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class="nav-item" data-v-67028791><a data-qa="log in button" href="/en/account/login?redirect=%2Fen%2Fexhibitions%2Fherrnhutian-manuscripts%2Fexpanding-the-writing-community" target="_self" class="nav-link" data-v-67028791><span class="nav-link-icon icon-login" data-v-67028791></span> <span class="nav-link-text" data-v-67028791> Log in / Join </span></a></li></ul> <button id="show-search-button" data-qa="show search button" aria-label="Search" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-search ml-lg-3 btn-light-flat" data-v-da413d26></button> <button data-qa="search sidebar button" aria-label="Filter" type="button" class="btn icon-filter p-0 ml-3 my-3 btn-light-flat" style="display:none;" data-v-4eb19bf6 data-v-4eb19bf6 data-v-da413d26></button></nav> <div tabindex="-1" class="b-sidebar-outer" data-v-da413d26><div id="sidebar" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Side navigation" class="b-sidebar bg-white text-dark" style="display:none;"></div><div class="b-sidebar-backdrop bg-black" style="display:none;"></div></div></div> </header> <main id="default" role="main" data-v-3ca9fe1f> <div data-qa="exhibition chapter" id="main" class="text-page white-page" data-v-3ca9fe1f><ol class="breadcrumb"><li class="breadcrumb-item"><a href="/en/exhibitions/herrnhutian-manuscripts" target="_self" class="nuxt-link-active">Exhibition: Herrnhutian manuscripts</a></li><li class="breadcrumb-item active"><span aria-current="location">Expanding the writing community</span></li></ol>  <div class="container"><div class="row justify-content-center"><div class="col-lg-8 pt-large mb-3 mb-lg-4 col-12"><article><div class="title"><div data-qa="context label" class="context-label mb-1"> Exhibition </div> <h2 class="subtitle"> Herrnhutian manuscripts </h2> <h1 data-qa="title" class="mb-2"> Expanding the writing community </h1> </div></article></div></div> <div class="row justify-content-center"><div class="col-lg-8 col-12"><div rights-statement="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" class="image-wrapper container-fluid" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="jumbotron mt-0 jumbotron-fluid text-white hero" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="container" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><figure data-v-0bf16048><img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8,%3Csvg%20width%3D%22550%22%20height%3D%22790%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20%25%7Bw%7D%20%25%7Bh%7D%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%25%22%20height%3D%22100%25%22%20style%3D%22fill%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E%3C%2Frect%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E" alt="3 people on the hill (2 standing, 1 sitting) with their backs to the viewer are looking at a field, a village and mountains in the background." width="550" height="790" data-qa="image"> <figcaption data-qa="attribution toggle" class="background-attribution" data-v-4eb463a6><button aria-expanded="false" data-qa="toggle" aria-label="Show attribution" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-info bg-transparent border-0 btn-secondary" data-v-4eb463a6 data-v-4eb463a6></button> </figcaption></figure></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="footer-margin container"><div class="row"><div class="col-lg-8 col-12"></div></div> <div class="row justify-content-center"><div class="col-lg-8 col-12"><article><button data-qa="share button" type="button" class="btn share-button d-inline-flex align-items-center mb-4 btn-secondary"><span class="icon-share d-inline-flex pr-1"></span> Share </button>  <div class="authored-section"><section data-qa="markdown" class="row" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a data-v-05f291cc><div class="col-12 col col-lg-9" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a><div data-v-3661210a><p>On 17 June 1722, carpenter Christian David, an emigrant from the Czech Unity of Brethren, felled the first tree at the foot of Saxony’s Hutberg to start the construction of the town of Herrnhut. This happened in a property owned by Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, who eventually became a spritiual leader of the community. </p> <p>This was the beginning of the Herrnhutian movement, or the renewed Unity of Brethren. During the rest of the 18th century, this religious community spread all over the world. In 1729, under the leadership of Christian David, it reached Vidzeme (a northern region in modern-day Latvia). Serfdom reigned here: most Latvians were peasants with the consequences of the Great Northern War – hunger and war damages – still being endured. Thousands of peasants gathered at Herrnhutian meetings leading to what became known as the 'Great Awakening'.</p> </div></div></section><div rights-statement="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/" class="image-wrapper container-fluid" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048 data-v-05f291cc><div class="jumbotron mt-0 jumbotron-fluid text-white" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="container" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><figure data-v-0bf16048><img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8,%3Csvg%20width%3D%22995%22%20height%3D%221000%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20%25%7Bw%7D%20%25%7Bh%7D%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%25%22%20height%3D%22100%25%22%20style%3D%22fill%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E%3C%2Frect%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E" alt="Round panorama from the altar on the Hutberg near Herrnhut in Upper Lusatia with a view over the Churchyard of the Brethren and Herrnhut to the Lusatian Mountains" width="995" height="1000" data-qa="image"> <figcaption data-qa="attribution toggle" class="background-attribution" data-v-4eb463a6><button aria-expanded="false" data-qa="toggle" aria-label="Show attribution" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-info bg-transparent border-0 btn-secondary" data-v-4eb463a6 data-v-4eb463a6></button> </figcaption></figure></div></div></div><section data-qa="markdown" class="row" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a data-v-05f291cc><div class="col-12 col col-lg-9" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a><div data-v-3661210a><p>In Vidzeme the Herrnhutian movement caused considerable social turmoil. Herrnhutian preachers addressed the Latvian peasants as equals, encouraging them to repent and lead better lives. The way they explained the Christian faith – emphasising how it is experienced in emotional and subjective terms – deeply resonated in a Latvian society oppressed by war and serfdom. </p> <p>Initially, many of the landed gentry and Lutheran pastors also supported the Herrnhutian movement. Magdalena Elisabeth von Hallart was of particular importance as she established a teachers’ seminary dedicated to Herrnhutian theology.</p> </div></div></section><div rights-statement="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/" class="image-wrapper container-fluid" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048 data-v-05f291cc><div class="jumbotron mt-0 jumbotron-fluid text-white" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="container" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><figure data-v-0bf16048><img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8,%3Csvg%20width%3D%221100%22%20height%3D%22877%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20%25%7Bw%7D%20%25%7Bh%7D%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%25%22%20height%3D%22100%25%22%20style%3D%22fill%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E%3C%2Frect%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E" alt="People on a field forming haystacks" width="1100" height="877" data-qa="image"> <figcaption data-qa="attribution toggle" class="background-attribution" data-v-4eb463a6><button aria-expanded="false" data-qa="toggle" aria-label="Show attribution" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-info bg-transparent border-0 btn-secondary" data-v-4eb463a6 data-v-4eb463a6></button> </figcaption></figure></div></div></div><section data-qa="markdown" class="row" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a data-v-05f291cc><div class="col-12 col col-lg-9" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a><div data-v-3661210a><p>However, seeing the Herrnhutian movement competing with the Lutheran Church began to raise concerns among some of the landed gentry. In 1743, Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia officially banned the Unity of Brethren, but it continued its activities underground and what is known as 'the silent march' began. The Herrnhutians built meeting houses with their own funds, established small organisations for the social and spiritual care of parishioners, and raised their level of education. </p> <p>In 1817, Russian Emperor Alexander I legalised the movement. Despite facing restrictions and being misunderstood by outsiders, the Herrnhutians, became a movement that reinforced the self-assurance of the rural working communities.</p> </div></div></section><div rights-statement="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="image-wrapper container-fluid" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048 data-v-05f291cc><div class="jumbotron mt-0 jumbotron-fluid text-white" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="container" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><figure data-v-0bf16048><img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8,%3Csvg%20width%3D%22774%22%20height%3D%221200%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20%25%7Bw%7D%20%25%7Bh%7D%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%25%22%20height%3D%22100%25%22%20style%3D%22fill%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E%3C%2Frect%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E" alt="Men and a women dressed in Latvian folk clothing from Vidzeme" width="774" height="1200" data-qa="image"> <figcaption data-qa="attribution toggle" class="background-attribution" data-v-4eb463a6><button aria-expanded="false" data-qa="toggle" aria-label="Show attribution" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-info bg-transparent border-0 btn-secondary" data-v-4eb463a6 data-v-4eb463a6></button> </figcaption></figure></div></div></div><section data-qa="markdown" class="row" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a data-v-05f291cc><div class="col-12 col col-lg-9" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a><div data-v-3661210a><p>The Herrnhutian phenomenon became noticeable. It was observed by educated elites that, among the Herrnhutians, peasants were more hardworking and pious, education and prosperity were increasing, and a kind of 'peasant aristocracy' was being established. Those who previously attended church services only formally now became true Christians. They attended regular <em>saiešanas</em> (meetings), celebrated religious festivals together, and felt themselves to be a strong and independent community.</p> </div></div></section><div rights-statement="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/" class="image-wrapper container-fluid" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048 data-v-05f291cc><div class="jumbotron mt-0 jumbotron-fluid text-white" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><div class="container" data-v-0bf16048 data-v-0bf16048><figure data-v-0bf16048><img src="data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8,%3Csvg%20width%3D%221100%22%20height%3D%221403%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20%25%7Bw%7D%20%25%7Bh%7D%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%25%22%20height%3D%22100%25%22%20style%3D%22fill%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E%3C%2Frect%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E" alt="Black handwritten text on yellowed paper" width="1100" height="1403" data-qa="image"> <figcaption data-qa="attribution toggle" class="background-attribution" data-v-4eb463a6><button aria-expanded="false" data-qa="toggle" aria-label="Show attribution" type="button" class="btn button-icon-only icon-info bg-transparent border-0 btn-secondary" data-v-4eb463a6 data-v-4eb463a6></button> </figcaption></figure></div></div></div><section data-qa="markdown" class="row" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a data-v-05f291cc><div class="col-12 col col-lg-9" data-v-3661210a data-v-3661210a><div data-v-3661210a><p>However, those who observed the Herrnhutian movement from the sidelines probably had no idea of the extent of one of their most popular activities: writing The written word was extremely important to this movement. All kinds of handwritten texts circulated among congregation members. Texts transcribed in one peasant’s home travelled to the next, where they were read and re-written for safe-keeping. In Herrnhutian areas, literacy had increased to 90% by the end of the 18th century. </p> </div></div></section></div></article></div></div> </div></div></main>  <div class="b-toaster-bottom-left-dynamic d-none" style="--bottom:20px;" data-v-3ca9fe1f></div>  </div></div></div><script>window.__NUXT__=(function(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M){w.name=x;w.identifier=y;w.headline=a;w.description=a;w.categoriesCollection={items:[]};w.primaryImageOfPage={name:"View of Herrnhut, etching, 1810",creator:"Heinrich Friedrich Laurin",provider:"Deutsche Fotothek",license:"http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F",url:"http:\u002F\u002Fdata.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F463\u002Fitem_XJLBTW5ZEV6QZBLGI6J4T76J6SULVVYL",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FMs4dJKEiBOVcZwDgHFAG3\u002F0506bb79f3c3a8b0369eb8947020eb89\u002FAnsicht_von_Herrnhut__Radierung__1810",description:"3 people on the hill (2 standing, 1 sitting) with their backs to the viewer are looking at a field, a village and mountains in the background.",contentType:c,width:1389,height:781}};w.hasPartCollection={total:n,items:[{__typename:b,text:"On 17 June 1722, carpenter Christian David, an emigrant from the Czech Unity of Brethren, felled the first tree at the foot of Saxony’s Hutberg to start the construction of the town of Herrnhut. 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In 1743, Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia officially banned the Unity of Brethren, but it continued its activities underground and what is known as 'the silent march' began. The Herrnhutians built meeting houses with their own funds, established small organisations for the social and spiritual care of parishioners, and raised their level of education. \n\nIn 1817, Russian Emperor Alexander I legalised the movement. Despite facing restrictions and being misunderstood by outsiders, the Herrnhutians, became a movement that reinforced the self-assurance of the rural working communities.\n"},{__typename:e,name:"Latvian folk clothing from Vidzeme",creator:a,provider:f,license:z,url:"http:\u002F\u002Fdata.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F92085\u002F1898",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F18ap1CryrIP9Rh3vMg1lzG\u002F9f47b3c438dc90c94a7f9cef72a17556\u002FLatvie_u_tautas_ap__rbi._Limba_i_-_Vidzeme",description:"Men and a women dressed in Latvian folk clothing from Vidzeme",contentType:c,width:774,height:A}},{__typename:b,text:"The Herrnhutian phenomenon became noticeable. It was observed by educated elites that, among the Herrnhutians, peasants were more hardworking and pious, education and prosperity were increasing, and a kind of 'peasant aristocracy' was being established. Those who previously attended church services only formally now became true Christians. They attended regular *saiešanas* (meetings), celebrated religious festivals together, and felt themselves to be a strong and independent community."},{__typename:e,name:"Manuscript: Stāsti no tās vecas brāļu draudzes. Stāsti no tās atjaunotas brāļu draudzes [Stories from that old Unity of Brethren. Stories from that restored Unity of Brethren]",creator:"Gusts Ēverss (1787-1851)",provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Flv\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F78209",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F4xldJZUIW0DDn4nP2GHTQF\u002F0a8564f4e722fdd593c0923d99076eb5\u002FStories_from_that_old_Unity_of_Brethren.jpg",description:"Black handwritten text on yellowed paper",contentType:c,width:1937,height:2470}},{__typename:b,text:"However, those who observed the Herrnhutian movement from the sidelines probably had no idea of the extent of one of their most popular activities: writing The written word was extremely important to this movement. All kinds of handwritten texts circulated among congregation members. Texts transcribed in one peasant’s home travelled to the next, where they were read and re-written for safe-keeping. In Herrnhutian areas, literacy had increased to 90% by the end of the 18th century. "}]};w.url={name:l,params:{exhibition:j,chapter:y}};w.background="https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FMs4dJKEiBOVcZwDgHFAG3\u002F0506bb79f3c3a8b0369eb8947020eb89\u002FAnsicht_von_Herrnhut__Radierung__1810?w=800&h=800&fm=jpg&fl=progressive&q=80";w.text=x;return {layout:"default",data:[{chapters:[w,{name:B,identifier:C,headline:a,description:a,categoriesCollection:{items:[]},primaryImageOfPage:{name:"Manuscript: Draudzes likumi (Congregation Laws)",creator:a,provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fen\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F72731",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FLpM1QLWhP8MC3fafq06kK\u002Fdec340ee6f4f532ed393a2d0ee965748\u002FDraudzes_likumi.jpg",description:"Page of a manuscript",contentType:c,width:1261,height:2062}},hasPartCollection:{total:n,items:[{__typename:b,text:"Why did the Herrnhutians write? First of all – to communicate between congregations and across borders. The Herrnhutian movement was a transnational phenomenon - its centre was in Herrnhut but its missionary descriptions, reports, and letters were sent there from various parts of the world. Hymns, movement leaders’ speeches and tracts were also published as printed books. \n\nBut in most cases, Herrnhutians preferred manuscripts. Information circulation was faster in hand-written form, making it possible to bypass censorship and maintain secrecy. Secrecy was important to the Latvian Herrnhutians – their texts were not intended for prying eyes.\n"},{__typename:e,name:"Herrnhutian meeting house at Dzērve",creator:"Melānija Vanaga",provider:"Melānijas Vanagas (1905-1997) piemiņas krājums",license:z,url:"http:\u002F\u002Fdata.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F92085\u002F16122",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5ab0SopeRZZQt486cBT8PD\u002F164678748a45ce65f8a2ae86d24a8be3\u002F_Dz_rves_._Saie_anas_nams",description:a,contentType:c,width:1600,height:1058}},{__typename:b,text:"In Vidzeme, the first preachers who arrived from Saxony – the 'German brethren – were already translating various texts into Latvian manuscripts. Over time, they were also joined by writers from the local population. Translation was replaced by composition. Peasants didn’t simply transcribe texts - they rewrote them and their rewritings were then included in different manuscripts. Many of these writers have remained anonymous but it is possible that they included a number of women."},{__typename:e,name:"Pirmā pārbaudīšana uz vienu laiku grāmatu tās draudzes dienu (The first test for the congregation diary) - manuscript",creator:r,provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F72736",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F4KDCUA4jMXOBo58lO2JQ17\u002F440de855ee38e717f927dba471eb2052\u002FPirma.jpg",description:s,contentType:c,width:1268,height:1963}},{__typename:b,text:"These manuscripts reveal a world different to the one described in official printed literature. Through these texts, peasants learned about their nation’s past, and about the life and beliefs of the people in the various lands with Herrnhutian missions. For those wanting to know what 18th century peasants thought, felt and experienced in their lives, manuscripts are the best and often only source. "},{__typename:e,name:"Runāšana uz bērniem (Addressing children) - manuscript",creator:r,provider:"National Library of Latvia ",license:D,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F72735",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F6PEc5dxSCeKV41kDKHaZHF\u002Fe742e42c56039a621b122dc7aca1f884\u002FRunasana.jpg",description:s,contentType:c,width:1242,height:1974}},{__typename:b,text:"Many of the manuscripts were meant to be read aloud during meetings. They were probably also read at home in the evenings alongside religious books or while carrying out everyday chores. Over time, reading to oneself became customary, mainly for the purpose of spiritual edification. \n\nThrough reading, peasants were encouraged to contemplate their inner world, to reflect on their lives and find out about the wider world. For some, it was motivation to take up the pen themselves, but writing was difficult and responsible work. It was most often done in the evenings, in the hours free from manual labour, in the dim light of a taper. The manuscripts' artistic design was austere and humble - only the content was important."},{__typename:e,name:"Pēteris Baidiņš’ manuscript book",creator:p,provider:f,license:k,url:a,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdownloads.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5vnf7AXL1ppHLeLRX7fDTI\u002F803a50be7fe4e7f3e2d194718a94bae6\u002FReinis_Hofmanis_07.jpg",description:m,contentType:c,width:t,height:u}},{__typename:b,text:"What did the Herrnhutians write down and rewrite? Sermons and hymns, letters and life stories, historical essays and literary works, descriptions of missions and church statutes. \n\nMost of the texts that have been preserved are from the first half of the 19th century (including rewritings of older texts). During this period, peasants also created handwritten books of essays. Pēteris Baidiņš wrote [such a book](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F77143) in 1835, extending to more than 300 pages. It features an extensive variety of texts – from a reflection on the history of the Herrnhutians and the story of Jan Huss to an abridged translation of John Bunyan’s allegorical novel *The Pilgrim’s Progress*."}]},url:{name:l,params:{exhibition:j,chapter:C}},background:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FLpM1QLWhP8MC3fafq06kK\u002Fdec340ee6f4f532ed393a2d0ee965748\u002FDraudzes_likumi.jpg?w=800&h=800&fm=jpg&fl=progressive&q=80",text:B},{name:E,identifier:F,headline:"From collective ritual to individual spirituality",description:a,categoriesCollection:{items:[]},primaryImageOfPage:{name:"Moravian Star",creator:a,provider:"Museum of European Cultures, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin",license:"http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-nc-sa\u002F3.0\u002F",url:"http:\u002F\u002Fdata.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F2064108\u002FMuseu_ProvidedCHO_Museum_Europ_ischer_Kulturen__Staatliche_Museen_zu_Berlin_DE_MUS_018719_2394311",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5EvgQnvRlzHfQVQKLjIVZR\u002Fb1ed3ea80da3c8cac8b8097732cba355\u002FnIvlC96e2cpP.jpg",description:"White ornament in a shape of a start on the black background",contentType:c,width:o,height:2259}},hasPartCollection:{total:7,items:[{__typename:b,text:"Herrnhutian texts were largely designed to help readers or listeners develop their understanding and practice of Christianity. At meetings, hymns and music helped to provide a sense of ritual, and communal singing and the playing of musical instruments were encouraged. \n\nSymbolic communal meals and sermons were always accompanied by song, and singing lessons were organised. The songs were translated or composed by the German brethren. Over time, Latvian Herrnhutians also began to write lyrics and perhaps also some melodies. Their songs are characterised by a powerful upsurge of emotion, with emphasis placed on a closeness to Jesus, and especially the suffering of Jesus – 'the poetics of blood and wounds'. Many songs were improvised for the needs of specific situations and rituals. With their focus on inner experience and mysticism, baroque religious cultural traits also feature in these songs."},{__typename:e,name:"Herrnhutian hymnbooks",creator:p,provider:f,license:"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-nc-sa\u002F3.0\u002F",url:k,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdownloads.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F82miljQsicO11tnbw2WlS\u002Fe9d715768718a333d1045cbbfea53d1c\u002FReinis_Hofmanis_09.jpg",description:m,contentType:c,width:t,height:u}},{__typename:b,text:"Another type of Herrnhutian text was the homily or sermon. These were designed to move listeners and enable them to identify themselves in specific life situations through the mirror of Christian ethics. They were mainly intended to be read in public or recited from memory. The sermons were specifically addressed to groups of Herrnhutians, such as girls, boys, married couples and children. For example, sermons for children talked about Jesus’s childhood, so that children could identify with Jesus as a person. Sermon reciters were known as *sacītāju tētiņi* (speaker fathers). They interpreted the Bible and often enjoyed more popularity than local pastors. Not all pastors were happy with this."},{__typename:e,name:"Herrnutian sermon",creator:p,provider:f,license:k,url:a,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdownloads.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5oktyI7xI51vcxlrQx8255\u002F172d219344fd4d44dfc6d8fc45ec2e69\u002FReinis_Hofmanis_02.jpg",description:"Two hands holding two pages of faded paper with handwritten text on it.",contentType:c,width:t,height:u}},{__typename:b,text:"Devotional literature was not intended for ritual needs, but was intended to be read by individuals, looking after Christians’ spiritual growth and the reinforcement of their piety. It was precisely under the influence of this literature that the first generations of Latvian writers evolved, who then continued to narrate incidents from life around them in secular contexts. The concept of 'devotional' literature was originally formed from the idea of building the church as a congregation, gradually moving to individual Christians’ inner experience and the strengthening of faith. In German-speaking countries, from which the Vidzeme Unity of Brethren writers also drew their literary samples, devotional literature was the most read literature until the middle of the 18th century."},{__typename:e,name:"Those stories of those days the son of man was on earth - manuscript",creator:r,provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F72734",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FsqWrS7rQ3wLBvn5TCnPL3\u002Fe011f1d0ea52f1dfccdd71d030950937\u002FTie_stasti.jpg",description:s,contentType:c,width:A,height:1574}},{__typename:b,text:"One example of devotional literature is *Those stories of those days the son of man was on earth* – a Latvian translation of the retelling of the life of Jesus written by Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. This retelling of the events depicted in the New Testament was translated by the Dean of Cēsis, Heinrich Baumann. It begins with the story of the miraculous conception of John the Baptist and ends with the ascension of Jesus Christ to heaven after the events of Pentecost,. The version held by the National Library of Latvia - a manuscript book bound in brown leather covers - is a copy made in 1801. The handwriting of the unknown transcriber is very similar to that of Baumann, suggesting that the writer copied Baumann’s translation intentionally and with great care. \n\nOver time, religious boundaries were extended, and secular works were also written – for example, Ķikuļa Jēkabs wrote the protest letter in verse and J. Pulans and Jānis Ruģens wrote historical treatises on Latvian past. Writing marked out the path to Latvians' cultural emancipation.\n"}]},url:{name:l,params:{exhibition:j,chapter:F}},background:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5EvgQnvRlzHfQVQKLjIVZR\u002Fb1ed3ea80da3c8cac8b8097732cba355\u002FnIvlC96e2cpP.jpg?w=800&h=800&fm=jpg&fl=progressive&q=80",text:E},{name:G,identifier:H,headline:a,description:a,categoriesCollection:{items:[]},primaryImageOfPage:{name:"The life story of Spāriņa Anna",creator:"Anna Spāriņa (1787-1837)",provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fen\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F73121",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F6fKElCs10ThVVi3yvYyBPm\u002Fc26a31fce72c99ad428c750e0fc943eb\u002FAnnaSparina.jpg",description:m,contentType:c,width:1286,height:2003}},hasPartCollection:{total:n,items:[{__typename:b,text:"*Caurrunāšana*, which translates as talking through, was an interesting tradition – discussing one’s soul’s experiences and inner life either with another person or in public. In this tradition, a congregation member related their spiritual experience, while others listened. *Caurrunāšana* encouraged the habit of writing down life stories."},{__typename:e,name:"Fragment from the life story of an unknown Latvian Herrnhutian",creator:a,provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fen\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F73122",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F7l00NKvw7yVnzwxUieiyZg\u002F6ec58367124991a1e893da86c7e68417\u002FLatvian_Herrnhutian.jpg",description:"Black handwritten text on a faded piece of paper",contentType:c,width:1392,height:1163}},{__typename:b,text:"For Latvian Unity of Brethren, translations of life stories from German were the first to appear. The Latvians used these translations as examples to write their own life stories. All the biographies had a similar structure – there were very strong genre conventions. Firstly, writers introduced the childhood and lives of Herrnhutians before they joined the congregation, and then related their following religious awakening and feelings. Memories of childhood and adolescence had a special role in representing one’s first experience of sin. In this way, spiritual growth was presented as a transition from youth to maturity and the subsequent lifelong struggle with the temptations of worldly life."},{__typename:e,name:"Podiņa Mārtiņš’s life story ",creator:"Mārtiņš Podiņa (1728-1797)",provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F73118",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F7730EuSk8FLMfE5nbVAOHf\u002Fb3c8140bf05c765f9d1ff34834dac4ae\u002FM__rti_____Podi__a.jpg",description:"A faded pice of paper covered with handwritten text",contentType:c,width:1359,height:2139}},{__typename:b,text:"There are no autobiographies in which the path to salvation goes smoothly, without trials, temptations and falling into sin. Nevertheless, each autobiography is accompanied by a pious ideal and the idea of salvation. A person’s passing away was also of great importance in Herrnhutian life stories, depicted as a joyful event experienced in the presence of many congregation members. This was often accompanied by lyrics appropriate to the situation. Often, the person lying on their deathbed indicates what songs they want to hear while dying. \n\nThe schematic and predetermined structure of Herrnhutian life stories differentiate them from autobiography in our modern-day understanding. This is best seen in the ways in which writers’ individualities are revealed. Herrnhutians autobiographies typically have both an individual and collective orientation. The writing of autobiographies strengthened the identity of the Herrnhutian community, the sense of belonging to a wider group.\n"},{__typename:e,name:"The life story of Skangaļu Jēkabs",creator:p,provider:f,license:k,url:a,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002FMIGu5E7CCQlKhccy0AISR\u002F8a2cdd51275b4a2537ff05be6a172cef\u002FHerrnhutian_manuscripts_Reinis_Hofmanis.jpg",description:"Two hands holding a faded piece of paper with handwritten text",contentType:c,width:2500,height:1667}},{__typename:b,text:"Many Latvian Herrnhutians’ life stories contradict the generally accepted idea of the bleakness and suffering of peasant life resulting from the inhumane conditions of serfdom. \n\nOne such example is the life path of Skangaļu Jēkabs (also Jacob Skangel). Skangaļu Jēkabs’ biography is the world’s most widely distributed Latvian Herrnhutian life story, having been published in the *Beyträge zur Erbauung aus der Brüdergemeine* periodical in 1817, and consequently read in the Unity of Brethren diaspora and mission lands. The fragment of the manuscript stored in the National Library of Latvia is possibly an early copy of the Latvian translation, which passed from hand to hand among Vidzeme Herrnhutians. Only the first page of the manuscript has survived, torn and touched by many hands. German versions of the life-story manuscript are held by the Utrecht archive in the Netherlands and in the Unity Archive in Herrnhut. \n\nSkangaļu Jēkabs experienced his initial awakening feelings in Valmiera. In 1738, being a very fast runner, he was recruited, against his will, to be an errand boy at the court of Duke Ernst Johann Biron in St Petersburg. His good work was rewarded with a document freeing him from serfdom and he returned to Vidzeme around 1740. In 1745, he left his homeland to join the German brethren, stayed in various places in Germany and settled in the Unity of Brethren centre at Zeist in the Netherlands, where he founded his own company and became affluent, financially supporting friends and relatives in his homeland.\n"},{__typename:e,name:"The life story of English Herrnhutian Elizabeth Dennis",creator:"Elizabeth Dennis (1741-1822)",provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F72962",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F1frGHkcewULSMGUdJbqWET\u002Fb72fcf35876220c12840a1940fbc1580\u002FElizabeth-Dennis.jpg",description:I,contentType:c,width:1409,height:2048}},{__typename:b,text:"English, Danish and Swedish life stories were also disseminated as manuscripts. Reading them, Latvians found out about distant and foreign lands, which drew closer as they got to know their characters. The Latvian Herrnhutians felt a sense of unity with their religious brethren and sisters from other countries, whose life paths and inner experiences were to a certain extent comparable to their own."}]},url:{name:l,params:{exhibition:j,chapter:H}},background:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F6fKElCs10ThVVi3yvYyBPm\u002Fc26a31fce72c99ad428c750e0fc943eb\u002FAnnaSparina.jpg?w=800&h=800&fm=jpg&fl=progressive&q=80",text:G},{name:J,identifier:K,headline:a,description:a,categoriesCollection:{items:[]},primaryImageOfPage:{name:"Herrnhutian sermon",creator:"Pēteris Bračs (1816-1892)",provider:f,license:D,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fen\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F110267",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F3sUx6WkfPvE0UA0hm6Yh9I\u002Fdbcc61855092dd0add6b9b914d6041e7\u002FZiemas-svetkos.jpg",description:I,contentType:c,width:1408,height:1373}},hasPartCollection:{total:n,items:[{__typename:b,text:"Manuscripts related to the activities of the Unity of Brethren have been deposited in the memory institutions of many countries. The [Unity Archives in Herrnhut](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.unitaetsarchiv.de\u002F) play a coordinating role in identifying these manuscripts. The Archives organise conferences and publish the *Unitas Fratrum* collection of research papers.\n\nCreators of Herrnhutian manuscripts found it important to convey the content of their specific message to readers and listeners. The names of texts’ authors, translators and transcribers were most often not recorded. The texts' partial anonymity still pose many puzzles for researchers. Writers can only be identified in cases where other documents written by the same hand are found. Researchers continue to work with the Herrnhutian manuscripts, deciphering texts, identifying writers and the originals of translations, interpreting the contexts of the era. The stories, songs and historical pieces translated into Latvian are often compilations of several treatises, the identification of which requires extensive knowledge of the history of European literature."},{__typename:e,name:"Exhibition 'Awakening: the Story of the Herrnhutians' at the National Library of Latvia",creator:L,provider:f,license:k,url:a,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F1aQiLphbPXKjpySXb9nsYO\u002Fa433c9c06bc1414ad4946cdad6e8aa09\u002FMadaraGritane__2_.jpg",description:m,contentType:c,width:o,height:q}},{__typename:b,text:"Systematic and focused work on building the National Library of Latvia collection of Herrnhutian manuscripts began in the 1960s, when a significant number of manuscripts reached the Rare Book and Manuscript Department. Donated manuscripts continue to augment the Library’s collection – even at the beginning of the 21st century - with old papers found in the attics of country houses turning out to belong to the Herrnhutian writing tradition. Latvian Herrnhutians’ manuscripts are also held by other repositories, including the Unity Archives in Herrnhut, Germany.\n\nIn 1987, Aleksejs Apīnis – long-time head of the Rare Book and Manuscript Department of the National Library of Latvia – wrote a book *Without asking for permission: Latvian manuscript literature in the 18th and 19th centuries*, in which he introduced readers to the world of Herrnhutian manuscripts and laid the foundations for research into it. For the first time, Latvian Herrnhutians’ texts were considered a literary phenomenon and were included in Latvian literary history as its oldest national component. In turn, in 2000, historian Gvido Straube wrote the book *A Diary of the Latvian Unity of Brethren: (latest copy) or a History of the Herrnhutian Unity of Brethren in Latvia* – the most extensive and significant study of the Herrnhutian movement in Latvia."},{__typename:e,name:"Exhibition 'Awakening: the Story of the Herrnhutians'",creator:L,provider:f,license:k,url:a,image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F5bV5TXvapwQExt24jR8gxC\u002F0646ea40797749f8781770830afd258f\u002FMadaraGritane.jpg",description:m,contentType:c,width:o,height:q}},{__typename:b,text:"In 2022, the National Library of Latvia mounted an exhibition *Awakening: the Story of the Herrnhutians*, displaying the most significant manuscripts from the Library's collection. The exhibition was a reminder that the National Library of Latvia collection of Herrnhutian manuscripts is included in the Latvian national list of the UNESCO Memory of the World programme."},{__typename:e,name:"Story of the Old Brethren (manuscript)",creator:"Pēteris Baidiņš",provider:f,license:h,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fitem\u002F96\u002F78192",image:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F3olB1rfyMgXNrw68wzkLmZ\u002Fa6f7548c39e03034f7bbe14b60cd565a\u002FStory_of_the_Old_Brethren.jpg",description:"Handwritten text on the faded piece of paper",contentType:c,width:2060,height:2479}},{__typename:b,text:"The National Library of Latvia has digitised all of the Herrnhutian manuscripts in its collection, creating the Unity of Brethren Manuscripts virtual collection in 2017. These items are also available on the Europeana website."},{__typename:"Link",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.europeana.eu\u002Fsearch?query=europeana_collectionName%3A%2296_RoL_NLLatvia_Collection_72393%22",text:"Discover Herrnhutian manuscripts on Europeana"},{__typename:b,text:"The collection enables audiences to not only find out about Herrnhutian manuscripts, but also about those writers who have been identified, as well as the places where these manuscripts were created or stored before they came into the Library's collection. Many genealogy researchers discover that their forebears have religious roots in the Herrnhutian movement and this digital collection stimulates their interest in the intellectual life of their ancestors."}]},url:{name:l,params:{exhibition:j,chapter:K}},background:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.ctfassets.net\u002Fi01duvb6kq77\u002F3sUx6WkfPvE0UA0hm6Yh9I\u002Fdbcc61855092dd0add6b9b914d6041e7\u002FZiemas-svetkos.jpg?w=800&h=800&fm=jpg&fl=progressive&q=80",text:J}],credits:"The online exhibition *Herrnhutian manuscripts: writing from the people* was developed at the National Library of Latvia and was created as part of the Erasmus+ programme project The Future of Cultural Heritage in Modern Europe with the support of the 500 years of Latvian Books programme.\n\n__Curators:__ \n\nPauls Daija, National Library of Latvia \n\nBeata Paškevica, National Library of Latvia \n\n__Editors:__ \n\nBeth Daley, Europeana Foundation\n\nDouglas McCarthy, Europeana Foundation\n\nAdrian Murphy, Europeana 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