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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography_and_the_New_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_and_the_New_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Geography and the New World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography_and_the_New_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Science in the Renaissance</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%A9" title="تاريخ العلم في عصر النهضة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ العلم في عصر النهضة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_ciencia_en_el_Renacimiento" title="Historia de la ciencia en el Renacimiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la ciencia en el Renacimiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="تاریخ علم در عصر رنسانس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ علم در عصر رنسانس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences_et_techniques_de_la_Renaissance" title="Sciences et techniques de la Renaissance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sciences et techniques de la Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A5%B4%EB%84%A4%EC%83%81%EC%8A%A4%EC%9D%98_%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="르네상스의 과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="르네상스의 과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost_u_renesansi" title="Znanost u renesansi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanost u renesansi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_pengetahuan_di_Era_Renaisans" title="Ilmu pengetahuan di Era Renaisans – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu pengetahuan di Era Renaisans" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_scientia_in_le_Renascentia" title="Historia del scientia in le Renascentia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del scientia in le Renascentia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschap_in_de_renaissance" title="Wetenschap in de renaissance – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschap in de renaissance" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د رنسانس په دوره کې د علم تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د رنسانس په دوره کې د علم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia_no_Renascimento" title="Ciência no Renascimento – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência no Renascimento" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Наука эпохи Возрождения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наука эпохи Возрождения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_u_renesansi" title="Nauka u renesansi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nauka u renesansi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6nesans%27ta_bilim_tarihi" title="Rönesans'ta bilim tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rönesans'ta bilim tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%83_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Історія науки в епоху Відродження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія науки в епоху Відродження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:El_nacimiento_de_Venus,_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg/250px-El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg/375px-El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg/500px-El_nacimiento_de_Venus%2C_por_Sandro_Botticelli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1560" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus" title="The Birth of Venus">The Birth of Venus</a></i> (c. 1484–1486) by <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Botticelli</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> History and study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance" title="Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance" title="Template talk:Renaissance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/240px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/360px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg/480px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2258" data-file-height="3070" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Vitruvian_Man" title="Vitruvian Man">Vitruvian Man</a></i>, an example of the blend of art and science during the Renaissance</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, great advances occurred in <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>. The collection of ancient scientific texts began in earnest at the start of the 15th century and continued up to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, and the invention of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. Nevertheless, some have seen the Renaissance, at least in its initial period, as one of scientific backwardness. Historians like <a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">George Sarton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Thorndike" title="Lynn Thorndike">Lynn Thorndike</a> criticized how the Renaissance affected <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, arguing that progress was slowed for some amount of time. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanists</a> favored human-centered subjects like politics and history over study of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>. More recently, however, scholars have acknowledged the positive influence of the Renaissance on mathematics and science, pointing to factors like the rediscovery of lost or obscure texts and the increased emphasis on the study of language and the correct reading of texts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marie_Boas_Hall" title="Marie Boas Hall">Marie Boas Hall</a> coined the term <b>Scientific Renaissance</b> to designate the early phase of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> science: a <i>Scientific Renaissance</i> of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a <i>Scientific Revolution</i> of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Context">Context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">European science in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_European_scientists" title="List of medieval European scientists">List of medieval European scientists</a></div> <p>During and after the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>, Europe experienced an intellectual revitalization, especially with regard to the investigation of the natural world. In the 14th century, however, a series of events that would come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a> was underway. When the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> came, it wiped out so many lives it affected the entire system. It brought a sudden end to the previous period of massive scientific change. The plague killed 25–50% of the people in Europe, especially in the crowded conditions of the towns, where the heart of innovations lay. Recurrences of the plague and other disasters caused a continuing decline of population for a century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Renaissance">The Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 14th century saw the beginning of the cultural movement of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. By the early 15th century, an international search for ancient manuscripts was underway and would continue unabated until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, when many <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Byzantine scholars</a> had to seek refuge in the West, particularly <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was to have great effect on European society: the facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. </p><p>Initially, there were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemaic</a> views of the universe. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a> lost much of its rigor as the rules of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Only later, when no more manuscripts could be found, did humanists turn from collecting to editing and translating them, and new scientific work began with the work of such figures as <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Cardano</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Vesalius</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_developments">Important developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Important developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alchemy_and_chemistry">Alchemy and chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alchemy and chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg/220px-Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg/330px-Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg/440px-Alchemy_elements_chart_annotated_metatron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of Alchemical Elements</figcaption></figure> <p>While differing in some respects, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> often had similar goals during the Renaissance period, and together they are sometimes referred to as chymistry.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alchemy is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmutation of elements">transmutation</a> of materials through obscure processes. Although it is often viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> endeavor, many of its practitioners utilized widely accepted scientific theories of their times to formulate hypotheses about the constituents of matter and the ways matter could be changed.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the main aims of alchemists was to find a method of creating gold and other precious metals from the transmutation of base materials.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common belief of alchemists was that there is an essential substance from which all other substances formed, and that if you could reduce a substance to this original material, you could then construct it into another substance, like lead to gold.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval alchemists worked with two main elements or "principles", sulphur and mercury.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> was a chymist and physician of the Renaissance period who believed that, in addition to sulphur and mercury, salt served as one of the primary alchemical principles from which everything else was made.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paracelsus was also instrumental in helping to put chemical practices to practical medicinal use through a recognition that the body operates through processes which may be seen as chemical in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These lines of thinking directly conflicted with many long-held traditional beliefs, such as those popularized by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>; however, Paracelsus was insistent that questioning principles of nature was essential to continue the general growth of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite its frequent basis in what may be considered scientific practices by modern standards, numerous factors caused chymistry as a discipline to remain separate from general academia until near the end of the Renaissance, when it finally began appearing as a portion of some university education.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 104–115">: 104–115 </span></sup> The commercial nature of chymistry at the time, along with the lack of classical basis for the practice, were some of the contributing factors which led to the general view of the discipline as a craft rather than a respectable academic discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_(16)_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG/220px-1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG/330px-1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG/440px-1550_SACROBOSCO_Tractatus_de_Sphaera_-_%2816%29_Ex_Libris_rare_-_Mario_Taddei.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1703" /></a><figcaption>Pages from 1550 <i>Annotazione</i> on Sacrobosco's <i>De sphaera mundi</i>, showing the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model#Ptolemaic_model" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemaic system</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The astronomy of the late Middle Ages was based on the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> described by <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> in antiquity. Probably very few practicing astronomers or astrologers actually read Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>, which had been translated into Latin by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> in the 12th century. Instead they relied on introductions to the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic system</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/De_sphaera_mundi" title="De sphaera mundi">De sphaera mundi</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_de_Sacrobosco" title="Johannes de Sacrobosco">Johannes de Sacrobosco</a> and the genre of textbooks known as <i>Theorica planetarum</i>. For the task of predicting planetary motions they turned to the <a href="/wiki/Alfonsine_tables" title="Alfonsine tables">Alfonsine tables</a>, a set of astronomical tables based on the <i>Almagest</i> models but incorporating some later modifications, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">trepidation</a> model attributed to <a href="/wiki/Thabit_ibn_Qurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Thabit ibn Qurra">Thabit ibn Qurra</a>. Contrary to popular belief, astronomers of the Middle Ages and Renaissance did not resort to "epicycles on epicycles" in order to correct the original Ptolemaic models—until one comes to Copernicus himself. </p><p>Sometime around 1450, mathematician <a href="/wiki/Georg_Purbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Purbach">Georg Purbach</a> (1423–1461) began a series of lectures on astronomy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a>. <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a> (1436–1476), who was then one of his students, collected his notes on the lecture and later published them as <i>Theoricae novae planetarum</i> in the 1470s. This "New <i>Theorica</i>" replaced the older <i>theorica</i> as the textbook of advanced astronomy. Purbach also began to prepare a summary and commentary on the <i>Almagest</i>. He died after completing only six books, however, and Regiomontanus continued the task, consulting a Greek manuscript brought from Constantinople by <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Bessarion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Bessarion">Cardinal Bessarion</a>. When it was published in 1496, the <i>Epitome of the Almagest</i> made the highest levels of Ptolemaic astronomy widely accessible to many European astronomers for the first time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/250px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/330px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/500px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The last major event in Renaissance astronomy is the work of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> (1473–1543). He was among the first generation of astronomers to be trained with the <i>Theoricae novae</i> and the <i>Epitome</i>. Shortly before 1514 he began to revive <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a>'s idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He spent the rest of his life attempting a mathematical proof of <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>. When <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></i> was finally published in 1543, Copernicus was on his deathbed. A comparison of his work with the <i>Almagest</i> shows that Copernicus was in many ways a Renaissance scientist rather than a revolutionary, because he followed Ptolemy's methods and even his order of presentation. Not until the works of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> (1571–1630) and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642) was Ptolemy's manner of doing astronomy superseded. The use of more advanced tables and mathematics would provide the impetus for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> in 1582 (primarily to reform the calculation of the <a href="/wiki/Date_of_Easter" title="Date of Easter">date of Easter</a>), replacing the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>, which had several errors.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69–72">: 69–72 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Greek mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg/220px-Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg/330px-Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg/440px-Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Archimedes' proofs of the area of a parabolic segment in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola" class="mw-redirect" title="The Quadrature of the Parabola">Quadrature of the Parabola</a></i> inspired work on quadratures and cubatures in the 15th and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The accomplishments of Greek mathematicians survived throughout <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> through a long and indirect history. Much of the work of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a>, along with later authors such as <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus</a>, were copied and studied in both <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine culture</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic centers of learning</a>. Translations of these works began already in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">12th century</a>, with the work of translators in <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman-Arab-Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture">Sicily</a>, working mostly from Arabic and Greek sources into Latin. Two of the most prolific were <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke" title="William of Moerbeke">William of Moerbeke</a>. </p><p>The greatest of all translation efforts, however, took place in the 15th and 16th centuries in Italy, as attested by the numerous manuscripts dating from this period currently found in European libraries. Virtually all leading mathematicians of the era were obsessed with the need for restoring the mathematical works of the ancients. Not only did humanists assist mathematicians with the retrieval of Greek manuscripts, they also took an active role in translating these work into Latin, often commissioned by religious leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Nicholas V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bessarion" title="Bessarion">Cardinal Bessarion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the leading figures in this effort include <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a>, who made a copy of the Latin Archimedes and had a program for printing mathematical works; <a href="/wiki/Federico_Commandino" title="Federico Commandino">Commandino</a> (1509–1575), who likewise produced an edition of Archimedes, as well as editions of works by Euclid, Hero, and Pappus; and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maurolico" title="Francesco Maurolico">Maurolyco</a> (1494–1575), who not only translated the work of ancient mathematicians but added much of his own work to these. Their translations ensured that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">next generation of mathematicians</a> would be in possession of techniques far in advance of what it was generally available during the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It must be borne in mind that the mathematical output of the 15th and 16th centuries was not exclusively limited to the works of the ancient Greeks. Some mathematicians, such as <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia">Tartaglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luca_Pacioli" title="Luca Pacioli">Luca Paccioli</a>, welcomed and expanded on the medieval traditions of both Islamic scholars and people like <a href="/wiki/Jordanus_de_Nemore" title="Jordanus de Nemore">Jordanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci" title="Fibonacci">Fibonnacci</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Giordano Bruno was also one to critique the works of people like Aristotle, whom he believed to have a flawed logic and developed a mathematical doctrine for the computation of partial physics, with Bruno attempting to transform theories of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The progress being made in math was complemented by advancements in physics, with people like Galileo attempting to bridge the gap between the two fields and question Aristotelian ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revived investigation of physics opened up many opportunities in subfields like mechanics, optics, navigation, and cartography.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79–89">: 79–89 </span></sup> </p><p>Mechanical theories had originated with the Greeks, especially <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79–82">: 79–82 </span></sup> Mechanics and philosophy had been related disciplines in ancient Greece, and only in the Renaissance did the two subjects begin to split.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79–82">: 79–82 </span></sup> A lot of the work of developing new mechanical ideas and theories was carried out by Italians such as <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Bombelli" title="Rafael Bombelli">Rafael Bombelli</a>, though the Fleming <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> also provided many ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79–82">: 79–82 </span></sup> Galileo also contributed to the advancement of this field with a treatise on mechanics in 1593,<sup id="cite_ref-:32_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> helping to develop ideas on relativity, freely falling bodies, and accelerated linear motion,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though he lacked the means to properly communicate his findings at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1609, Galileo's interests shifted to his telescopic investigations after having been close to revolutionizing the science of mechanics.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Navigation was an important topic of the time, and many innovations were made that, with the introduction of better ships and applications of the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, would later lead to geographical discoveries.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–91">: 89–91 </span></sup> The calculations involved in navigation proved to be difficult, with the technology of the time unable to accuately predict weather or determine one's geographic position. Determining one's <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> proved especially challenging, since one's local time need to be calculated on the basis of an astonomical observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–91">: 89–91 </span></sup> One theory that was tested was to record the time of an eclipse and use <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a>' <i>Ephemerides</i> to compare it with Nuremberg time or <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Zacuto" title="Abraham Zacuto">Zacuto</a>'s <i>Almanach perpetuum</i> to compare it with Salamanca time, though the margin of error in such calculations was unacceptably great (around 25.5 degrees).<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–91">: 89–91 </span></sup> Until longitude could be accurately determined, navigators had to rely on <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a>, with its many uncertainties.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–91">: 89–91 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medical Renaissance</a></div> <p>With the Renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, principally in the field of dissection and body examination, thus advancing our knowledge of human anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century with <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>, who described the anatomy of the brain and other organs; he had little knowledge of the brain's function, thinking that it resided mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a>. Understanding of medical sciences and diagnosis improved, but with little direct benefit to health care. Few effective drugs existed, beyond <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> provided a refined and complete description of the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>. The most useful tomes in medicine, used both by students and expert physicians, were <i><a href="/wiki/Materia_medica" title="Materia medica">materiae medicae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pharmacopoeia" title="Pharmacopoeia">pharmacopoeiae</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography_and_the_New_World">Geography and the New World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Geography and the New World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg/220px-Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg/330px-Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg/440px-Viagem_de_Fern%C3%A3o_de_Magalh%C3%A3es_-_Museu_Naval.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Map of early explorers' voyages</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">history of geography</a>, the key classical text was the <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_(Ptolemy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia (Ptolemy)">Geographia</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> (2nd century). It was translated into Latin in the 15th century by <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_d%27Angelo" title="Jacopo d'Angelo">Jacopo d'Angelo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widely read in manuscript and went through many print editions after it was first printed in 1475. Regiomontanus worked on preparing an edition for print prior to his death; his manuscripts were consulted by later mathematicians in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>. Ptolemy's <i>Geographia</i> became the basis for most maps made in Europe throughout the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even as new knowledge began to replace the content of old maps, the rediscovery of Ptolemy's mapping system, including the use of coordinates and projection, helped to redefine the overall field of <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> as a scientific pursuit rather than an artistic one.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The information provided by Ptolemy, as well as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and other classical sources, was soon seen to be in contradiction to the lands explored in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new discoveries revealed shortcomings in classical knowledge; they also opened European imagination to new possibilities. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>' voyage to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1492 helped set the tone for what would soon after become a wave of European expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i> was inspired partly by the discovery of the New World. Most maps developed prior to this period grossly underestimated the extent of the lands separating Europe from India on a westward route through the New World; however, through contributions of explorers such as <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, efforts were made to create more accurate maps during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Copernican_Question" title="The Copernican Question">The Copernican Question</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRose1973" class="citation journal cs1">Rose, Paul Lawrence (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2857013">"Humanist Culture and Renaissance Mathematics: The Italian Libraries of the Quattrocento"</a>. <i>Studies in the Renaissance</i>. <b>20</b>: <span class="nowrap">46–</span>105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2857013">10.2307/2857013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-8658">0081-8658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2857013">2857013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+the+Renaissance&rft.atitle=Humanist+Culture+and+Renaissance+Mathematics%3A+The+Italian+Libraries+of+the+Quattrocento&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.date=1973&rft.issn=0081-8658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2857013%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2857013&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Paul+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2857013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnglinLambek1995" class="citation cs2">Anglin, W. S.; Lambek, J. (1995), Anglin, W. S.; Lambek, J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-0803-7_25">"Mathematics in the Renaissance"</a>, <i>The Heritage of Thales</i>, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, New York, NY: Springer, pp. <span class="nowrap">125–</span>131, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-0803-7_25">10.1007/978-1-4612-0803-7_25</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-0803-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-0803-7"><bdi>978-1-4612-0803-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-09</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Heritage+of+Thales&rft.atitle=Mathematics+in+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-0803-7_25&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-0803-7&rft.aulast=Anglin&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft.au=Lambek%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-0803-7_25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJayawardene1978" class="citation journal cs1">Jayawardene, S. A. (June 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/352043">"The Italian Renaissance of Mathematics: Studies on Humanists and Mathematicians from Petrarch to Galileo. Paul Lawrence Rose"</a>. <i>Isis</i>. <b>69</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">298–</span>300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F352043">10.1086/352043</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Italian+Renaissance+of+Mathematics%3A+Studies+on+Humanists+and+Mathematicians+from+Petrarch+to+Galileo.+Paul+Lawrence+Rose&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E298-%3C%2Fspan%3E300&rft.date=1978-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F352043&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=Jayawardene&rft.aufirst=S.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fpdfplus%2F10.1086%2F352043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHall1994" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Marie Boas (1994-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TnW2YIrn2pEC"><i>The Scientific Renaissance 1450-1630</i></a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-28115-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-28115-5"><bdi>978-0-486-28115-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Renaissance+1450-1630&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=1994-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-486-28115-5&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Marie+Boas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTnW2YIrn2pEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence (2011). <i>The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction</i>. 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(1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33137%2Frr.v10i2.13735">"Who Was Christopher Columbus?"</a>. <i>Renaissance and Reformation / Renaissance et Réforme</i>. <b>10</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">99–</span>102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33137%2Frr.v10i2.13735">10.33137/rr.v10i2.13735</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-429X">0034-429X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43464886">43464886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renaissance+and+Reformation+%2F+Renaissance+et+R%C3%A9forme&rft.atitle=Who+Was+Christopher+Columbus%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0034-429X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43464886%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33137%2Frr.v10i2.13735&rft.aulast=Cortada&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.33137%252Frr.v10i2.13735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeawood1921" class="citation journal cs1">Heawood, Edward (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780791">"The World Map Before and After Magellan's Voyage"</a>. <i>The Geographical Journal</i>. <b>57</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">431–</span>442. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1921GeogJ..57..431H">1921GeogJ..57..431H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1780791">10.2307/1780791</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7398">0016-7398</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780791">1780791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+World+Map+Before+and+After+Magellan%27s+Voyage&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E431-%3C%2Fspan%3E442&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1780791&rft.issn=0016-7398&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1780791%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1921GeogJ..57..431H&rft.aulast=Heawood&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1780791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+in+the+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dear, Peter. <i>Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debus,_Allen_G." class="mw-redirect" title="Debus, Allen G.">Debus, Allen G.</a> <i>Man and Nature in the Renaissance</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.</li> <li>Grafton, Anthony, et al. <i>New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery</i>. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992.</li> <li>Hall, Marie Boas. <i>The Scientific Renaissance, 1450–1630</i>. New York: Dover Publications, 1962, 1994.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_in_the_Renaissance&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Renaissance-science-and-technology">Renaissance science and technology</a> at Britannica.com</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance_navbox" title="Template:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance_navbox" title="Template talk:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Renaissance183" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Renaissance" title="Category:Renaissance">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline of the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_studies" title="Renaissance studies">Renaissance studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brick_Renaissance" title="Brick Renaissance">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Renaissance architecture in Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_architecture" title="French Renaissance architecture">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_Renaissance_domes" title="History of Italian Renaissance domes">Italian domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateresque" title="Plateresque">Plateresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Renaissance architecture in Portugal">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purism_(Spanish_architecture)" title="Purism (Spanish architecture)">Purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance_architecture" title="Spanish Renaissance architecture">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_Renaissance_architecture" title="Venetian Renaissance architecture">Venetian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_sculpture" title="Renaissance sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_sculpture" title="Italian Renaissance sculpture">Italian sculpture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanism_in_France" title="Humanism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_literature" title="French Renaissance literature">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance_literature" title="Spanish Renaissance literature">Spanish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Platonism in the Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre#Italian_Commedia_dell'arte_and_Renaissance" title="History of theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance#The_Renaissance_by_region" title="Outline of the Renaissance">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art_in_Bergamo_and_Brescia" title="Renaissance art in Bergamo and Brescia">Bergamo and Brescia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Ferrara" title="Renaissance in Ferrara">Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Renaissance_art" title="Florentine Renaissance art">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Lombardy" title="Renaissance in Lombardy">Lombardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Renaissance" title="Roman Renaissance">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Renaissance" title="Sicilian Renaissance">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Urbino" title="Renaissance in Urbino">Urbino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_Renaissance" title="Venetian Renaissance">Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Renaissance" title="Saxon Renaissance">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser_Renaissance" title="Weser Renaissance">Weser</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iberian peninsula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance#Renaissance_lists" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_composers" title="List of Renaissance composers">Composers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_figures" title="List of Renaissance figures">Figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_humanists" title="List of Renaissance humanists">Humanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_structures" title="List of Renaissance structures">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloak_and_dagger" title="Cloak and dagger">Cloak and dagger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_renaissances" title="Medieval renaissances">Medieval renaissances</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance" title="Ottonian Renaissance">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">12th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_reenactment" title="Renaissance reenactment">Reenactment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science661" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science661" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" 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