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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American civil rights activist (1922–2021)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Gloria Richardson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gloria_Richardson_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/70/Gloria_Richardson_1964.jpg/220px-Gloria_Richardson_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/70/Gloria_Richardson_1964.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="350" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Richardson in 1964</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Gloria St. Clair Hayes</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1922-05-06</span>)</span>May 6, 1922<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">July 15, 2021<span style="display:none">(2021-07-15)</span> (aged 99)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Movement_(civil_rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a> during 1960s <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gloria Richardson Dandridge</b> (born <b>Gloria St. Clair Hayes</b>; May 6, 1922 – July 15, 2021) was an American civil rights activist best known as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> action in the early 1960s in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Maryland" title="Cambridge, Maryland">Cambridge, Maryland</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Shore_of_Maryland" title="Eastern Shore of Maryland">Eastern Shore</a>. Recognized as a major figure in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, she was one of the signatories to "The Treaty of Cambridge", signed in July 1963 with Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a>, and state and local officials. It was an effort at reconciliation and commitment to change after a riot the month before. </p><p>At the August 1963 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a>, Richardson and five other women were honored by being seated on the stage at the Lincoln Memorial, but none of the women were invited to speak to the crowd. The next year Richardson moved to New York City, where she worked locally in <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a> on civil rights and economic development. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gloria St. Clair Hayes was born in 1922 to John and Mable (née St. Clair) Hayes in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore, Maryland</a>, the largest city in the state. Her mother was part of the affluent St. Clair family of <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Maryland" title="Cambridge, Maryland">Cambridge, Maryland</a>, which owned and operated a successful grocery store and funeral home. Her ancestors had been <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free people of color</a> since before the Civil War, and also owned extensive rental property. During the constraints of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the Hayes family moved to Cambridge, where Mable had grown up. One of Mable's uncles was a lawyer in the state of <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>. Her family was also involved in politics. Gloria's wealthy maternal St. Clair grandfather was elected to the Cambridge City Council,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> serving from 1912 to 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a young age, Gloria had a strong personality nurtured by her parents and maternal grandparents.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She developed a strong sense of community and started to form her own views on such human rights issues as racism. She attended a neighborhood public school. Her parents encouraged her to speak up and to be comfortable in front of large groups, such as performing at Sunday school programs.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The young Hayes pushed against what her parents considered to be respectable behavior for girls from well-to-do families.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her independence and persistence were later displayed also in her civil rights work. While aware of her family privileges, she realized that her college degree, her family's social position, and their navigation of the color line in Cambridge did not provide her or her family with true protection.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her grandparents always taught her to value people for their actions and not for their socioeconomic status.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hayes family was educated and relatively affluent, but still had suffered racial injustice. Most importantly, Gloria's father John Hayes died of a heart attack due to the lack of nearby medical care accessible to blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It forced the young woman to realize that racism was a matter of life and death. </p><p>Black males had been able to vote in Maryland since <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">emancipation</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. (Women were added when the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th constitutional amendment</a> became effective in 1920.) African Americans in the city of Baltimore were generally segregated into housing in one of five wards, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Ward_(Dorchester_County)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second Ward (Dorchester County) (page does not exist)">Second Ward</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within that ward, blacks had built up substantial religious and business communities. They still lived under Maryland state Jim Crow laws and customs in the city at large. </p><p>Hayes earned a B.A. in sociology in 1942 from <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Historically black college">historically black university</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, DC</a>. She became involved in social activism as a student protesting with others at the <a href="/wiki/Peoples_Drug" title="Peoples Drug">Peoples Drug</a> store near campus because the store refused to hire Black workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In college, she also <a href="/wiki/Picketing" title="Picketing">picketed</a> a <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregated</a> <a href="/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company" title="F. W. Woolworth Company">Woolworth's</a> store in the capital, where blacks were not allowed to have lunch at the in-store counter. People were surprised by her leadership and her status as a woman from an elite African-American family. They were used to dealing with poor black women who were less outspoken.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through her experiences in Washington, she realized that even 50 years of Black participation in the legal system had limited results. She could see that Cambridge was still highly segregated, and learned that Blacks suffered one of the highest unemployment rates for that size city.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Return_to_Cambridge">Return to Cambridge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Return to Cambridge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Hayes returned to Cambridge after college, she married Harry Richardson and began to explore civil rights. When the city government hired black people as <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social workers</a>, they were to serve only black clients in the all-black ward. After she was passed over for a social worker position in the "black" ward, she decided to focus on her family and civic work. In an interview with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Penn_Warren" title="Robert Penn Warren">Robert Penn Warren</a> for his book <i><a href="/wiki/Who_Speaks_for_the_Negro%3F" title="Who Speaks for the Negro?">Who Speaks for the Negro?</a></i> (1965), Richardson said that in Cambridge, blacks were "the last hired and first fired",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a phrase applicable to minorities in other places as well. </p><p>When she divorced from Harry Richardson, she was a mother with two daughters. She worked at a pharmacy and grocery store owned by her family in a predominantly Black community. Richardson has said that her motherhood sparked her activist role. </p><p>Richardson held a formal office in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambridge Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (page does not exist)">Cambridge Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (CNCC). She also served as an adult adviser to the CNCC. At one point she was the only Black woman to head a local civil rights agency.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When she became co-chair of the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee (CNAC), she began to identify goals beyond desegregation. She sought economic and social justice in housing, education, job opportunity, and health care.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While co-chairing CNAC, Richardson gained insight into who to trust in the process of negotiating the expansion of rights of the Black community in Cambridge. </p><p>During her early activism, Richardson was arrested three times. When she was first arrested, Judge W. Laird described her tactics as "a disgrace to her family's name", attempting to shame her into silence.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She continued to fight back harder. She was known for verbal attacks, describing national leaders as presenting "meaningless smiles" due to their failure to gain substantial change.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cambridge_movement">Cambridge movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cambridge movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement (civil rights)</a></div> <p>In December 1961, the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC) sent Reginald Robinson and William Hansen to Cambridge to organize civil rights actions. SNCC had been contacted by activists in the city. The two young men started <a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">sit-ins</a> in February to protest segregated facilities. They targeted movie theaters, bowling alleys, and restaurants. Donna Richardson, Gloria's daughter, was among students who supported the demonstrators. Richardson and Yolanda Sinclair, also mother of a protester, were among parents who wanted to show their support for these actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, a <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Ride</a> came to Cambridge. The black city council member had attempted to discourage the campaign by insisting that the city was already desegregated. At first Richardson rarely participated in <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a>, because she could not accept the original SNCC <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a> rules. </p><p>By 1962, the Civil Rights movement was picking up steam around the country. Students attempted to desegregate public facilities in Cambridge. At the time, the city had a population of around 11,000, of whom about one-third were Black. The initial protests, including picketing and sit-ins, were peaceful. Although White supremacists attacked demonstrators, police arrested the protestors. The protests did not yield results until Richardson was chosen to lead the movement and CNAC.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  </p><p>On January 13, 1962, the city's Black community held its first civil rights demonstration of the 1960s. Dozens of Black high school students, including Richardson's daughter Donna, joined a number of young men and women from Baltimore's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Civic_Interest_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civic Interest Group (page does not exist)">Civic Interest Group</a> (CIG) and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE) and two members of the SNCC.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a result of weeks of coordinated planning by Cambridge's Black youths. It was viewed as the beginning of Cambridge's civil rights movement.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, when Richardson wanted to get involved with the protests, her daughter Donna sent Richardson home until Richardson could guarantee that she would demonstrate nonviolently, as the other individuals had been trained to do. It was a commitment Richardson could not make at the time; therefore, she focused on working with the Black community's secretive and highly efficient intelligence-sharing network, known as the "grapevine".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson provided information to CIG and SNCC about how Cambridge's political system operated and the opinions of the Black community. Her daughter acted as a spark in Richardson's activist journey. Through witnessing various demonstrations in support of her daughter's activism, Richardson struggled to remain silent in the face of counter-protestors that mocked the non-violent Civil Rights groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson was determined to involve herself in these social justice issues. At the time, she ran her family's business, but she decided to become a student again. She attended workshops, and special sessions where activists methodically trained for non-violence, to withstand the hatred of mobs, who often used slurs and demeaning acts to prevent peaceful assembly. This was supposed to be secured by the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The March and April demonstrations resulted in a large caseload for the local court system where Richardson and other defendants were tried together. Richardson was one of more than 50 people who stood trial for charges of disorderly conduct. This became known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penny_Trial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penny Trial (page does not exist)">The Penny Trial</a> and demonstrated how the Cambridge movement disrupted white elites' racial comfort zones.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the issue of violence, Richardson had the outlook that violence is not necessarily the answer, but she does not condemn violence as she believes it is a residue of frustration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She once said that "revolts seemed to be the only thing that America understands, and the nation's racial problems made revolts unavoidable".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p><p>In June 1962, Richardson was asked to help organize the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee (CNAC), the first adult-led affiliate of SNCC. She became its official spokesperson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisseloff54–55_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisseloff54–55-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization had initially formed in March of that year. After CNAC canvassed African-American communities in a survey, they expanded the goals to work for economic equality: to improve housing, education, employment, and healthcare. Many blacks struggled with low wages or unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cambridge movement would be one of the first campaigns to focus on economic rights rather than putting the focus solely on civil rights. Richardson would also be one of the first leaders to publicly question nonviolence as a tactic. Due to the change in focus of the movement, protests demanded both economic and social equality as Richardson wanted to target discrimination and inequity in employment, poor wages, inferior schools, health care, and segregated facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson said in a later interview on why she was committed to CNAC's leadership reflecting the community. "The one thing we did was to emphasize that while you should be educated, that education, degrees, college degrees were not essential [here]. If you could articulate the need, if you knew what that need was, if you were aware of the kinds of games that white folk play that was the real thing".<sup id="cite_ref-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the summer of 1962, CNAC focused on voter registration and an effort to get out the vote. They wanted to replace state senator <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Malkus" title="Frederick Malkus">Frederick Malkus</a>, who had opposed legislation that would have allowed additional industries into <a href="/wiki/Dorchester_County,_Maryland" title="Dorchester County, Maryland">Dorchester County, Maryland</a>. The lack of industrial jobs limited opportunities for the African-American community. </p><p>Richardson was focused on determining the priorities of the Black community, reinforced by a lesson she learned from her grandfather which was to learn about the important issues the members of a community care about most. One of the first things she did was conduct a survey of the Black community to help determine priorities. Data was collected door-to-door and analyzed by faculty at <a href="/wiki/Swarthmore_College" title="Swarthmore College">Swarthmore College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The survey collected the following statistics as what residents considered to be the most pressing issue:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>42% considered it to be jobs</li> <li>26% considered it to be housing</li> <li>21% considered it to be improved schools</li> <li>6% considered it to be open accommodations</li> <li>5% considered it to be police brutality</li></ul> <p>Before collecting the data, Richardson expected public accommodations to be their biggest concern because it had been the main focus of the protest; however, after analyzing the results, CNAC began a multipronged campaign to encourage black voter registration, increase employment opportunities for black workers, and end racially segregated education by having black parents apply to transfer their children to white schools.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As militant tactics increased and new demands were made, white resistance also increased. Two 15-year old students, Dwight Cromwell and Dinez White, were arrested for praying outside a segregated facility.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both individuals received indeterminate sentences in a juvenile facility and these sentences resulted in outrage from the Black community. Large marches and protests increased, which were often met by White mobs. This is when the philosophy within the Black community in Cambridge changed from  "nonviolent resistance" to "armed self-defense".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Herbert St. Clair, a Black businessman said, "We are not going to initiate violence. But if we are attacked, we are not going to turn the other cheek".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1963 the Cambridge protests had attracted students and other activists from around the country. On June 11, white patrons at Dizzyland had attacked six white and black demonstrators conducting a sit-in there. General Gelston of the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a> announced that he was changing the rules of martial law: he announced a curfew of 9 P.M. instead of 10, stores were to close at 2 P.M. instead of 9 P.M., firearms were banned, and automobile searches by police and National Guard were authorized. </p><p>At 8 P.M. that night 250 African Americans staged a "freedom walk" to the Dorchester County Courthouse. Shortly after the demonstrators stopped to pray, they were attacked and pelted with eggs by crowds of more than 200 white townsfolk. Two carloads of whites drove in and started a gun fight with armed African Americans. State police used tear gas and guns to disperse the mob. </p><p>The federal government intervened in an effort to end the violence and protests. Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> and other Justice Department and housing officials brokered a five-point "Treaty of Cambridge", to include a statement for equal rights, that was signed in July. The Attorney General, representatives of the State Of Maryland, local black leadership-including Richardson, and elected Cambridge officials were all signatories. </p><p>On June 13, 1963, another mass civil rights march was held. This time, the Black community in Cambridge came with protection. Armed men were protecting the demonstrators and they set up a perimeter around the Black community.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The night after, a fight broke out between the White and Black community and there was an exchange of gunshots.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several people were wounded and some White businesses were set on fire. During this series of protests in 1963 is where the famous photograph of Richardson pushing aside the bayonet and rifle of a National Guardsman emerged from.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the accumulation of protests and demonstrations, the administration of Gov. Milliard J. Tawes offered a plan of gradual desegregation. However, it was rejected by CNAC and Tawes responded by sending in the National Guard for three weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the withdrawal of the National Guard, CNAC resumed protests. </p><p>On July 12, a White mob attacked protesters sitting in at a restaurant. The Black residents fought back, but there was another attack later that night. After those incidents, Governor Tawes sent in the National Guard for nearly two years. This was the longest occupation of any community since the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction period</a> after the American Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> arranged a settlement where if the CNAC agreed to stop protesting, then in return there would be an end to segregation in public accommodations, desegregation of public schools, construction of public housing, and implementation of a jobs program funded by the Federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This agreement did not last and ended almost immediately when the Dorchester Business and Citizens Association filed referendum petitions to overturn the agreement. Richardson took a controversial stance on the issue as she announced that the CNAC would not be taking part in the referendum. A significant quote that encaptures Richardson's view is when she said that "A first-class citizen does not beg for freedom. A first-class citizen does not plead to the white power structure to give him something that the whites have no power to give or take away. Human rights are human rights, not white rights".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 23, the Treaty of Cambridge was signed and it helped local activists secure victories in resources for public housing, the protection of voting rights, and the establishment of a body to investigate Civil Rights violations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that period of time, national publications wrote stories and reports about why Richardson was ludicrous for opposing a citywide referendum because it supposedly allowed Cambridge citizens to vote on equal access to accommodations and housing. However, Richardson was firm in her belief that her White neighbours should not be deciding on Black rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, she was correct as the referendum was overwhelmingly shot down. </p><p>The fight for desegregation also led to victories in <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">union organizations</a> that had failed previously. Richardson claimed that there would often be White members who wanted to educate themselves on the issue and would ask about the civil rights struggle. Many White workers were inspired by the CNAC campaign and recognized the power and leadership it represented. This helped to achieve a certain level of Black and White unity as White workers recognized that the Black struggle for freedom represented new power that would also benefit them.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in an improvement in involvement. Previously, although the Cambridge local consisted of both Black and White members, they were unable to meet due to segregation. Now, the Black trade unionists, with support from White workers, asked CNAC to attend meetings. In fact, there was an incident where the White workers openly showed their support. In a large meeting at the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) headquarters in New York, there were people who supported wage discrepancy that were sent to the meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they started to argue, they accused Richardson of being a communist and wanted to remove her from the meeting. However, local white ILGWU members said, "Oh no. If she goes, all of us go," demonstrating their support for Richardson and the CNAC.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson was selected as an honoree at the March on Washington on August 22, 1963. Before she arrived at the event, she was told that she could not wear jeans to the event. To Richardson and other SNCC members, wearing jeans represented their solidarity with the rural poor, and "it was the default uniform when they boycotted department stores for maintaining segregation".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, she compromised and wore a jean skirt. When she arrived she realized her seat on the dais was missing. After finding a place to sit on the platform stage, Richardson was allowed to say "Hello," to the crowd of more than 250,000, before her microphone was cut.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gloria Richardson played a big role in the Kennedy administration's decision to work with the CNAC as she initiated a series of negotiations to help Cambridge residents come out from under Jim Crow. By the summer of 1963, she was living her "egalitarian philosophies concerning community organizing and democracy", and she was willing to risk her family's standing among the black elite to achieve CNAC's goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For these reasons, Cambridge's black community acknowledged her as its leader, making her one of few women to achieve that position during the entire civil rights movement.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson claimed that people working for the Kennedy administration tried to intimidate her into leaving the movement by threatening to reveal embarrassing gossip about her, including intimate details about her divorce and her affair.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson sent word to the administration that if the press ran that story, she would indeed resign from CNAC, but she would not go without a fight. In her personal life, she was not afraid of other people's judgement, including her, at the time, uncommon decision to get a divorce. </p><p>In December 1963 Richardson attended a national meeting of SNCC leaders in Atlanta, where they discussed the future direction of the organization. Present were <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Smith_(D.C._Council)" title="Frank Smith (D.C. Council)">Frank Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Courtland_Cox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Courtland Cox (page does not exist)">Courtland Cox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Thelwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Thelwell">Michael Thelwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jim_Forman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jim Forman (page does not exist)">Jim Forman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dottie_Zellner" class="mw-redirect" title="Dottie Zellner">Dottie Zellner</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ivanhoe_Donaldson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ivanhoe Donaldson (page does not exist)">Ivanhoe Donaldson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joyce_Ladner" title="Joyce Ladner">Joyce Ladner</a>, as well as staff and volunteers. <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a> led questioning to help the mostly young leaders work toward their vision for activism. In Atlanta they discussed and planned for an extended voting rights program to be conducted in the South the next year, an election year. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERansby314–317_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERansby314–317-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_Cambridge_movement">After Cambridge movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: After Cambridge movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 14, 1963, <a href="/wiki/J._Millard_Tawes" title="J. Millard Tawes">Governor Tawes</a> met with Richardson and other leaders . He offered to integrate schools, ensure that a Black person was "hired in the State Employment Office, make an application for a federal loan for a "Negro housing project", pass a public accommodations ordinance, and name a biracial commission to work on the other problems that could not be solved immediately by legislation", in exchange for a year-long suspension of civil demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson rejected committing to stopping demonstrations unless there was a full desegregation of schools and complete fairness in job opportunities. She said, "We wish to make it unalterably clear that we will determine, and not the political structure of the city, who shall speak for the Negro community".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson was criticized during and after the Cambridge movement on her role as a female leader. Many local and national figures said that she should have denounced the violence outright, but she continued to believe in self-defense. Later, Richardson was arrested again. Officials made one attempt to institutionalize her as mentally incompetent, but did not succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> described Cambridge as a town that had "lost sight of what demonstrations are about" because of the violence that had occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Richardson believed that the people who had been provoked and had endured generations of segregation were going to resist until change was achieved in Cambridge.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such leaders as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> urged Richardson to be "less confrontational and more compromising," but Richardson refused to comply.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She disagreed strongly with King, Kennedy, and many others who mistakenly thought that she was an advocate for violence. She believed in nonviolence as a first step in demonstrations, but encouraged physical force as self-defense if confronted with threats.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People around her noted that if Richardson was on "your side, you didn't need anybody else".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Black church leaderes distanced themselves from Richardson, and some movement and local civil rights activists also avoided associating with her. Some people believed her political approach was too intense, and her movement began to falter.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson was criticized by most radical Black male activists, who tended to be conservative in terms of gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her actions were perceived to be inappropriate for a woman.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson's contribution helped to reshape the stereotypical role of women. She expanded the range of female involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She laid the groundwork for African Americans as female politicians and feminists, and people of the LGBTQ community.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson demonstrated that even women who lived in small towns have a voice. </p><p>As a result of this movement, federal dollars began to flow to Cambridge facilities, including parks, schools, streets, public housing, and other projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, discrimination against the Black community continued despite the legal end of segregation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A month after the meeting with Governor Tawes, Richardson left Cambridge for New York City. She married Frank Dandridge, a photographer she had become acquainted with during the demonstrations, and settled with him there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasmussen_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussen-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New York, Richardson worked at an advertising agency before taking a job with the New York City Department for the Aging. She helped ensure businesses complied with laws that affected seniors.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson also was advising the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Action_Federation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Action Federation (page does not exist)">Black Action Federation</a> (BAF), CNAC's successor. BAF was established by former CNAC members because they felt that Cambridge's "white power system was still impeding progress in all areas of Black residents' lives".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While largely retiring from public life, she worked with Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited and Associated Community Teams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She retired in 2012 at age 90. </p><p>In an interview with <a href="/wiki/Gil_Noble" title="Gil Noble">Gil Noble</a> in 1982, Richardson explained her passion about helping student demonstrators at the beginning of the Cambridge movement. She said that "there was something direct, something real about the way kids waged nonviolent war. This was the first time I saw a vehicle I could work with".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson continued to pay attention and stay engaged in current politics and social justice events. In a 2021 interview with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>, Richardson recounted that she watched as outrage over the <a href="/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Murder of George Floyd">murder of George Floyd</a> prompted thousands to <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">take to the streets</a>. She was frustrated by what seemed like a lack of progress since her own work in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But she was pleased by the diversity of persons who supported the racial justice movements. During the years of the Cambridge movement, fellow protestors were predominantly Black, but in the 21st century, she saw a mix of races marching together. She recalled that they marched until the governor called martial law because they believed that that was how to get attention and prevent protests about the same topics another 100 years from now.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She believed that these actions remain necessary in America today where Black citizens continue to face inequities in the "criminal justice system, housing, health care, and other areas compared with their White counterparts".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Her legacy is less known than many other women in the movement such as <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a>. Lopez Matthews Jr., a historian and digital production librarian at Howard University, believes that she is not well-known because "she was a woman who was feisty and who refused to back down. As a society, we tend not to value those traits in women".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, those traits made Richardson a great leader in the civil rights movement, because she did not back down. In the biography, <i>The Struggle is Eternal: Gloria Richardson and Black Liberation</i>, the author, Joseph Fitzgerald, believes that Richardson was not in the Civil Rights movement for a career.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, she was in it solely for the purpose of advancing Black liberation. He believes this is the reason why Richardson stepped aside when she felt that she could be of no further meaningful use in the movement. An oral history of Richardson is included in the 2006 book <i><a href="/wiki/Generation_on_Fire:_Voices_of_Protest_from_the_1960s" title="Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s">Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s</a></i> by Jeff Kisseloff;<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a review for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Popular_Culture" title="The Journal of Popular Culture">The Journal of Popular Culture</a></i>, Ray Schuck writes, "When Gloria Richardson mentions how she and others put red pepper on their legs to deter attack dogs, you understand the enormity of the struggle for equality".<sup id="cite_ref-Schuck_2008_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuck_2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, the state of Maryland honored her legacy by dedicating February 11 as "Gloria Richardson Day".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Richardson was not able to travel as planned to Cambridge's historic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bethel_AME_Church_(Cambridge,_Maryland)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bethel AME Church (Cambridge, Maryland) (page does not exist)">Bethel AME Church</a> to be recognized in person, she spoke to the packed church in a live remote broadcast from her apartment. Five months later, a fireside chat was facilitated by Kisha Petticolas, the co-founder of the Eastern Shore Network for Change (ESNC), at the Hyatt Regency Chesapeake Bay Resort in Cambridge. Richardson was a featured speaker at the Reflection's banquet, where her remarks "brought 300 guests to their feet in a sustained standing ovation".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richardson helped to establish a new image for Black women in the United States. She replaced the image of a long-suffering martyr with the image of a woman as a warrior.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Richardson was asked how she would like to be remembered, she replied: "I guess I would like for them to say I was true to my belief in black people as a race".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, there is a mural placed left of center next to Dorchester native and Underground Railroad conductor Harriet Tubman of Gloria boldly demanding justice. </p><p>She died in New York on July 15, 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dixon, Janelle Harris, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-gloria-richardsons-look-of-righteous-indignation-became-a-symbol-of-no-retreat-180979536/">How Gloria Richardson’s Look of Righteous Indignation Became a Symbol of No Retreat</a></i>, Smithsonian, February 9, 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Gloria Hayes Richardson: Leader of the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee (CNAC)." <i>Westside Gazette.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald2020" class="citation book cs1">Fitzgerald, Joseph R., 1965- (January 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1129118967"><i>The struggle is eternal : Gloria Richardson and black liberation</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-7874-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-7874-5"><bdi>978-0-8131-7874-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1129118967">1129118967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+struggle+is+eternal+%3A+Gloria+Richardson+and+black+liberation&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2020-01-14&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1129118967&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-7874-5&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.%2C+1965-&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1129118967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatelain2019" class="citation web cs1">Chatelain, Dr Marcia (June 14, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theriveter.co/voice/a-legacy-of-perseverance-gloria-richardson-dandridge/">"A Legacy of Perseverance: Gloria Richardson Dandridge"</a>. <i>The Riveter</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Riveter&rft.atitle=A+Legacy+of+Perseverance%3A+Gloria+Richardson+Dandridge&rft.date=2019-06-14&rft.aulast=Chatelain&rft.aufirst=Dr+Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheriveter.co%2Fvoice%2Fa-legacy-of-perseverance-gloria-richardson-dandridge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2022" class="citation journal cs1">Young, Jasmin A. (2022). "Gloria Richardson, Armed Self-Defense, and Black Liberation in Cambridge, Maryland". <i>The Journal of African American History</i>. <b>107</b> (2): 149–341. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F718997">10.1086/718997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%2C+Armed+Self-Defense%2C+and+Black+Liberation+in+Cambridge%2C+Maryland&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-341&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F718997&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Jasmin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/gloria-richardson-civil-rights-blm/2020/12/10/b9cacdbe-29dd-11eb-8fa2-06e7cbb145c0_story.html">"Gloria Richardson pushed aside a bayonet as a '60s civil rights activist. Now 98, she wants the new generation to fight on"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+pushed+aside+a+bayonet+as+a+%2760s+civil+rights+activist.+Now+98%2C+she+wants+the+new+generation+to+fight+on.&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flocal%2Fgloria-richardson-civil-rights-blm%2F2020%2F12%2F10%2Fb9cacdbe-29dd-11eb-8fa2-06e7cbb145c0_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillner1996" class="citation journal cs1">Millner, Sandra Y. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784860">"Recasting Civil Rights Leadership: Gloria Richardson and the Cambridge Movement"</a>. <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>26</b> (6): 668–687. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193479602600602">10.1177/002193479602600602</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9347">0021-9347</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784860">2784860</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145480828">145480828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Recasting+Civil+Rights+Leadership%3A+Gloria+Richardson+and+the+Cambridge+Movement&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=668-687&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0021-9347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145480828%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2784860%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193479602600602&rft.aulast=Millner&rft.aufirst=Sandra+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2784860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoeman1996" class="citation journal cs1">Foeman, Anita K. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784886">"Gloria Richardson: Breaking the Mold"</a>. <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>26</b> (5): 604–615. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193479602600506">10.1177/002193479602600506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9347">0021-9347</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784886">2784886</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145788465">145788465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%3A+Breaking+the+Mold&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=604-615&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0021-9347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145788465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2784886%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193479602600506&rft.aulast=Foeman&rft.aufirst=Anita+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2784886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren">Warren</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Women_In_The_Civil_Rights_Movement_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Women In The Civil Rights Movement</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://washingtonareaspark.com/tag/gloria-richardson/">"Gloria Richardson"</a>. <i>Washington Area Spark</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+Area+Spark&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwashingtonareaspark.com%2Ftag%2Fgloria-richardson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisseloff54–55-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisseloff54–55_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisseloff">Kisseloff</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERansby314–317-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERansby314–317_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRansby">Ransby</a>, pp. 314–317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussen-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasmussen_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasmussen">Rasmussen</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gil Noble, "Interview with Gloria Richardson Dandridge," <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>, 1982</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott_2007-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scott_2007_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2007" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Amy (Winter 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40644138">"GENERATION ON FIRE: Voices of Protest from the 1960s by Jeff Kisseloff"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Studies_(journal)" title="American Studies (journal)">American Studies</a></i>. <b>48</b> (4): 179–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fams.0.0036">10.1353/ams.0.0036</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40644138">40644138</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144129304">144129304</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 11,</span> 2022</span> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Studies&rft.atitle=GENERATION+ON+FIRE%3A+Voices+of+Protest+from+the+1960s+by+Jeff+Kisseloff&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=179-180&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144129304%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40644138%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fams.0.0036&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40644138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schuck_2008-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schuck_2008_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuck2008" class="citation journal cs1">Schuck, Ray (October 2008). "Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s, an Oral History". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Popular_Culture" title="The Journal of Popular Culture">The Journal of Popular Culture</a></i>. <b>41</b> (5): 903. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5931.2008.00554_15.x">10.1111/j.1540-5931.2008.00554_15.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Popular+Culture&rft.atitle=Generation+on+Fire%3A+Voices+of+Protest+from+the+1960s%2C+an+Oral+History&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=903&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-5931.2008.00554_15.x&rft.aulast=Schuck&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://visitdorchester.org/gloria-richardson-dandridge/">"Gloria Richardson Dandridge, Civil Rights Leader"</a>. <i>Visit Dorchester</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visit+Dorchester&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+Dandridge%2C+Civil+Rights+Leader&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvisitdorchester.org%2Fgloria-richardson-dandridge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitte2021" class="citation web cs1">Witte, Brian (July 16, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210717162841/https://www.boston25news.com/news/national/gloria-richardson/BSD4YBUPQC6HUT54D6MUV3YX5E/">"Gloria Richardson, civil rights pioneer, dies at 99"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/WFXT" title="WFXT">Boston 25 News</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston25news.com/news/national/gloria-richardson/BSD4YBUPQC6HUT54D6MUV3YX5E/">the original</a> on July 17, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Boston+25+News&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%2C+civil+rights+pioneer%2C+dies+at+99&rft.date=2021-07-16&rft.aulast=Witte&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston25news.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fgloria-richardson%2FBSD4YBUPQC6HUT54D6MUV3YX5E%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKisseloff" class="citation book cs1">Kisseloff, Jeff (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=05uJSLy351MC&pg=PT63">"Gloria Richardson Dandridge: The Militant"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=05uJSLy351MC"><i>Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s, An Oral History</i></a>. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 51–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813171562" title="Special:BookSources/9780813171562"><bdi>9780813171562</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+Dandridge%3A+The+Militant&rft.btitle=Generation+on+Fire%3A+Voices+of+Protest+from+the+1960s%2C+An+Oral+History&rft.place=Lexington%2C+Kentucky&rft.pages=51-63&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780813171562&rft.aulast=Kisseloff&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D05uJSLy351MC%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRansby" class="citation book cs1">Ransby, Barbara (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEfOhvXSvZsC"><i>Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807862704" title="Special:BookSources/9780807862704"><bdi>9780807862704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ella+Baker+and+the+Black+Freedom+Movement%3A+A+Radical+Democratic+Vision&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780807862704&rft.aulast=Ransby&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEfOhvXSvZsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasmussen" class="citation news cs1">Rasmussen, Fred (February 23, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/1997/02/23/glorious-gloria-led-the-battle-struggle-gloria-richardson-dandridge-earned-national-prominence-for-her-fearlessness-and-determination-in-the-effort-to-bring-civil-rights-to-cambridge-in-the-early-60s/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Glorious Gloria' Led the Battle Struggle"</a>. <i>The Baltimore Sun</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Baltimore+Sun&rft.atitle=%27Glorious+Gloria%27+Led+the+Battle+Struggle&rft.date=1997-02-23&rft.aulast=Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baltimoresun.com%2F1997%2F02%2F23%2Fglorious-gloria-led-the-battle-struggle-gloria-richardson-dandridge-earned-national-prominence-for-her-fearlessness-and-determination-in-the-effort-to-bring-civil-rights-to-cambridge-in-the-early-60s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren" class="citation web cs1">Warren, Robert Penn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu/interview/gloria-st-clair-hayes-richardson">"Gloria St. Clair Hayes Richardson"</a>. <i>Robert Penn Warren's Who Speaks for the Negro?: An Archival Collection</i>. Vanderbilt University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 14,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Robert+Penn+Warren%27s+Who+Speaks+for+the+Negro%3F%3A+An+Archival+Collection&rft.atitle=Gloria+St.+Clair+Hayes+Richardson&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Robert+Penn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu%2Finterview%2Fgloria-st-clair-hayes-richardson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_monographs">Scholarly monographs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Scholarly monographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtwater" class="citation book cs1">Atwater, Deborah F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jJWixrVd0LUC&pg=PA94">"Gloria Richardson: Adult Leader in SNCC"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jJWixrVd0LUC"><i>African American Women's Rhetoric: The Search for Dignity, Personhood, and Honor</i></a>. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 94–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739121764" title="Special:BookSources/9780739121764"><bdi>9780739121764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%3A+Adult+Leader+in+SNCC&rft.btitle=African+American+Women%27s+Rhetoric%3A+The+Search+for+Dignity%2C+Personhood%2C+and+Honor&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=94-100&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780739121764&rft.aulast=Atwater&rft.aufirst=Deborah+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjJWixrVd0LUC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock" class="citation book cs1">Brock, Annette K. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ExMrqXWr0sC&pg=PA121">"Gloria Richardson and the Cambridge Movement"</a>. In Crawford, Vicki L.; Rouse, Jacqueline Anne; Woods, Barbara (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ExMrqXWr0sC"><i>Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers, 1941-1965</i></a>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 121–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253208323" title="Special:BookSources/9780253208323"><bdi>9780253208323</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+and+the+Cambridge+Movement&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Civil+Rights+Movement%3A+Trailblazers+and+Torchbearers%2C+1941-1965&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=121-144&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780253208323&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=Annette+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ExMrqXWr0sC%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fitzgerald, Joseph R. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kentuckypress.com/live/title_detail.php?titleid=5498">The Struggle Is Eternal: Gloria Richardson and Black Liberation</a>, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-7649-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-7649-9">978-0-8131-7649-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarley" class="citation book cs1">Harley, Sharon (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SBK91lpgCIcC&pg=PA174">"The Chronicle of a Death Foretold: Gloria Richardson, the Cambridge Movement, and the Radical Black Activist Tradition"</a>. In Collier-Thomas, Bettye; Franklin, V. P. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SBK91lpgCIcC"><i>Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights - Black Power Movement</i></a>. New York: New York University Press. pp. 174–196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814716038" title="Special:BookSources/9780814716038"><bdi>9780814716038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chronicle+of+a+Death+Foretold%3A+Gloria+Richardson%2C+the+Cambridge+Movement%2C+and+the+Radical+Black+Activist+Tradition&rft.btitle=Sisters+in+the+Struggle%3A+African+American+Women+in+the+Civil+Rights+-+Black+Power+Movement&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=174-196&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780814716038&rft.aulast=Harley&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSBK91lpgCIcC%26pg%3DPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2003" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Peter B. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L6iHghYT8ZkC"><i>Civil War on Race Street: The Civil Rights Movement in Cambridge, Maryland</i></a>. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813031873" title="Special:BookSources/9780813031873"><bdi>9780813031873</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+on+Race+Street%3A+The+Civil+Rights+Movement+in+Cambridge%2C+Maryland&rft.place=Gainesville%2C+Florida&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780813031873&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Peter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL6iHghYT8ZkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy_(The_New_Left)" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Peter B. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U_Ohks41z2IC&pg=PA67">"The Black Freedom Struggle and White Resistance: A Case Study of the Civil Rights Movement in Cambridge, Maryland"</a>. In McMillian, John Campbell; Buhle, Paul (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U_Ohks41z2IC"><i>The New Left Revisited</i></a>. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press. pp. 67–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566399760" title="Special:BookSources/9781566399760"><bdi>9781566399760</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Black+Freedom+Struggle+and+White+Resistance%3A+A+Case+Study+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+in+Cambridge%2C+Maryland&rft.btitle=The+New+Left+Revisited&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pages=67-91&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781566399760&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Peter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU_Ohks41z2IC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Olson" title="Lynne Olson">Olson, Lynne</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lddD_IFIJisC&q=%22freedom%27s+daughters%22&pg=PA278">"We Can't Deal with Her"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lddD_IFIJisC"><i>Freedom's Daughters: The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 278–290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684850122" title="Special:BookSources/9780684850122"><bdi>9780684850122</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=We+Can%27t+Deal+with+Her&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+Daughters%3A+The+Unsung+Heroines+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+from+1830+to+1970&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=278-290&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780684850122&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlddD_IFIJisC%26q%3D%2522freedom%2527s%2Bdaughters%2522%26pg%3DPA278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2010" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richardson, Gloria</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ngSC1iaW_x8C">"The Energy of the People Passing through Me"</a>. In Holsaert, Faith S. (ed.). <i>Hands on the Freedom Plow: Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC</i>. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. pp. 273–298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252035579" title="Special:BookSources/9780252035579"><bdi>9780252035579</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Energy+of+the+People+Passing+through+Me&rft.btitle=Hands+on+the+Freedom+Plow%3A+Personal+Accounts+by+Women+in+SNCC&rft.place=Urbana%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=273-298&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780252035579&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DngSC1iaW_x8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobnett" class="citation book cs1">Robnett, Davis Belinda (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mne1EO5DsXQC">"Gloria Richardson and the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee"</a>. <i>How Long? How Long?: African American Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights</i>. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 161–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198027447" title="Special:BookSources/9780198027447"><bdi>9780198027447</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+and+the+Cambridge+Nonviolent+Action+Committee&rft.btitle=How+Long%3F+How+Long%3F%3A+African+American+Women+in+the+Struggle+for+Civil+Rights&rft.place=New+York%3B+Oxford&rft.pages=161-165&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780198027447&rft.aulast=Robnett&rft.aufirst=Davis+Belinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMne1EO5DsXQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Jenny (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3Uh0Wfa2dYC&pg=PA169">"The "Gun-Toting" Gloria Richardson: Black Violence in Cambridge, Maryland"</a>. In Ling, Peter J.; Monteith, Sharon (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3Uh0Wfa2dYC"><i>Gender and the Civil Rights Movement</i></a>. Rutgers University Press: Rutgers University Press. pp. 169–186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813534381" title="Special:BookSources/9780813534381"><bdi>9780813534381</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%22Gun-Toting%22+Gloria+Richardson%3A+Black+Violence+in+Cambridge%2C+Maryland&rft.btitle=Gender+and+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.place=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.pages=169-186&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780813534381&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI3Uh0Wfa2dYC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Journal articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Melanie B. (1988). "Gloria Richardson: Her Life and Work in SNCC". <i>Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women, Supplement</i>: 51–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sage%3A+A+Scholarly+Journal+on+Black+Women%2C+Supplement&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%3A+Her+Life+and+Work+in+SNCC&rft.pages=51-53&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Melanie+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoeman" class="citation journal cs1">Foeman, Anita K. (May 1996). "Gloria Richardson: Breaking the Mold". <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>26</b> (5, Special Issue: The Voices of African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement): 604–615. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193479602600506">10.1177/002193479602600506</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145788465">145788465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%3A+Breaking+the+Mold&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5%2C+Special+Issue%3A+The+Voices+of+African+American+Women+in+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.pages=604-615&rft.date=1996-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193479602600506&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145788465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Foeman&rft.aufirst=Anita+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillner" class="citation journal cs1">Millner, Sandra Y. (July 1996). "Recasting Civil Rights Leadership: Gloria Richardson and the Cambridge Movement". <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>26</b> (6): 668–687. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193479602600602">10.1177/002193479602600602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145480828">145480828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Recasting+Civil+Rights+Leadership%3A+Gloria+Richardson+and+the+Cambridge+Movement&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=668-687&rft.date=1996-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193479602600602&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145480828%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Millner&rft.aufirst=Sandra+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson1964" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, Gloria (Winter 1964). "Freedom—Here and Now". <i>Freedomways</i>. <b>4</b>: 32–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Freedomways&rft.atitle=Freedom%E2%80%94Here+and+Now&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=32-34&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabo" class="citation journal cs1">Szabo, Peter S. (Fall 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worklab.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Gloria-Richardson-Dandridge-interview1.pdf">"An Interview with Gloria Richardson Dandridge"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Maryland Historical Magazine</i>. <b>89</b>: 347–358.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Maryland+Historical+Magazine&rft.atitle=An+Interview+with+Gloria+Richardson+Dandridge&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=89&rft.pages=347-358&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Szabo&rft.aufirst=Peter+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worklab.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2009%2F12%2FGloria-Richardson-Dandridge-interview1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2022" class="citation journal cs1">Young, Jasmin A. (2022). "Gloria Richardson, Armed Self-Defense, and Black Liberation in Cambridge, Maryland". <i>The Journal of African American History</i>. <b>107</b> (2): 149–341. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F718997">10.1086/718997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson%2C+Armed+Self-Defense%2C+and+Black+Liberation+in+Cambridge%2C+Maryland&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-341&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F718997&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Jasmin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissertations_and_theses">Dissertations and theses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dissertations and theses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald" class="citation thesis cs1">Fitzgerald, Joseph R. (2005). <i>Days of Wine and Roses: The Life of Gloria Richardson</i> (Ph.D.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/213097799">213097799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Days+of+Wine+and+Roses%3A+The+Life+of+Gloria+Richardson&rft.inst=Temple+University&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F213097799&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrever" class="citation thesis cs1">Trever, Edward K. (1994). <i>Gloria Richardson and the Cambridge Civil Rights Movement, 1962-1964</i> (M.A. thesis). Morgan State University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32190676">32190676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Gloria+Richardson+and+the+Cambridge+Civil+Rights+Movement%2C+1962-1964&rft.degree=M.A.&rft.inst=Morgan+State+University&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32190676&rft.aulast=Trever&rft.aufirst=Edward+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-academic_works">Non-academic works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Non-academic works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilberman2015" class="citation book cs1">Silberman, Lauren R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iqxpCgAAQBAJ">"Gloria Richardson Dandridge: Crusader in Cambridge"</a>. <i>Wild Women of Maryland: Grit & Gumption in the Free State</i>. History Press. pp. 85–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781626198111" title="Special:BookSources/9781626198111"><bdi>9781626198111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+Dandridge%3A+Crusader+in+Cambridge&rft.btitle=Wild+Women+of+Maryland%3A+Grit+%26+Gumption+in+the+Free+State&rft.pages=85-91&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781626198111&rft.aulast=Silberman&rft.aufirst=Lauren+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiqxpCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lIVotnuemDsC&q=%22stanley+branche%22+burial+location&pg=PA26">"Gloria Richardson – Lady general of civil rights"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ebony_(magazine)" title="Ebony (magazine)">Ebony</a></i>. July 1964. pp. 23–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ebony&rft.atitle=Gloria+Richardson+%E2%80%93+Lady+general+of+civil+rights&rft.pages=23-31&rft.date=1964-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlIVotnuemDsC%26q%3D%2522stanley%2Bbranche%2522%2Bburial%2Blocation%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGloria+Richardson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloria_Richardson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="official-website"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gloriarichardson.com/">Official website</a></span></span></li> <li>SNCC Digital Gateway: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snccdigital.org/people/gloria-richardson/">"Gloria Richardson"</a>. Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis62.htm#1962cnac">Cambridge MD, Movement 1962-1967</a>, Provided by the Civil Rights Movement Archive website</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-gloria-richardsons-look-of-righteous-indignation-became-a-symbol-of-no-retreat-180979536/">How Gloria Richardson's Look of Righteous Indignation Became a Symbol of No Retreat</a></i>, an article by Janelle Harris Dixon containing many photographs of and an extensive interview of Gloria Richardson, Smithsonian, February 9, 2022</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5571449#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5571449#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5571449#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/34422825">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1667830/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJpv7jr8TKbMh3C4dBqG73">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nr2007003551">United States</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w65z4cj8">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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