>MuseScore 3.0 dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5</td> <td>10</td> <td>16</td> <td>33</td> <td>49</td> <td>64</td> <td>80</td> <td>96</td> <td>112</td> <td>126</td> <td>127 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>MakeMusic Finale dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td>10</td> <td>23</td> <td>36</td> <td>49</td> <td>62</td> <td>75</td> <td>88</td> <td>101</td> <td>114</td> <td>127 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>SmartScore X2 dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td>29</td> <td>38</td> <td>46</td> <td>55</td> <td>63</td> <td>72</td> <td>80</td> <td>89</td> <td>97</td> <td>106 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>SmartScore 64 dynamics</b><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td>30</td> <td>40</td> <td>50</td> <td>60</td> <td>70</td> <td>80</td> <td>90</td> <td>100</td> <td>110</td> <td>120 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The velocity effect on volume depends on the particular instrument. For instance, a grand piano has a much greater volume range than a recorder. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_audio_dynamics">Relation to audio dynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relation to audio dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The introduction of modern recording techniques has provided alternative ways to control the dynamics of music. <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression" title="Dynamic range compression">Dynamic range compression</a> is used to control the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range#Music" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a> of a recording, or a single instrument. This can affect loudness variations, both at the micro-<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and macro scale.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many contexts, the meaning of the term <i>dynamics</i> is therefore not immediately clear. To distinguish between the different aspects of dynamics, the term <i>performed dynamics</i> can be used to refer to the aspects of music dynamics that is controlled exclusively by the performer.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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/></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fortissimo" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fortissimo">fortissimo</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/decrescendo" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:decrescendo">decrescendo</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accent_(music)" title="Accent (music)">Accent (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_musical_terminology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of musical terminology">Glossary of musical terminology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">So stark anreißen, daß die Saiten an das Holz anschlagen.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynamics_(music)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="Grove_Dynamics" class="citation web cs1">Thiemel, Matthias. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/08458">"Dynamics"</a>. <i>Grove Music Online (subscriber-only access)</i>. Oxford University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grove+Music+Online+%28subscriber-only+access%29&rft.atitle=Dynamics&rft.aulast=Thiemel&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fsubscriber%2Farticle%2Fgrove%2Fmusic%2F08458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gardner_Read" title="Gardner Read">Read, Gardner</a> (1969/1979). <i>Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice</i>, p.250. 2nd edition. Crescendo Publishing, part of Taplinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8008-5453-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8008-5453-5">0-8008-5453-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvard-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvard_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvard_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRandel2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Don_Michael_Randel" title="Don Michael Randel">Randel, Don Michael</a> (2003). <i>The Harvard Dictionary of Music</i> (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA, US: Harvard University Press Reference Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harvard+Dictionary+of+Music&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA%2C+US&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press+Reference+Library&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Randel&rft.aufirst=Don+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vtp-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vtp_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022131734/http://www.music.vt.edu/MUSICDICTIONARY/textp/Piano.html">"Piano"</a>. <i>Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textp/Piano.html">the original</a> on 22 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Tech+Multimedia+Music+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Piano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.music.vt.edu%2Fmusicdictionary%2Ftextp%2FPiano.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vtf-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vtf_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020105236/http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textf/Forte.html">"Forte"</a>. <i>Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textf/Forte.html">the original</a> on 20 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Tech+Multimedia+Music+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Forte&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.music.vt.edu%2Fmusicdictionary%2Ftextf%2FForte.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vtd-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vtd_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vtd_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140407060444/http://www.music.vt.edu/MUSICDICTIONARY/textd/Dynamics.html">"Dynamics"</a>. <i>Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textd/Dynamics.html">the original</a> on 7 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Tech+Multimedia+Music+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Dynamics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.music.vt.edu%2Fmusicdictionary%2Ftextd%2FDynamics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_(music_critic)" title="Michael Kennedy (music critic)">Kennedy, Michael</a> and Bourne, Joyce: <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music</i> (1996), entry "Hairpins".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGerouLusk1996" class="citation book cs1">Gerou, Tom; Lusk, Linda (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6PELtxxrz_QC&q=sf+sfz+fz&pg=PA38"><i>Essential Dictionary of Music Notation: The Most Practical and Concise Source for Music Notation</i></a>. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0882847306" title="Special:BookSources/978-0882847306"><bdi>978-0882847306</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Dictionary+of+Music+Notation%3A+The+Most+Practical+and+Concise+Source+for+Music+Notation&rft.place=Van+Nuys%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=Alfred+Music+Publishing&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0882847306&rft.aulast=Gerou&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft.au=Lusk%2C+Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6PELtxxrz_QC%26q%3Dsf%2Bsfz%2Bfz%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeffreysolow.com/Writings/AnEnigmaticMarkingExplainedVcS.doc">An Enigmatic Marking Explained</a>, by Jeffrey Solow, <i>Violoncello Society Newsletter</i>, Spring 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolst1921" class="citation book cs1">Holst, Gustav (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/The_Planets,_Op.32_(Holst,_Gustav)#IMSLP05396"><i>The Planets</i></a>. London: Goodwin & Tabb. pp. 29, 42, 159<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Planets&rft.place=London&rft.pages=29%2C+42%2C+159&rft.pub=Goodwin+%26+Tabb&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Holst&rft.aufirst=Gustav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Planets%2C_Op.32_%28Holst%2C_Gustav%29%23IMSLP05396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTchaikovsky1979" class="citation book cs1">Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyitch (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.6,_Op.74_(Tchaikovsky,_Pyotr)#IMSLP504312"><i>Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies in Full Score</i></a>. New York: Dover Publications. First movement, just before Allegro vivo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/048623861X" title="Special:BookSources/048623861X"><bdi>048623861X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6414366">6414366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fourth%2C+Fifth+and+Sixth+Symphonies+in+Full+Score&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=First+movement%2C+just+before+Allegro+vivo&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6414366&rft.isbn=048623861X&rft.aulast=Tchaikovsky&rft.aufirst=Peter+Ilyitch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FSymphony_No.6%2C_Op.74_%28Tchaikovsky%2C_Pyotr%29%23IMSLP504312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNikolayev" class="citation book cs1">Nikolayev, Aleksandr (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/1812_Overture,_Op.49_(Tchaikovsky,_Pyotr)#IMSLP01078"><i>P.I. Tchaikovsky: Complete Collected Works, Vol. 25</i></a>. p. 79<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=P.I.+Tchaikovsky%3A+Complete+Collected+Works%2C+Vol.+25&rft.pages=79&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2F1812_Overture%2C_Op.49_%28Tchaikovsky%2C_Pyotr%29%23IMSLP01078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTchaikovsky1979" class="citation book cs1">Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.5,_Op.64_(Tchaikovsky,_Pyotr)#IMSLP504184"><i>Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies in Full Score</i></a>. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 18, 65 [on PDF]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/048623861X" title="Special:BookSources/048623861X"><bdi>048623861X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6414366">6414366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fourth%2C+Fifth+and+Sixth+Symphonies+in+Full+Score&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=18%2C+65+on+PDF&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6414366&rft.isbn=048623861X&rft.aulast=Tchaikovsky&rft.aufirst=Peter+Ilyich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FSymphony_No.5%2C_Op.64_%28Tchaikovsky%2C_Pyotr%29%23IMSLP504184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See imslp- p.88, Andante non tanto.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1965). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GfIEAAAAMAAJ&q=pensato+webern">The Musical Times</a></i>, Vol. 106. Novello.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRachmaninoff1911" class="citation book cs1">Rachmaninoff, Sergei (1911). Thümer, Otto Gustav (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Morceaux_de_fantaisie,_Op.3_(Rachmaninoff,_Sergei)#IMSLP273032"><i>Album Book I. Op. 3, Nos. 1–5</i></a>. London: Augener. p. 5<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Album+Book+I.+Op.+3%2C+Nos.+1%E2%80%935&rft.place=London&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Augener&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Rachmaninoff&rft.aufirst=Sergei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FMorceaux_de_fantaisie%2C_Op.3_%28Rachmaninoff%2C_Sergei%29%23IMSLP273032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMahler1909" class="citation book cs1">Mahler, Gustav (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.7_(Mahler,_Gustav)#IMSLP138638"><i>Symphonie No. 7</i></a>. Leipzig: Eulenburg. p. 229<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symphonie+No.+7&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Eulenburg&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Mahler&rft.aufirst=Gustav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FSymphony_No.7_%28Mahler%2C_Gustav%29%23IMSLP138638&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNielsen" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, Carl. Fjeldsøe, Michael (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.5%2C_Op.50_(Nielsen%2C_Carl)#IMSLP92727"><i>Vaerker, Series II, No.5</i></a>. p. 128<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vaerker%2C+Series+II%2C+No.5&rft.pages=128&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimslp.org%2Fwiki%2FSymphony_No.5%252C_Op.50_%28Nielsen%252C_Carl%29%23IMSLP92727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:17_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFerneyhough1982" class="citation book cs1">Ferneyhough, Brian (1982). <i>Lemma-Icon-Epigram</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Edition_Peters" title="Edition Peters">Edition Peters</a> 7233.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lemma-Icon-Epigram&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edition+Peters+7233&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Ferneyhough&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homes.luddy.indiana.edu/donbyrd/CMNExtremes.htm">"Extremes of Conventional Music Notation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Extremes+of+Conventional+Music+Notation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhomes.luddy.indiana.edu%2Fdonbyrd%2FCMNExtremes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKirzinger" class="citation web cs1">Kirzinger, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allmusic.com/composition/cello-concerto-mc0002384607">"György Ligeti – Cello Concerto"</a>. <i>allmusic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Gy%C3%B6rgy+Ligeti+%E2%80%93+%C3%89tudes+for+Piano+%28Book+2%29%2C+No.+13+%5B7%2F9%5D&rft.date=2015-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DQ6LmG9myHxA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donington, Robert: <i>Baroque Music</i> (1982) WW Norton, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-30052-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-30052-8">0-393-30052-8</a>. 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Sibelius Software.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musescore.org/en/handbook/3/dynamics">"Handbook 3.0, Dynamics"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Handbook+3.0%2C+Dynamics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmusescore.org%2Fen%2Fhandbook%2F3%2Fdynamics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MakeMusic, Inc. <i>Finale (Version 26), Expression Dialog Box, Note Expression Selection</i>. Finale (26.1.0.397) Software.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musitek Corp. Smartscore X2 Software.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musitek Corp. Smartscore 64 Software.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKatz2002" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Robert (2002). <i>Mastering Audio</i>. Amsterdam: Boston. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-80545-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-240-80545-3"><bdi>0-240-80545-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Audio&rft.place=Amsterdam%3A+Boston&rft.pages=109&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-240-80545-3&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeruty2011" class="citation news cs1">Deruty, Emmanuel (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soundonsound.com/sound-advice/dynamic-range-loudness-war">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Dynamic Range' & The Loudness War"</a>. <i>Sound on Sound</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sound+on+Sound&rft.atitle=%27Dynamic+Range%27+%26+The+Loudness+War&rft.date=2011-09&rft.aulast=Deruty&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.soundonsound.com%2Fsound-advice%2Fdynamic-range-loudness-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElowssonFriberg2017" class="citation journal cs1">Elowsson, Anders; Friberg, Anders (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180117012048/http://www.speech.kth.se/prod/publications/files/4106.pdf">"Predicting the perception of performed dynamics in music audio with ensemble learning"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>. <b>141</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">2224–</span>2242. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ASAJ..141.2224E">2017ASAJ..141.2224E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.4978245">10.1121/1.4978245</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28372147">28372147</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.speech.kth.se/prod/publications/files/4106.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Acoustical+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=Predicting+the+perception+of+performed+dynamics+in+music+audio+with+ensemble+learning&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2224-%3C%2Fspan%3E2242&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28372147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1121%2F1.4978245&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017ASAJ..141.2224E&rft.aulast=Elowsson&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft.au=Friberg%2C+Anders&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.speech.kth.se%2Fprod%2Fpublications%2Ffiles%2F4106.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynamics+%28music%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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dynamic)">Fortepiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauptstimme" title="Hauptstimme">Hauptstimme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niente" title="Niente">Niente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensato" title="Pensato">Pensato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce_(music)" title="Sotto voce (music)">Sotto voce</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sfz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sforzando symbol." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sfz.svg/20px-Sfz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sfz.svg/30px-Sfz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sfz.svg/40px-Sfz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="41" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Da_capo" title="Da capo">Da capo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dal_segno" title="Dal segno">Dal segno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_signature" title="Key signature">Key signature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledger_line" title="Ledger line">Ledger line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(music)" title="Mode (music)">Mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossia" title="Ossia">Ossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_(music)" title="Scale (music)">Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehearsal_letter" title="Rehearsal letter">Rehearsal letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeat_sign" title="Repeat sign">Repeat sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempo" title="Tempo">Tempo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_signature" title="Time signature">Time signature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposition_(music)" title="Transposition (music)">Transposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposing_instrument" title="Transposing instrument">Transposing instrument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Musical_note" title="Musical note">Musical notes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_(music)" title="Accidental (music)">Accidental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_(music)" title="Natural (music)">natural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">sharp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cue_note" title="Cue note">Cue note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dotted_note" title="Dotted note">Dotted note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_note" title="Grace note">Grace note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Note_value" title="Note value">Note value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_(music)" title="Beam (music)">beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notehead" title="Notehead">Notehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(music)" title="Stem (music)">stem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_(music)" title="Rest (music)">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacet" title="Tacet">Tacet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuplet" title="Tuplet">Tuplet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremolo" title="Tremolo">Tremolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">Interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_pitch_notation" title="Helmholtz pitch notation">Helmholtz pitch notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_notation" title="Letter notation">Letter notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pitch_notation" title="Scientific pitch notation">Scientific pitch notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Articulation_(music)" title="Articulation (music)">Articulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accent_(music)" title="Accent (music)">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesura" title="Caesura">Caesura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damping_(music)" title="Damping (music)">Damping</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermata" title="Fermata">Fermata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingering_(music)" title="Fingering (music)">Fingering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legato" title="Legato">Legato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcato" title="Marcato">Marcato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornament_(music)" title="Ornament (music)">Ornament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appoggiatura" title="Appoggiatura">Appoggiatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glissando" title="Glissando">Glissando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_note" title="Grace note">Grace note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordent" title="Mordent">Mordent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_(musical_ornament)" title="Slide (musical ornament)">Slide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trill_(music)" title="Trill (music)">Trill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portato" title="Portato">Portato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slur_(music)" title="Slur (music)">Slur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staccato" title="Staccato">Staccato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenuto" title="Tenuto">Tenuto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tie_(music)" title="Tie (music)">Tie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonguing" title="Tonguing">Tonguing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">Sheet music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_music_publishing" title="History of music publishing">History of music publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_engraving" title="Music engraving">Music engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_publisher" title="Music publisher">Music publisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">Scorewriter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_chart" title="Chord chart">Chord chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_diagram_(music)" title="Chord diagram (music)">Chord diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_music" title="Eye music">Eye music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figured_bass" title="Figured bass">Figured bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_notation_(music)" title="Graphic notation (music)">Graphic notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_sheet" title="Lead sheet">Lead sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Number_System" title="Nashville Number System">Nashville Number System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbered_musical_notation" title="Numbered musical notation">Numbered musical notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klavarskribo" title="Klavarskribo">Klavarskribo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablature" title="Tablature">Tablature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsons_code" title="Parsons code">Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percussion_notation" title="Percussion notation">Percussion notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_music_notation" title="Simplified music notation">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_musical_notation" title="Chinese musical notation">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekphonetic_notation" title="Ekphonetic notation">Ekphonetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamelan_notation" title="Gamelan notation">Gamelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunkunshi" title="Kunkunshi">Kunkunshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neume" title="Neume">Neume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaralipi" title="Swaralipi">Swaralipi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakuhachi_musical_notation" title="Shakuhachi musical notation">Shakuhachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Znamenny_chant#Notation" title="Znamenny chant">Znamenny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mensural_notation" title="Mensural notation">Mensural notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_stand" title="Music stand">Music stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_pitch" title="Absolute pitch">Perfect pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sight-reading" title="Sight-reading">Sight-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(music)" title="Transcription (music)">Transcription</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_musical_symbols" title="List of musical symbols">List of musical symbols</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Musical_notation" title="Category:Musical notation">Category:Musical notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Musical_techniques310" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Musical_techniques" title="Template:Musical techniques"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Musical_techniques" title="Template talk:Musical techniques"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Musical_techniques" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Musical techniques"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Musical_techniques310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Musical_technique" title="Musical technique">Musical techniques</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articulation_(music)" title="Articulation (music)">Articulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(music)" title="Bow (music)">Bowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damping_(music)" title="Damping (music)">Damping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_stop" title="Double stop">Double stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_technique" title="Extended technique">Extended technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingering_(music)" title="Fingering (music)">Fingering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_substitution" title="Finger substitution">Finger substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_vibrato" title="Finger vibrato">Finger vibrato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glissando" title="Glissando">Glissando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(music)" title="Intonation (music)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiphonic" title="Multiphonic">Multiphonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_phrasing" title="Musical phrasing">Phrasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizzicato" title="Pizzicato">Pizzicato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(music)" title="Position (music)">Position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slapping_(music)" title="Slapping (music)">Slapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopped_note" title="Stopped note">Stopped note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumb_position" title="Thumb position">Thumb position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremolo" title="Tremolo">Tremolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrato" title="Vibrato">Vibrato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_instrument" title="Wind instrument">Wind instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxophone_technique" title="Saxophone technique">Saxophone technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_breathing" title="Circular breathing">Circular breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embouchure" title="Embouchure">Embouchure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flutter-tonguing" title="Flutter-tonguing">Flutter-tonguing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growling_(wind_instruments)" title="Growling (wind instruments)">Growling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonica_techniques" title="Harmonica techniques">Harmonica technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overblowing" title="Overblowing">Overblowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slap_tonguing" title="Slap tonguing">Slap tonguing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_tone" title="Split tone">Split tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonguing" title="Tonguing">Tonguing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Piano" title="Piano">Piano</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piano_extended_techniques" title="Piano extended techniques">Piano extended techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_tapping_(piano)" title="Finger tapping (piano)">Finger tapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luth%C3%A9al" title="Luthéal">Luthéal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-hand_effect" title="Three-hand effect">Three-hand technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared_piano" title="Prepared piano">Prepared piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_piano" title="String piano">String piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tack_piano" title="Tack piano">Tack piano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bowed_string_instrument" title="Bowed string instrument">Bowed string instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowed_string_instrument_extended_technique" title="Bowed string instrument extended technique">Bowed string instrument extended technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violin_technique" title="Violin technique">Violin technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cello_technique" title="Cello technique">Cello technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bariolage" title="Bariolage">Bariolage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizzicato" title="Pizzicato">Pizzicato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bart%C3%B3k_pizzicato" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartók pizzicato">Bartók pizz.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Col_legno" title="Col legno">Col legno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_bowing" title="Free bowing">Free bowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martel%C3%A9_(bowstroke)" title="Martelé (bowstroke)">Martelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiccato" title="Spiccato">Spiccato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances-Marie_Uitti" title="Frances-Marie Uitti">Two bows</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Guitar" title="Guitar">Guitar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Downpicking" title="Downpicking">Downpicking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingerstyle_guitar" title="Fingerstyle guitar">Fingerstyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatpicking" title="Flatpicking">Flatpicking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guitar_picking" title="Guitar picking">Picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_picking" title="Hybrid picking">Hybrid picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_bending" title="String bending">String bending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambour_(guitar_technique)" title="Tambour (guitar technique)">Tambour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_bridge" title="3rd bridge">Third bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared_guitar" title="Prepared guitar">Prepared guitar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">Harp</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prepared_harp" title="Prepared harp">Prepared harp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Percussion_instrument" title="Percussion instrument">Percussion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Snare_drum_technique" title="Snare drum technique">Snare drum technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_grip" title="Burton grip">Burton grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cymbal_choke" title="Cymbal choke">Cymbal choke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_roll" title="Drum roll">Drum roll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevens_grip" title="Stevens grip">Stevens grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimshot" title="Rimshot">Rimshot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vocal_pedagogy" title="Vocal pedagogy">Human voice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_vocal_technique" title="Extended vocal technique">Extended vocal technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatboxing" title="Beatboxing">Beatboxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_growl" title="Death growl">Death growl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtone_singing" title="Overtone singing">Overtone singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screaming_(music)" title="Screaming (music)">Screaming</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sprechgesang" title="Sprechgesang">Sprechgesang</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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