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The verses are highlighted and are embedded inside the ''bhasya'' (commentary).]] {{Italic title}} {{Hindu scriptures}} {{Hindu philosophy}} [[File:patanjali.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Patanjali|Patañjali]], its traditional snake form indicating [[kundalini]] or an incarnation of [[Shesha]]]] The '''''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''' ([[IAST]]: Patañjali yoga-sūtras)'' is a collection of Sanskrit [[sutra]]s ([[aphorism]]s) on the theory and practice of [[yoga]] – 195 sutras (according to [[Vyasa|Vyāsa]] and [[Krishnamacharya]]) and 196 sutras (according to others, including [[BKS Iyengar]]). The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled in the early centuries CE, by the sage [[Patanjali]] in India who synthesized and organized knowledge about yoga from much older traditions.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|Feuerstein|1978|p=108}}{{sfn|Tola|Dragonetti|Prithipaul|1987|p=x}} The ''Yoga Sutras'' is best known for its reference to ''[[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|ashtanga]]'', eight elements of practice culminating in ''[[samadhi]]''. The eight elements are ''[[Yamas|yama]]'' (abstinences), ''[[niyama]]'' (observances), ''[[asana]]'' (yoga posture), ''[[pranayama]]'' (breath control), ''[[pratyahara]]'' (withdrawal of the senses), ''[[Dhāraṇā|dharana]]'' (concentration of the [[Citta|mind]]), ''[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]'' (meditation) and ''[[samadhi]]'' (absorption or stillness). The main aim of practice is ''[[kaivalya]]'', discernment of ''[[purusha]]'', the witness-consciousness, as distinct from ''[[prakriti]]'', the cognitive apparatus, and disentanglement of ''purusha'' from ''prakriti's'' muddled defilements. The ''Yoga Sutras'' built on [[Samkhya]] notions of ''purusha'' and ''prakriti'', and is often seen as complementary to it. It is closely related to [[Buddhism]], incorporating some of its terminology. [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]], as well as [[Jainism]] and Buddhism, can be seen as representing different manifestations of a broad stream of [[Asceticism|ascetic]] traditions in ancient India, in contrast to the [[Bhakti]] traditions and [[Srauta|Vedic ritualism]] which were prevalent at the time. The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' to be one of the foundational texts of classical [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga philosophy]].{{sfn|Whicher|1998|p=49}}<ref name=stuartsarbacker195>Stuart Sarbacker (2011), Yoga Powers (Editor: Knut A. Jacobsen), Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004212145}}, p. 195.</ref> However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the ''Yoga Sutras'' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by [[David Gordon White]],{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi–xvii}} who argues that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in the late 19th century due to the efforts of [[Swami Vivekananda]], the [[Theosophical Society]] and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi–xvii}} ==Author and dating== ===Author=== The colophons of manuscripts of the ''Yoga Sutras'' attribute the work to [[Patanjali]].{{sfn|Tola |Dragonetti|Prithipaul|1987|p=xi}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC&pg=PA230 |year=1992|publisher=Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Cambridge University Press, 1922)|isbn=978-81-208-0412-8|pages=230–238}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url= https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year =2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/506 506]–507}}</ref>{{sfn|White|2014|pp=34–38}} The identity of Patañjali has been the subject of academic debate because an author of the same name is credited with the authorship of the classic text on Sanskrit grammar named ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' that is firmly datable to the second century BC. Although some scholars argue that this is the same Patanjali who authored the ''Yoga Sutras'', the two works are completely different in subject matter, and [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Louis Renou]] has shown that there are significant differences in language, grammar and vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Renou|first=Louis|url= https://archive.org/details/Law.1940.LaValleePoussinMemVol|title=Louis de La Vallée Poussin Memorial Volume |year=1940|editor-last=Law|editor-first=Narendra Nath|pages=368–373|chapter=On the Identity of the Two Patañjalis}}</ref> Before the time of [[Bhoja]] (11th century), no known text conflates the identity of the two authors.{{refn|group=note|Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to the grammarian Patañjali, dating it as 2nd century [[Before Christ|BC]], during the [[Maurya Empire]] (322–185 BC).{{sfn|Radhakrishnan |Moore|1989|p=453}} Scholars such as [[S.N. Dasgupta]], (Yoga-As Philosophy and Religion Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1924) claim this is the same Patañjali who authored the [[Mahabhasya]], a treatise on [[Sanskrit]] [[grammar]]. For an argument about the philosophical nature of Sanskrit grammarian thought see: Lata, Bidyut (editor); ''Panini to Patañjali: A Grammatical March''. New Delhi, 2004. Against these older views, Axel Michaels disagrees that the work was written by Patañjali, characterizing it instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the 2nd or 3rd century.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=267}}}} ===Dating=== Philipp A. Maas assessed Patañjali's ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra''<nowiki/>'s date to be about 400 CE, based on synchronisms between its arguments and those of [[Vasubandhu]], on tracing the history of the commentaries on it published in the first millennium CE, on the opinions of earlier Sanskrit commentators, on the testimony of manuscript colophons and on a review of extant literature.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Maas|first1=Philipp André|title=Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātan̄jalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert = The first chapter of the Pātan̄jalayogaśāstra for the first time critically edited|last2=Patañjali|last3=Hazel M. Hussong Fund|date=2006|publisher=Shaker|isbn=978-3-8322-4987-8|location=Aachen|oclc=1049097407}}</ref>{{sfn|Maas|2013|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} This dating for the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'' was proposed as early as 1914 by Woods<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Yoga system of Patañjali or the ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sūtras, of Patañjali the comment, called Yogabhāshya ...: Transl. from the original Sanskrit by James Haughton Woods.|date=1914|location=Cambridge|language=en|oclc=185290295}}</ref> and has been accepted widely by academic scholars of the history of Indian philosophical thought.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Potter |first1=Karl H |title=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation Vol. 12 Vol. 12 |last2=Agrawal |first2=M. M |last3=Bhattacharyya |first3=Sibajiban |last4=Philips |first4=Stephen H |date=1970 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3349-4 |language=en |oclc=988887600}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Yoga in transformation: historical and contemporary perspectives : with 55 figures|date=2018|publisher=V&r Academic |isbn=978-3-8471-0862-7|editor-last=Baier|editor-first=Karl|language=en|oclc=1081172387|editor-last2=Maas|editor-first2=Philipp André|editor-last3=Preisendanz|editor-first3=Karin}}</ref> [[Edwin F. Bryant|Edwin Bryant]], on the other hand, surveyed the major commentators in his translation of the ''Yoga Sūtras''.{{Sfn|Bryant|2009}} He observed that "Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century), but that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that."{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=xxxiv}} Bryant concluded that "A number of scholars have dated the ''Yoga Sūtras'' as late as the fourth or fifth century CE, but these arguments have all been challenged. ... All such arguments [for a late date] are problematic."{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=510, notes 43–44}} Michele Desmarais summarized a wide variety of dates assigned to Yogasutra, ranging from 500 BCE to 3rd century CE, noting that there is a paucity of evidence for any certainty. She stated the text may have been composed at an earlier date given conflicting theories on how to date it, but latter dates are more commonly accepted by scholars.<ref>Michele Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness and Identity in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120833364}}, pages 16–17</ref> ===Compilation=== The ''Yoga Sutras'' are a composite of various traditions.{{sfn|Feuerstein|1978|p=108}}{{sfn|Tola|Dragonetti|Prithipaul|1987|p=x}}{{sfn|Wujastyk|2011|p=33}} The levels of samādhi taught in the text resemble the Buddhist ''[[jhana]]s''.{{sfn|Pradhan|2015|p=151-152}}{{sfn|Crangle|1984|p={{page needed|date=August 2020}}}} According to Feuerstein, the ''Yoga Sutras'' are a condensation of two different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (aṣṭāṅga yoga) and action yoga (''[[Kriyā|Kriya yoga]]'').{{sfn|Feuerstein|1978|p=108, Quote: "As I have shown in my own detailed examination of the Yoga-Sûtra, this great scripture could well be a composite of only two distinct Yoga lineages. On the one hand there is the Yoga of eight limbs or ashta-anga-yoga (written ashtângayoga), and on the other, there is the Yoga of Action (kriyâ-yoga)."}} The ''kriya yoga'' part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2 [[sutra]]s 1–27, chapter 3 except [[sutra]] 54, and chapter 4.{{sfn|Feuerstein|1978|p=108}} The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 sutras 28–55, and chapter 3 sutras 3 and 54.{{sfn|Feuerstein|1978|p=108}} There are numerous parallels in the ancient [[Samkhya]], Yoga and [[Abhidharma]] schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.<ref name=l4345>Larson, pp. 43–45</ref> Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (''adhyavasaya'') of ''prakrti'' and ''purusa'' (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, and its three [[epistemology|epistemic]] methods to gaining reliable knowledge.<ref name=l4345/> From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of ''nirodhasamadhi'', suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.<ref name=l4345/> The third concept that Yoga Sutras synthesizes into its philosophy is the ancient [[Sannyasa|ascetic]] traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as [[Katha Upanishad]], [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] and [[Maitri Upanishad]].<ref name=l4345>Larson, pp. 43–45</ref> According to Wujastyk, referencing Maas, Patanjali integrated yoga from older traditions in ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'', and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the work of two people.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2011|p=33}} Together the compilation of Patanjali's sutras and the Vyasabhasya, is called Pātañjalayogaśāstra.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2011|p=32-33}} ===''Yogabhashya''=== The ''Yogabhashya'' is a commentary on the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'', traditionally attributed to the legendary Vedic sage [[Vyasa]] who is said to have composed the [[Mahabharata]]. This commentary is indispensable for the understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study of the sutras has always referred to the ''Yogabhashya''.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bryant, Edwin F. The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary; Introduction</ref> Some scholars see Vyasa as a later 4th or 5th century AD commentator (as opposed to the ancient mythic figure).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Vyasa is, however, not the only commentator on the text. Another well-known commentator on the ''Yoga Sutras'' is [[Vachaspati Mishra]], who had also written commentaries on other schools of Indian philosophy such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. After Vyasa, it is believed that Vachaspati Mishra’s commentary is the "next most authoritative."{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=xli}} Other commentators include [[Bhoja|Bhoja Rāja]], [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]], and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī. Vijñānabhikṣu, according to Bryant, wrote the "most insightful and useful commentary after that of Vyasa's." Bhoja Rāja and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī's commentaries follow the previous commentaries, without expanding much on what their predecessors have said. [[Swami Hariharananda Aranya|Hariharānanda Āraṇya]], in contrast to the above figures, is a modern commentator on the text. Bryant explains that, even though "his is a standpoint exposed to Western thought", it is still "thoroughly grounded in tradition".{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=xlii–xliii}} Scholars hold that both texts, the sutras and the commentary were written by one person. According to Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'' ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both ''Sūtras'' ''and'' ''Bhāṣya''. This means that the ''Bhāṣya'' was in fact Patañjali's own work.{{sfn|Maas|2006}} The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with the author's own explanation was well known at the time of Patañjali, as for example in Vasubandhu's ''Abhidharmakośabhāṣya'' (that, incidentally, Patañjali quotes). These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic sūtras.{{sfn|Maas|2006}}{{refn|group=note|See [https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft James Woods, ''The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali, and the comment, called Yoga-bhashya (1914)'', archive.org] for a complete translation}} The ''Yogabhashya'' states that 'yoga' in the ''Yoga Sutras'' has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Another commentary (the ''Vivarana'') by a certain Shankara, confirms the interpretation of ''yogah samadhih'' (YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'integration'.<ref>Sankaracarya; Patañjali; [[T. S. Rukmani]]; Vyasa. ''Yogasutrabhasyavivarana of Sankara: Vivarana Text with English Translation, and Critical Notes along with Text and English Translation of Patañjali's Yogasutras and Vyasabhasya''. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN|978-81-215-0908-4}}.</ref> This Shankara may or may not have been the famed Vedantic scholar [[Adi Shankara]] (8th or 9th century). Scholarly opinion is still open on this issue.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> ==Contents== {{anchor|Ashtanga}} Patañjali divided his ''Yoga Sutras'' into four chapters or books (Sanskrit ''Pada''), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:{{sfn|Woods|2003|p={{page needed|date=October 2017}}}}{{sfn|Iyengar|2002|p={{page needed|date=October 2017}}}} ===Samadhi Pada=== * '''Samadhi Pada'''{{sfn|Woods|2003}}{{sfn|Iyengar|2002}} (51 sutras). [[Samadhi]] is a state of direct and reliable perception (''[[pramāṇa]]'') where "the seer" (''[[Purusha]]'', pure consciousness, the Self) abides in itself. Samadhi is the main technique the yogi learns by which to calm the workings of the mind, whereafter '''Kaivalya''', the isolation of 'the seer' from the impurities of the mind, is attained. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means of attaining [[samādhi]]. :* This chapter contains the famous definitional verse (YS 1.2): ''"Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ"'' ("Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of mindstuff").{{sfn|Woods|2003}} When the mind is stilled, the seer or real Self is revealed: :::1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature. :::1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).{{sfn|Taimni|1961|p=16-17}} :* YS 1.33–39 mentions seven practices to still the mind, the seventh being meditative absorption (YS 1.39), which is further explained in YS 1.40–51 and YS 3.1–12. :* YS 1.23 offers an alternative, less arduous method to attain samadhi via the path of [[bhakti]], or surrender to [[Ishvara]]. Some scholars believe this to be Patanjali's "favored" approach.{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=161}} ===Sadhana Pada=== * '''Sadhana Pada'''{{sfn|Woods|2003}}{{sfn|Iyengar|2002}} (55 sutras). [[Sadhana]] is the Sanskrit for "practice" or "discipline," aiming at discriminative discernment, to discern the Seer (consciousness) from its objects and the hindrances. Here the author outlines two systems of Yoga: ''[[Kriya Yoga school|Kriyā Yoga]]'' and [[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|''Aṣṭāṅga Yoga'' ('Eightlimbed Yoga')]]. ====Kriya Yoga==== :* ''[[Kriya Yoga school|Kriyā Yoga]]'' in the Yoga Sūtras is a preparation for ''Aṣṭāṅga Yoga'' (with three special elements of the Niyamas (2nd limb)):<ref name="yogajournal.com">{{cite web |title=Intro Yoga Philosophy and Patanjali: What Is Kriya Yoga? |url=https://www.yogajournal.com/yoga-101/intro-yoga-philosophy-tap-heat/ |website=Yoga Journal |access-date=23 January 2021 |date=28 August 2007}}</ref> :::2.3 ''tapas'' – austerity<ref name="yogajournal.com"/> :::2.4 ''svādhyāya'' – self-study of the scriptures<ref name="yogajournal.com"/> :::2.5 ''īśvara praṇidhāna'' – devotion to god or pure consciousness<ref name="yogajournal.com"/> ====Ashtanga Yoga==== :* ''[[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|Aṣṭānga Yoga]]'' is the yoga of eight limbs. In chapter 2, five "indirect aids" for purification and aiding insight are outlined: ::1. ''Yama'' – restraints or ethics of behaviour; Yama consists of: :::1.1 ''[[Ahimsa]]'' (Non violence) :::1.2 ''Satya'' (Truthfulness) :::1.3 ''Asteya'' (Non stealing) :::1.4 ''Brahmacharya'' (Chastity) :::1.5 ''Aparigraha'' (Non possession) ::2. ''Niyama'' – observances; Niyama consists of: :::2.1 ''Saucha'' (Cleanliness) :::2.2 ''Santosha'' (Contentment) :::2.3 ''Tapas'' (Austerity) :::2.4 ''Svadhyaya'' (Selfstudy) :::2.5 ''[[Ishvara]] Pranidhana'' (Devotion to the Lord) ::3. ''Āsana'' – A physical posture in which one can be steady and comfortable.<ref>yoga sutras 2:46</ref> ::4. ''[[Prāṇāyāma]]'' – control of the [[prana]](breath) ::5. ''Pratyahara'' – withdrawal of the senses ::6. ''[[Dhāraṇā]]'' – concentration ::7. ''[[Dhyana in Hinduism (Self-knowledge)|Dhyāna]]'' – meditation ::8. ''[[Samādhi]]'' – absorption ===Vibhuti Pada=== * '''Vibhuti Pada'''{{sfn|Woods|2003}}{{sfn|Iyengar|2002}} (56 sutras).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wr5AwAAQBAJ&q=Vibhuti+Pada+56+sutras&pg=PA213 |title=Shaktipat: The Doorway to Enlightenment |first=Mark |last=Griffin |date=2 January 2012 |page=213|publisher=Hard Light |isbn=9780981937502 }}</ref> Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". In chapter 3, the last three limbs of ''Aṣṭānga Yoga'', known as [[samyama]], are outlined: ::6. ''[[Dhāraṇā]]'' - concentration ::7. ''[[Dhyana in Hinduism (Self-knowledge)|Dhyāna]]'' – meditation ::8. ''[[Samādhi]]'' – absorption : Besides insight into pure awareness (purusha), [[samyama]] gives 'supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: ''[[siddhi]]''), as the yogi gains access to and unites with the tattvas, the constituents of ''prakriti''.{{sfn|Jacobsen|2011|p=6}} The text warns (III.38) that these powers can become an obstacle to the yogi who seeks liberation. ===Kaivalya Pada=== * '''Kaivalya Pada'''{{sfn|Woods|2003}}{{sfn|Iyengar|2002}} (34 sutras). [[Kaivalya]], "isolation", of the Seer from the contents of the mind so it is no longer disturbed by the movements of the mind. It stands for emancipation or liberation, and is used where other texts often employ the term [[moksha]] (liberation). The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the Seer. ==Philosophy== ===Metaphysics=== The metaphysics of Patanjali is built on the same [[dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualist]] foundation as the Samkhya school.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP>Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''] IEP</ref> The universe is conceptualized as of two realities in Samkhya-Yoga schools: ''[[purusha|Puruṣa]]'' (consciousness) and ''[[prakriti]]'' (mind, cognition, emotions, and matter). It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.{{sfn|Haney|2002|page=17}}{{sfn|Isaac|Dangwal|1997|page=339}} ''[[Jiva]]'' (a living being) is considered as a state in which ''puruṣa'' is bonded to ''prakriti'' in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.<ref name=sambri>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526/Samkhya Samkhya – Hinduism] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2014)</ref> During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called Kaivalya, liberation, or ''[[moksha]]'' by both Yoga and Samkhya school.<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 36–47</ref> The ethical theory of Yoga school is based on [[Yamas]] and [[Niyama]], as well as elements of the [[Guṇa]] theory of Samkhya.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> Patanjali adopts the theory of [[Guṇa]] from Samkhya.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> Guṇas theory states that three ''gunas'' (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are ''[[sattva]]'' guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), ''[[rajas]]'' guna (passion, active, confused), and ''[[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]'' guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).<ref name=aw>Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234–237</ref><ref name=jamesg>James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M'', Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 265</ref> These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three ''gunas''.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> When ''sattva'' guna predominates in an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifest. The theory underpins the philosophy of mind in the Yoga school of Hinduism.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> === Soteriology === {{anchor|Purpose}} {{quote box | width = 30em | bgcolor = #ffffff | align = right | quote = <poem> 1.2. Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind. 1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature. 1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).</poem> | source = ''Yoga Sutra of Patanjali''{{sfn|Taimni|1961|p=16-17}}}} According to Bryant, the purpose of yoga is liberation from suffering, by means of discriminative discernment. The eight limbs are "the means of achieving discriminative discernment," the "uncoupling of puruṣa from all connection with prakṛti and all involvement with the citta." Bryant states that, to Patanjali, Yoga-practice "essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."<ref name=edbryant>Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali] IEP</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=10}} While the Samkhya school suggests that ''jnana'' (knowledge) is a sufficient means to ''moksha'', Patanjali suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP /> Patanjali holds that ''avidya'', ignorance is the cause of all five kleshas, which are the cause of suffering and [[samsara|saṁsāra]].<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminating discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The ''Yoga Sūtras'' is the Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> ''Samādhi'' is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of ''Purusa'' and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is [[moksha]], the [[soteriology in Hinduism|soteriological]] goal in Hinduism.<ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP/> Book 3 of Patanjali's ''Yogasutra'' is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as ''samyama'', in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of ''citta'' and self-knowledge.<ref name=yogadarsanabook3>[https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n112/mode/2up ''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3''] GN Jha (Translator); [[Harvard University]] Archives, pages 94–95</ref><ref>Gregor Maehle (2007), ''Ashtanga Yoga: Practice & Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-1577316060}}, pages 237–238</ref> In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect ''sant'' (tranquility) and ''udita'' (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between ''sabda'' (word), ''artha'' (meaning) and ''pratyaya'' (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.<ref name="ydbook3">[https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n126/mode/2up ''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3''] GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 108–126</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n158/mode/2up ''The Yoga Philosophy''] TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, pages 108–109</ref> Once a yogi reaches this state of ''[[samyama]]'', it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and [[moksha|kaivalya]], the redemptive goal of the yogi.<ref name="ydbook3" /> === Epistemology === The [[epistemology]] in Patanjali's system of Yoga, like the [[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] school of Indian philosophy, relies on three of six ''[[Pramanas]]'', as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.<ref>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref> These included ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference) and ''Sabda'' (''Āgama or Āptavacana'', word/testimony of reliable sources).{{sfn|Larson|1998|page=9}}<ref name=eliottjag> * Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pages 245–248; * John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref>{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=|pp=35–37}} Patanjali's system, like the Samkhya school, considers ''Pratyakṣa'' or ''Dṛṣṭam'' (direct sense perception), ''Anumāna'' (inference), and ''Śabda'' or ''Āptavacana'' (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or ''[[Pramana]]''.{{sfn|Larson|1998|page=9}} Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as [[Advaita Vedanta]], Yoga did not adopt the following three ''[[Pramana]]s'': ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).<ref name=eliottjag/> Of the three ''pramanas'' that it accepts as valid, ''pratyakṣa'' (perception) is the most important according to ''Yoga Sutras''. It is superior to the other two sources because testimony (''sabda'') and inference (''anumāna'') are ultimately dependent on a prior perception. Bryant distinguishes Yoga school from the ''Vedānta'', ''Nyaya'' and ''Mīmāṃsā'' in their prioritizing of different ''pramanas''. The ''Mīmāṃsā'' school prioritizes testimony and the ''Nyaya'' school prioritizes inference. The ''Vedānta'' school has as its main source testimony from the ''Upaniṣads'', whereas the Yoga school ascribes supreme authoritativeness to "direct, personal experience". Bryant argues that because of its favoring of direct experience the ''Yoga Sutras'' will "remain a perennial source of interest to the empirical dispositions of the modern world".{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=|pp=35–37}} === God === Patanjali differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating what some scholars have called a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39-41</ref><ref name="lpfl">Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38–39</ref><ref>[[Kovoor T. Behanan]] (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, {{ISBN|978-0486417929}}, pages 56–58</ref><ref>Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (Editors: Purusottama Bilimoria et al), Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0754633013}}, page 151</ref> Hindu scholars such as the 8th century [[Adi Sankara]], as well as many modern academic scholars describe Yoga school as "Samkhya school with God."<ref name="lpfl" /><ref name="maxmuller">Maurice Phillips (Published as [[Max Muller]] collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, {{Google books|LNlZAAAAMAAJ|Origin and Growth of Religion|page=8}}, PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8</ref><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), ''Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages 31–46</ref> The ''Yogasutras of Patanjali'' use the term ''Isvara'' in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is ''Isvara''? These commentaries range from defining ''Isvara'' from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".<ref name="lpfl" /><ref>*Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55–93; *Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129</ref> Whicher states that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of ''Isvara'' in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".{{sfn|Whicher|1998|p=86}} Whereas the purusa (spirit, or true self) of the yogin is bound to the prakriti – the material body subject to karmas and kleshas, the special ''purusa'' called ''Isvara'' is immaterial and ultimately free. Patanjali defines ''Isvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self/Spirit (पुरुषविशेष, ''puruṣa-viśeṣa'')."<ref name=pyogas3t> * Sanskrit Original with '''Translation 1''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up The Yoga Philosophy] TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives; * '''Translation 2''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa] GN Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives; * '''Translation 3''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/mode/2up ''The Yogasutras of Patanjali''] Charles Johnston (Translator)</ref>{{refn|group=note|क्लेशकर्मविपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः<ref>पातञ्जलयोगप्रदीप, गीताप्रेस गोरखपुर, page 198</ref> पुरुषविशेष '''ईश्वरः''' ॥२४॥|Yoga Sutras I.24}}} This sutra adds the characteristics of ''Isvara'' as that special Self/Spirit which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''klesha''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).<ref name="se5">[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=SE&link=yes aparAmRSTa], [http://spokensanskrit.de kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya]; ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Koeln University, Germany</ref><ref>Lloyd Pflueger (2008), ''Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga'' (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 31–45</ref> ==Philosophical roots and influences== [[File:Lotus position.svg|thumb|The fusion of ''Dharana'', ''Dhyana'' and ''Samadhi'' is ''Samyama'' – the path to [[Kaivalya]] in Yoga school.]] {{main|Yoga (philosophy)}} The ''Yoga Sutras'' incorporated the teachings of many other Indian philosophical systems prevalent at the time. According to Zimmer, Samkhya and Yoga are two of several schools of philosophy that originated over the centuries that had common roots in the pre-Aryan cultures and traditions of India.{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=217, 314}}{{refn|group=note|Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=217}}}}{{refn|group=note|Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in ''Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy'', 1964, p.27-32 & p.76,{{sfn|Crangle|1994|p=7}} and S.K. Belvakar & [[Inchegeri Sampradaya|R.D. Ranade]] in ''History of Indian philosophy'', 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409.{{sfn|Crangle|1994|p=5-7}}}} Yet, the orthodox Hindu philosophies of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], as well as the non-orthodox [[Nastika]] systems of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in ancient India, in contrast to the [[Bhakti]] traditions and [[Vedic]] ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The [[Vedanta]]-[[Sramana]] traditions, iconolatry and Vedic rituals can be identified with the [[Jnana]] marga, [[Bhakti]] marga and the [[Karma]] marga respectively that are outlined in the [[Bhagavad Gita]]. ===Samkhya=== The ''Yoga Sutras'' are built on a foundation of [[Samkhya]] philosophy, and are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian [[Surendranath Dasgupta]] went so far as to deny independent categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring to refer to it as ''Patanjala Samkhya'', similar to the position taken by the Jain writer [[Haribhadra]] in his commentary on Yoga.<ref>p222. A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1 By Surendranath Dasgupta</ref> Patañjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' accept the Samkhya's division of the world and phenomena into twenty-five tattvas or principles, of which one is ''Purusha'' meaning Self or consciousness, the others being ''Prakriti'' (primal nature), ''Buddhi'' (intellect or will), ''Ahamkara'' (ego), ''Manas'' (mind), five ''buddhindriyas'' (sensory capabilities), five ''karmendriyas'' (action-capabilities) and ten elements.<ref name="autogenerated314">Indian Philosophy Vol 2, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. p.314</ref><ref>p236. Classical Sāṃkhya: an interpretation of its history and meaning, By Gerald James Larson</ref> The second part of the Sutras, the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives about all seen activity lying within the realm of the three ''Gunas'' of ''Sattva'' (illumination), ''Rajas'' (passion) and ''Tamas'' (lethargy).<ref>Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By [[Christopher Chapple]], Haribhadrasūri, John Thomas Casey p16</ref> The ''Yoga Sutras'' diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the principle of [[Isvara]] or God, as exemplified by Sutra 1.23 – "Iśvara pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is one way to liberation.<ref name="autogenerated314"/><ref>Yoga sutras of Patañjali Sutra 1.23, from Light on the Yoga Sutras of Pantanjali by B.K.S Iyengar</ref> ''Isvara'' is defined here as "a distinct Consciousness, untouched by afflictions, actions, fruitions or their residue".<ref>Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By Christopher Chapple, Haribhadrasūri, John Thomas Casey. p15</ref> In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to ''Isvara'', represented by the mystical syllable [[Om]] may be the most efficient method of achieving the goal of Yoga.<ref>''An outline of the religious literature of India''. By [[John Nicol Farquhar]]. p. 132.</ref> This syllable Om is a central element of Hinduism, appearing in all the [[Upanishads]], including the earliest [[Chandogya]] and [[Brihadaranyaka]] Upanishads, and expounded upon in the [[Mandukya]] Upanishad.<ref>[http://www.swamij.com/mandukya-upanishad.htm Meditation on Om in the Mandukya Upanishad]</ref> Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means to liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is to free the individual from the clutches of the matter, and considers intellectual knowledge alone to be inadequate for the purpose&nbsp;– which is different from the position taken by Samkhya.<ref name="autogenerated314"/> However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and Patañjali's system remained even after the addition of the ''Isvara'' principle,<ref>{{harvnb|Zimmer|1951|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC&pg=PA280 280]}}. These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. {{IAST|Sāṅkhya}} provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage ("[[Bandha (Yoga)|bandha]]"), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release ("[[moksha|{{IAST|mokṣa}}]]"), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or "isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").</ref> with [[Max Müller]] noting that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."<ref>Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.</ref> The [[Bhagavad Gita]], one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic Samkhya-Yoga system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bhagavad/bhagavad_03.html |title=Samkhya: Right Understanding&nbsp;– The Teachings of the Bhagavadgita&nbsp;– Chapter 3 |publisher=Swami-krishnananda.org |access-date=2013-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/6/ |title=Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6: Sankhya-yoga |publisher=Vedabase.io |date=1972-12-12 |access-date=2020-11-02}}</ref> The ''Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali'' is a foundational text of the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga philosophy]] school of Hinduism.{{sfn|Whicher|1998|p=49}}<ref name=stuartsarbacker195/> ===Buddhism=== {{See also|Buddhism and Hinduism#Yoga}} While there are differences between Buddhist tenets and the views presented in the Yoga Sutras, scholars have noted [[Buddhism and Hinduism#Yogic practice, Dhyana and Samadhi|striking similarities between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and the teachings in Buddhist texts]].{{sfn|White|2014|pp=31–43, Chapter 2}}<ref name=peterheehs>Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York University Press, {{ISBN|978-0814736500}}, pages 136–142</ref><ref name=micheledesmarias>Michele Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity In Patanjali'S Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120833364}}, pages 72–81 with footnotes</ref> [[Karel Werner]] writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the ''Yoga Sutras'' that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the [[Pāli Canon]] and even more so from the [[Sarvāstivāda]] [[Abhidharma]] and from [[Sautrāntika]]."<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1994), ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702725}}, page 26</ref> He adds, "upon the whole it [Patanjali's Yoga sutras] is more elaborate and summarizes the actual technique of Yoga procedures more exactly than the Buddhist exposition".<ref name=werner131>[[Karel Werner]] (1998), ''Yoga and the Indian Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816091}}, page 131</ref> However, states Werner, "The Buddha was the founder of his system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time. Patanjali is neither a founder nor a leader of a new movement. (...) The ingenuity of his [Patanjali's] achievement lies in the thoroughness and completeness with which all the important stages of Yoga practice and mental experiences are included in his scheme, and in their systematic presentation in a succinct treatise."<ref name=werner131/> Werner adds that the ideas of existence and the focus on "Self, Soul" in Patajali's Yogasutra are different from the "no Self" precepts of Buddhism.<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1994), ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702725}}, pages 120–125, 139–145</ref> According to [[David Gordon White]], the language of the ''Yoga Sutras'' is often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other Hindu scriptures".{{sfn|White|2014|p=10}} He adds, historical evidence suggests that yoga philosophical systems influenced, and were influenced by, other philosophical systems in India such as early Buddhism and Jainism.{{sfn|White|2014|p=19}} White mentions controversies about the Yoga Sutras.{{sfn|White|2014|pp=31–43, Chapter 2}} A significant minority of scholars, notes White for example, believes that Vyasa lived a few centuries after Patanjali and his "Hindu-izing" commentary subverted Yoga Sutras' original "Buddhist" teachings; while the majority scholarly view disagrees with this view.{{sfn|White|2014|pp=40–41, Quote: "A significant minority opinion, however, maintains that Vyasa lived several centuries later, and that his "Hindu-izing" commentary, rather than elucidating Patanjali’s text, actually subverted its original "Buddhist" teachings."}} Scholars also note differences between the conceptual frameworks of the Yoga Sutras and those in Buddhist texts.<ref name=peterheehs/><ref name=micheledesmarias/> [[Robert Thurman]] writes that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.<ref>Robert Thurman, ''The Central Philosophy of Tibet.'' Princeton University Press, 1984, page 34.</ref> The Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism, particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.<ref>An outline of the religious literature of India, By John Nicol Farquhar p.132</ref> Barbara Miller also notes numerous similarities the difference between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts: {{blockquote|In Samkhya and Yoga, as in Buddhism and Jainism, the most salient characteristic of existence is ''duhkha'' or suffering. According to Buddhism, the origin of suffering is desire; according to Yoga, it is the connection between the observer (Purusha) with the observed (Prakrti). In both systems, the origin of ''duhkha'' is ignorance. There are also similarities in the means of deliverance recommended by the two systems. In Buddhism, the aspirant is asked to follow the eightfold path, which culminates in right meditation or ''samadhi''. In Yoga, the aspirant is asked to follow a somewhat different eight fold path, which also culminates in ''samadhi''.<ref name=peterheehs/>}} Miller also notes differences between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts: {{blockquote|..the aim of yoga meditation is conceived in terms that a Buddhist would not accept: as the separation of an eternal conscious self from unconscious matter. The purpose of Patanjali's Yoga is to bring about this separation by means of understanding, devotion and practice."<ref name=peterheehs/>}} According to Michele Desmarias, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras accept the concept of a Self or soul behind the operational mind, while Buddhists do not accept such a Self exists. The role of Self is central to the idea of ''Saṃyoga'', ''Citta'', Self-awareness and other concepts in Chapters 2 through 4 of the Yoga sutras, according to Desmarias.<ref name=micheledesmarias/> ===Jainism=== The [[Yamas#Five yamas of Patañjali|five yamas]] or the constraints of the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' bear an uncanny resemblance to the [[Mahavrata|five major vows of Jainism]], indicating influence of [[Jainism]].<ref>Christopher Chapple (2008) '' Yoga and the Luminous: Patanjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom '' New York: SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7475-4}} p. 110</ref><ref>Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, (2006) p.66</ref><ref>A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge {{ISBN|978-0-7100-9258-8}} p. 29</ref> Three other teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colours" in karma ([[lesya]]); the ''[[Telos (philosophy)|Telos]]'' of isolation ([[kevala]] in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa), though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the [[Hindu]] texts known as the [[Upanishads]] [the [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[metempsychosis]]/[[reincarnation]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.</ref> It also names Ahimsa as one of five essential virtues].<ref>Christopher Chapple (2008) ''Yoga and the Luminous: Patañjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom '' New York: SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7475-4}}</ref> ==Influence== The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' to be one of the foundational texts of classical [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga philosophy]].{{sfn|Whicher|1998|p=49}}<ref name=stuartsarbacker195/> However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the ''Yoga Sutras'' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by [[David Gordon White]],{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi–xvii}} who has argued that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of [[Swami Vivekananda]], the [[Theosophical Society]] and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi–xvii}} Its influence was reaffirmed by [[James Mallinson (author)|James Mallinson]].{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|p=xxxvi note 34}} Before the 20th century, history indicates that the medieval Indian yoga scene was dominated by the various other texts such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Vasistha]], texts attributed to [[Yajnavalkya]] and [[Hiranyagarbha]], as well as literature on [[hatha yoga]], tantric yoga and [[Pashupata Shaivism]] yoga rather than the ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''.{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi–xvii, 20–23}} Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of the epic ''[[Mahābhārata]]''.{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017 |p=xvi}} The members of the Jaina faith had their own, different literature on yoga,<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=R. |title=Jaina Yoga |date=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120807754}}</ref> and Buddhist yoga stems from pre-Patanjali sources.{{sfn|Tola|Dragonetti|Prithipaul|1987|p=xi note 3}} Some of the major commentaries on the ''Yoga Sutras'' were written between the ninth and sixteenth century.{{sfn|White|2014|p=6}} After the twelfth century, the school started to decline, and commentaries on Patanjali's Yoga philosophy were few.{{sfn|White|2014|p=6}} By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga philosophy had virtually become extinct.{{sfn|White|2014|p=6}} The manuscript of the ''Yoga Sutras'' was no longer copied, since few read the text, and it was seldom taught.{{sfn|White|2014|p=16}} According to [[David Gordon White]], the popularity of the ''Yoga Sutras'' is recent, "miraculously rehabilitated" by [[Swami Vivekananda]] after having been ignored for seven centuries.{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi}} It was with the rediscovery by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that wider interest in the ''Yoga Sutras'' arose in the West.{{sfn|White|2014|p=16}} Popular interest arose in the 19th century, when the practice of yoga according to the ''Yoga Sutras'' became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative path to self-realization" by [[Swami Vivekananda]], following [[Helena Blavatsky]], president of the [[Theosophical Society]].{{sfn|White|2011|p=20-21}} It has become a celebrated text in the West, states White, because of "Big Yoga – the corporate yoga subculture".{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi}} ==Translations and commentaries== The ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic.{{sfn|White|2014|p=xvi}} * In early 11th century, the Persian scholar [[Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī|Al Biruni]] (973–1050 CE) visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's ''Yogasutras''. His translation included the text and a thitherto unknown Sanskrit commentary.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name=sptg>S Pines and T Gelblum (Translators from Arabic to English, 1966), Al-Bīrūni (Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic, ~ 1035 AD), and Patañjali, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/611180 Al-Bīrūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's ''Yogasūtra''], ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 29, No. 2 (1966), pages 302–325</ref><ref>Hellmut Ritter, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1579273 al-Bīrūnī's übersetzung des ''Yoga-Sūtra des Patañjali''], Oriens, Vol. 9, No. 2 (31 December 1956), pages 165–200 (in German)</ref> Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology.<ref name=sptg/>{{sfn|Maas|2013|pp=53–90}} Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. * The ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' was translated into Old Javanese by Indonesian Hindus, and the text was called ''Dharma Patanjala''.<ref name=andreaacri/> The surviving text has been dated to about 1450 CE; however, it is unclear if this text is a copy of an earlier translation and whether other translations existed in Indonesia. This translation shares ideas found in other Indian translations particularly those in the [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] traditions, and some in Al Biruni translation, but it is also significantly different in parts from the 11th century Arabic translation.<ref name=andreaacri>Andrea Acri (2012), Yogasūtra 1.10, 1.21–23, and 2.9 in the Light of the Indo-Javanese Dharma Pātañjala, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 40, Issue 3, pages 259–276</ref> The most complete copy of the ''Dharma Patañjala'' manuscript is now held at the [[Berlin State Library|Staatsbibliothek]] in Berlin.<ref>Andrea Acri (2011), Dharma Pātañjala: a Śaiva scripture from ancient Java: studied in the light of related old Javanese and Sanskrit texts, Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University Institute for AREA Studies (LIAS), Leiden University.</ref> By the early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions of Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' published between 1874 and 1992, and 82 different manuscripts, from various locations in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Europe and the United States, many in Sanskrit, some in different North and South Indian languages.<ref name=pmaas2010/><ref>Philipp Maas (2008), "Descent with Modification": The Opening of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, in Śāstrārambha: Inquiries Into the Preamble in Sanskrit (Editor: Walter Slaje), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447056458}}, pages 97–119</ref> The numerous historical variants show that the text was a living document and it was changed as these manuscripts were transmitted or translated, with some ancient and medieval manuscripts marked with "corrections" in the margin of the pages and elsewhere by unknown authors and for unclear reasons. This has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a difficult task.<ref name=pmaas2010>Philipp Maas (2010), [https://www.academia.edu/212613/On_the_Written_Transmission_of_the_Pātañjalayogaśāstra On the Written Transmission of the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra''], in "From Vasubandhu to Caitanya, Studies in Indian Philosophy and its Textual History" (Editors: [[Johannes Bronkhorst]] und Karin Preisendanz), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|9788120834729}}, pages 157–172</ref> Many commentaries have been written on the ''Yoga Sutras''.{{refn|group=note|For an overview of the scope of earlier commentaries: ''Complete Commentary by Sankara on the Yoga Sutras: Vivarana Sub-commentary to Vyasabhasya on the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' Tr.fr. Sanskrit'', Trevor Leggett, Rev. Ed. Routledge (1990) {{ISBN|978-0-7103-0277-9}}.}} ===Medieval commentaries=== Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include: * [[Vyasa]] (AD 4th or 5th Century), as mentioned above, has been attributed authorship of the commentary ''Yogabhāṣya'', the first medieval commentary on the Yoga Sutras, and the one upon which all subsequent medieval commentaries were based. However, some scholars have argued that this commentary was written by Patanjali himself.{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=40}} * [[Adi Shankara]] (AD 8th Century) is said to have authored the commentary ''Vivaraṇa'', although the authorship of this commentary is debated.{{Sfn|Bryant|2009|p=41}} * [[Vācaspati Miśra]] (AD 900–980) who composed the commentary ''Tattvavaiśāradī'', described as the "most significant early subcommentary".<ref name="Jacobsen2019">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Knut A. |title=''Classical Yoga Philosophy and the Legacy of Sāṃkhya: With Sanskrit Text and English Translation of Pātañjala Yogasūtra-s, Vyāsa Bhāṣya and Tattvavaiśāradī of Vācaspatimiśra'', by Gerald James Larson |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=12 |issue=3 |year=2019 |pages=410–412 |issn=1751-2689 |doi=10.1558/rosa.39892|doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Bhoja|Bhoja Raja]]'s ''Raja-Martanda'', 11th century. * [[Vijnanabhiksu]]'s 16th century ''Yogabhashyavarttika'' or simply ''Yogavarttika'' ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher and exegete who tried to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the [[Bhedabheda]] view.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> * Ramananda Sarasvati's ''Yogamani-Prabha'' (16th century). ===Modern translations and commentary=== Countless commentaries on the ''Yoga Sutras'' are available today. The ''Sutras'', with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the [[Internet]].{{refn|group=note|A list of 22 Classical commentaries can be found among the listings of essential Yoga texts at mantra.org).[http://www.mantra.org.in/yoga/myweb/fundamental_texts_of_yoga.htm Mantra.org.in, ''Fundamental Texts of Yoga'']}} The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.<ref>[[Christopher Key Chapple]]; Reading Patañjali without Vyasa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sutra Passages, ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', Vol. 62, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp. 85–105.</ref> Modern translations and interpretations include: * 1852, 1853: First translation of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in English containing first two chapters by [[James R. Ballantyne|J.R. Ballantyne]] published by The Benaras College, in 1872 Govind Deva Shastri completed remaining two chapters. * 1882, 1885:The whole complete book was published in 1882 and final revised edition published in 1885. The Yoga Philosophy with comments of Bhojaraja, J.R Ballantyne, Govind Shastri Deva, edited by Tookaram Tatya, Bombay Theosophical publication fund. * 1883: Yoga Aporhism of Patanjali with the commentary of Bhoja Raja by Rajendra Lala Mitra, Asiatic Society of Bengal * 1890: The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, by [[Manilal Nabhubhai Dvivedi]], Bombay Theosophical publication fund. * 1896: [[Swami Vivekananda]], ''[[Raja Yoga (book)|Raja Yoga]]'' provides translation and an in-depth explanation of ''Yoga Sutra''. * 1907: [[Ganganath Jha]]'s ''Yoga Sutras'' with the ''Yogabhashya'' attributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (translator) (1907). [https://archive.org/details/yogadaranasutra00patagoog ''The Yoga Darśana: The Sutras of Patañjali with the Bhāṣya of Vyāsa'']. With notes from Vācaspati Miśra's ''Tattvavaiśāradī'', Vijnana Bhiksu's Yogavartika and Bhoja's Rajamartanda. Rajaram Tukaram Tatya: Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. Retrieved 16 January 2011.</ref> With notes drawn from [[Vācaspati Miśra]]'s ''Tattvavaiśāradī'' amongst other important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition. * 1912: [[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Charles Johnston]] Dublin University: ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras?uselang=ja The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the Spiritual Man]''. * 1914: The Yoga System of Patanjali with comment of Yoga Bhasya and explanation of Tatva Vicardi by James Haughton Woods, Harvard University Press * 1924: Patanjali Yoga Sutras with commentary of Vyasa and gloss of Vachaspati Mishra by Rama Prasad * 1953: [[Swami Prabhavananda]], ''Patanjali Yoga Sutras'', Sri [[Ramakrishna Math]], Madras, India. * 1961: [[I. K. Taimni]], ''[https://archive.org/details/TheScienceOfYoga The Science of Yoga]'' commentary with [[Sutra]]s in Sanskrit and translation and commentary in English.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1370832.The_Science_of_Yoga|title=The Science of Yoga|website=Goodreads|access-date=2017-02-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uluyoga.com/upanishads-the-intersection-of-ancient-yogic-wisdom-and-modern-psychology/|title=Ancient Yogic Wisdom and Modern Psychology|website=Uluyoga|access-date=2017-02-08}}</ref> * 1963: [[Swami Hariharananda Aranya]]'s ''Bhasvati''. * 1976: [[Swami Satyananda]], ''Four Chapters of Freedom''. [[Yoga Publications Trust]], Munger, Bihar, India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biharyoga.net/commentaries.php#book01.Four_Chapters_of_Freedom|title=Four Chapters of Freedom|website=Biharyoga|access-date=2021-11-07}}</ref> * 1978: [[Swami Satchidananda]], ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''. [[Integral yoga (Satchidananda)|Integral Yoga]], Yogaville. * 1978: P. Y. Deshpande, The Authentic Yoga, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A Heartfulness publication in January 2021 * 1989: [[Georg Feuerstein]], ''The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali: A New Translation and Commentary'', Inner Traditions International; Rochester, Vermont. * 1993: [[B. K. S. Iyengar]], ''Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''. HarperCollins. * 1996: [[Barbara Stoler Miller]], ''The Yoga Sutras Attributed to Patanjali; "Yoga – Discipline of Freedom''. [[University of California Press]], Berkeley. * 1998: [[Osho]], ''The Path of Yoga: Commentaries on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'', Rebel Publishing House, Mumbai, India. * 2002: [https://alistairshearer.co.uk/ Alistair Shearer], The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Goodreads<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Sacred Teachings) |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/560946.The_Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali |access-date=2024-06-17 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> * 2003: Chip Hartranft, ''The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali: A New Translation with Commentary'', Shambhala Classics, Boulder, Colorado. * 2009: [[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin F. Bryant]]'s ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary''. North Point Press, New York. * 2013: [[Swami Kriyananda]], ''Demystifying Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras – The Wisdom of Paramhansa Yogananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, Nevada City. * 2022: Viswanatha Thalakola, ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Made Simple''. Amazon KDP Select, Seattle.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/60161397-the-yoga-sutras-of-patanjali-made-simple | title=The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Made Simple }}</ref> * 2023: [[:pl:Anandmurti Guruma|Anandmurti Gurumaa]], Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Goodreads.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yoga Sutras of Patanjali |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/197292470-yoga-sutras-of-patanjali |access-date=2024-06-17 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> * 2023: [[Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)|Ravi Shankar]], Patanjali Yoga Sutras.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Patanjali Yoga Sutras |url=https://artofliving.store/products/patanjali-yoga-sutras-english-1?srsltid=AfmBOordpgDlR49PF3OPmAjIxFxJ8JiCqkk-tg98wizA1TfiHP3rPxTM |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Sri Sri Publications |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Hinduism|India}} * [[Patanjali]] * [[Samkhya]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Sources== ;Printed sources {{refbegin | 40em}}  * {{citation | last=Bryant | first=Edwin F. | author-link=Edwin F. Bryant | title=The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary | date=2009 | publisher=North Point Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0865477360}}  * {{Citation | last=Crangle | first=Eddie | year=1984 | chapter=A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist Techniques of Attaining Samādhi | editor-last1=Hutch | editor-first1=R. A. | editor-last2=Fenner | editor-first2=P. G. | title=Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree: Australian Studies in Consciousness | publisher=University Press of America | chapter-url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/A%20Comparison%20of%20Hindu%20and%20Buddhist%20Techniques%20of%20Attaining%20Samadhi_Crangle_1984.pdf}} * {{Citation | last=Crangle | first=Edward Fitzpatrick | year=1994 | title=The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices | publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag}}  * {{Citation | last=Feuerstein | first=Georg | author-link=Georg Feuerstein | year=1978 | title=Handboek voor Yoga (Dutch translation; English title "Textbook of Yoga" | publisher=Ankh-Hermes}}  * {{citation |last=Haney |first=William S. |title=Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained |publisher=Bucknell University Press |year=2002 |location=New Jersey |isbn=1611481724 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HEI6QwSxrjsC}}  * {{citation |last1=Isaac |first1=J. R. |last2=Dangwal |first2=Ritu |title=Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1997 |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7023-746-7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=V9Z0dFN3DN0C}} * {{Citation | last=Iyengar | first=B. K. S. | author-link=B. K. S. Iyengar | year=2002 | title=Light on the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali | publisher=HarperCollins UK |isbn=978-0-00-714516-4}}  * {{cite book |editor-last=Jacobsen |editor-first=Knut A. |title=Yoga Powers |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-9004212145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXQsZiz7PoC}}  * {{citation | last=Larson | first=Gerald James | author-link=Gerald James Larson | title=Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning | publisher=Motilal Banarasidass | year=1998 | location=London | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC | isbn=81-208-0503-8 }}  * {{Citation | last=Maas | first=Philipp A. | year=2006 | title=Samādhipāda. Das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert. (Samādhipāda. The First Chapter of the Pātañjalayogaśās-tra for the First Time Critically Edited). | publisher=Aachen: Shaker}} * {{cite book |last=Maas |first=Philipp A. |year=2013 |chapter=A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy |editor-first=Eli |editor-last=Franco |title=Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy |publisher="Sammlung de Nobili, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Indologie und Religionsforschung", Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität |location=Wien |isbn=978-3-900271-43-5 |oclc=859540980 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3520571}} [twelve lectures held at the fourteenth World Sanskrit Conference (Kyoto, September 1–5, 2009)] * {{cite book | last1=Mallinson | first1=James |author1-link=James Mallinson (author) |last2=Singleton |first2=Mark |author2-link=Mark Singleton (yoga scholar) | title=Roots of Yoga | publisher=Penguin Books | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-241-25304-5 | oclc=928480104}} * {{cite book | last=Michaels | first=Axel | title=Hinduism: Past and Present | year=2004 | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton, NJ | isbn=978-0-691-08953-9 }}  * {{Citation | last=Pradhan | first=Basant | year=2015 | title=Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy | publisher=Springer}}  * {{cite book |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=S. |author-link=Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan |last2=Moore |first2=C. A. |year=1989 |orig-year=1957 |title=A Source Book in Indian Philosophy |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0-691-01958-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh}}  * {{Citation | last =Taimni | first =I.K. | year =1961 |title =The Science of Yoga: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | url =https://www.yogastudies.org/wp-content/uploads/Science_of_Yoga-Taimni.pdf}} * {{Citation | last1=Tola | first1=Fernando | last2=Dragonetti | first2=Carmen | last3=Prithipaul | first3=K. Dad | year=1987 | title=The Yogasūtras of Patañjali on concentration of mind | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}  * {{Citation | last=Whicher | first=Ian | year=1998 | title=The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga | publisher=SUNY Press}} * {{Citation | last=White | first=David Gordon | author-link=David Gordon White | year=2011 | title=Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice") | publisher=Princeton University Press | url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9565.pdf}} * {{Citation | last=White | first=David Gordon | author-link=David Gordon White | year=2014 | title=The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn= 978-0691143774}} * {{Citation | translator-last=Woods | translator-first=James Haughton| year=2003 | title=The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=978-0-486-43200-7 |ref={{sfnref|Woods|2003}} }} * {{Citation | last=Wujastyk | first=Dominik | year=2011 | title=The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher=Princeton University Press}}  * {{Citation | last=Zimmer | first=Heinrich | author-link=Heinrich Zimmer | title=Philosophies of India | year=1951 | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=New York | isbn=0-691-01758-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC }} Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell. {{refend}} ;Web sources {{Reflist|group=web|refs=  <ref group=web name=Bryant_IEP>Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''] IEP</ref> }} ;General references {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book | last=Müeller | first=Max | author-link=Max Müller | year=1899 | title=Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika | publisher=Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. | location=Calcutta | isbn=978-0-7661-4296-1 |ref=none}} Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of ''The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy''. * {{cite book | last=Ranganathan | first=Shyam | year=2008 | title=Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra: Translation, Commentary and Introduction | publisher=Penguin Black Classics | location=Delhi | isbn=978-0-14-310219-9 |ref=none}} * {{cite book | last=Sen | first=Amiya P. | title=The Indispensable Vivekananda | publisher=Orient Blackswan | year=2006 | pages=219–227 | chapter=Raja Yoga: The Science of Self-Realization | isbn=978-81-7824-130-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book | last=Sharma | first=Chandradhar | title=An Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy | year=1987 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | location=Delhi | isbn=978-81-208-0365-7 |ref=none}} * {{cite book | last=Vivekananda | first=Swami | author-link=Vivekananda | title=Raja Yoga | publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center | year=1980 | isbn=0-911206-23-X |ref=none}} * {{cite book | last=Wood | first=Ernest | author-link=Ernest Wood | title=Practical Yoga, Ancient and Modern, Being a New, Independent Translation of Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms | publisher=Rider and Company | year=1951 |ref=none}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== ; History * {{Cite book|ref=none |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |year=2014 |title=The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-14377-4}} ;Translations * [[Edwin F. Bryant|Bryant, Edwin F.]] (2009) ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''. New York: North Point Press. {{ISBN|978-0-86547-736-0}} ; Practice and commentaries * [[B.K.S. Iyengar|Iyengar, B.K.S.]] (1993, 2002). ''Light on the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali''. Hammersmith, London, UK: Thorsons. {{ISBN|978-0-00-714516-4}} ==External links== {{Prone to spam|date=July 2012}}  {{wikisource|Yoga Sutras}} ;Overview * Edwin Bryant, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''], IEP ;Manuscripts * [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b100839498 Manuscript] ([[Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher|Alfred Foucher]]) from [[Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] ;Translations * [https://archive.org/stream/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft#page/n5/mode/2up James Woods, ''The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind; Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali (1914)''] Harvard University Press * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/yogasutr.htm ''The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali''], translation by BonGiovanni, at [[sacred-texts.com]] ;Commentaries * [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/yoga-sutras-with-commentaries Yoga Sutras with commentaries by Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra] English translation by Rama Prasada, 1925 (includes glossary and Sanskrit text references) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120202032732/http://www.ashtangayoga.info/philosophy/yoga-sutra-Pata%C3%B1jali/ Patañjali – ''Yoga-Sutras'': A word by word translation with grammar and comment] * {{Internet Archive author |search=(Patanjali OR Patañjali)}} * "[https://iep.utm.edu/yoga/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]" [[Rutgers University]] * "[https://yogasutra195.com/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | 195 Sutra - Chanting (Sanskrit) : By Vimal Sharma.]" [[Yoga Sutras of Sage Patanjali ]] ;Audiobooks *{{librivox book | title=Yoga Sutras | author=Patanjali }} {{Yoga}} {{Indian Philosophy}} {{Hindu deities and texts}} {{Hindudharma}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Yoga Sutras Of Patanjali}} [[Category:Hindu texts]] [[Category:Sutras (Hinduism)]] [[Category:Ancient yoga texts]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span 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