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class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Archaeology" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Archeology&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">Archeology</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Archaeology (disambiguation)">Archaeology (disambiguation)</a>.</div> Archaeology or archeology<a href="#cite_note-spelling-1">[a]</a> is the study of human activity through the recovery and <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_record" title="Archaeological record">archaeological record</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biofact_(archaeology)" title="Biofact (archaeology)">biofacts</a> or ecofacts, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">sites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">cultural landscapes</a>. Archaeology can be considered both a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> It is usually considered an independent <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, but may also be classified as part of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> (in North America – the <a href="/wiki/Four-field_approach" title="Four-field approach">four-field approach</a>), <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolina-Pano-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dolina-Pano-3.jpg/220px-Dolina-Pano-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="382" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dolina-Pano-3.jpg/330px-Dolina-Pano-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dolina-Pano-3.jpg/440px-Dolina-Pano-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2607"></a><figcaption>Excavations at <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site_of_Atapuerca" title="Archaeological site of Atapuerca">Atapuerca</a>, an archaeological site in Spain.</figcaption></figure> Archaeologists study human <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> and history, from the development of the first <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lomekwi" title="Lomekwi">Lomekwi</a> in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> Archaeology is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, which is the study of <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> until the advent of literacy in societies around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991-2">[1]</a> Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding <a href="/wiki/Culture_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture history">culture history</a> to reconstructing past <a href="/wiki/Lifeway" title="Lifeway">lifeways</a> to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> Derived from Greek, the term archaeology means "the study of ancient history".<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> The discipline involves <a href="/wiki/Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">surveying</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">excavation</a>, and eventually <a href="/wiki/Post_excavation" class="mw-redirect" title="Post excavation">analysis</a> of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of <a href="/wiki/Antiquarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarianism">antiquarianism</a> in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclop%C3%A9die_d'histoire_num%C3%A9rique_de_l'Europe-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including <a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">maritime archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">feminist archaeology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">archaeoastronomy</a>, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">pseudoarchaeology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting" title="Archaeological looting">looting</a> of artifacts,<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#First_instances_of_archaeology">1.1 First instances of archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Antiquarians">1.2 Antiquarians</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#First_excavations">1.3 First excavations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Development_of_archaeological_method">1.4 Development of archaeological method</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Purpose">2 Purpose</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Theory">2.1 Theory</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Methods">3 Methods</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Remote_sensing">3.1 Remote sensing</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Field_survey">3.2 Field survey</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Excavation">3.3 Excavation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Analysis">3.4 Analysis</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Subfields">4 Subfields</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Historical_archaeology">4.1 Historical archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Ethnoarchaeology">4.2 Ethnoarchaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Experimental_archaeology">4.3 Experimental archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Archaeometry">4.4 Archaeometry</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Digital_archaeology">4.5 Digital archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Cultural_resources_management">4.6 Cultural resources management</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Protection">5 Protection</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Popular_views_of_archaeology">6 Popular views of archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Current_issues_and_controversy">7 Current issues and controversy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Public_archaeology">7.1 Public archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Pseudoarchaeology">7.2 Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Looting">7.3 Looting</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Descendant_peoples">7.4 Descendant peoples</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Repatriation">7.4.1 Repatriation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#African_diaspora_archaeology">7.5 African diaspora archaeology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Climate_change_and_archaeology">7.6 Climate change and archaeology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#AI_in_archaeology">7.6.1 AI in archaeology</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#References">10 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Bibliography">11 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Further_reading">12 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History of archaeology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_instances_of_archaeology">First instances of archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First instances of archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Excavations of Nabonidus (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 BC)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:257px;max-width:257px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg/255px-Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg" decoding="async" width="255" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="505"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 255px;height: 161px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg/255px-Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="255" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg/383px-Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg/510px-Nabonidus_cylinder_sippar_bm1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Cylinders_of_Nabonidus" title="Cylinders of Nabonidus">Nabonidus cylinder from Sippar</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_(extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg/129px-Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="706"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 129px;height: 161px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg/129px-Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="129" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg/194px-Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg/258px-Nabonidus_cylinder_from_Sippar_%28extract_about_Naram-Sin_and_Sargon%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Extract describing the excavation</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a> account of the excavation of a foundation deposit belonging to <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin of Akkad</a> (ruled <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2200 BC), by king <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> (ruled <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 BC).<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a></div></div></div></div> In <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a>, a foundation deposit of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a> (ruled <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2200 BC) was discovered and analysed by king <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 BC, who is thus known as the first archaeologist.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Šamaš</a> the sun god, the warrior goddess <a href="/wiki/Annunitum" title="Annunitum">Anunitu</a> (both located in <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<a href="#cite_note-hirst-16">[15]</a> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-hirst-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquarians">Antiquarians</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Antiquarians" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">History of Chinese archaeology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg/220px-Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1948" data-file-height="1436"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 162px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg/220px-Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg/330px-Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg/440px-Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Archaeologists excavating in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg/220px-Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 282px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg/220px-Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="282" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg/330px-Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg/440px-Ciriaco_d%27Ancona_di_Benozzo_Gozzoli.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cyriacus_of_Ancona" title="Cyriacus of Ancona">Cyriacus of Ancona</a> (fresco by <a href="/wiki/Benozzo_Gozzoli" title="Benozzo Gozzoli">Benozzo Gozzoli</a>)</figcaption></figure> The science of archaeology (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "ancient" and -λογία, -logia, "<a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logy</a>")<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarianism</a>. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th century antiquary, Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Colt_Hoare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Colt Hoare">Richard Colt Hoare</a>: "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> took place during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment period</a> in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279), figures such as <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mingcheng" title="Zhao Mingcheng">Zhao Mingcheng</a> established the tradition of Chinese <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a> by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Chinese bronze inscriptions</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> periods.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trigger-2006-21">[20]</a>(p74)<a href="#cite_note-Clunas-2004-22">[21]</a>(p95) In <a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">his book</a> published in 1088, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Such antiquarian pursuits waned after the Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, but were always considered a branch of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> rather than a separate discipline of archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-Trigger-2006-21">[20]</a>(pp74–76)<a href="#cite_note-Clunas-2004-22">[21]</a>(p97) In <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Europe">Renaissance Europe</a>, philosophical interest in the remains of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cyriacus_of_Ancona" title="Cyriacus of Ancona">Cyriacus of Ancona</a> was a restlessly itinerant Italian <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarian</a> who came from a prominent family of merchants in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Ancona</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">maritime republic</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>. He was called by his contemporaries pater antiquitatis ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": "Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in the fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology."<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> He traveled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphics">hieroglyphics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, Commentaria (in six volumes). <a href="/wiki/Flavio_Biondo" title="Flavio Biondo">Flavio Biondo</a>, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and <a href="/wiki/Topography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Topography of ancient Rome">topography of ancient Rome</a> in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Antiquarians of the 16th century, including <a href="/wiki/John_Leland_(antiquary)" title="John Leland (antiquary)">John Leland</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Camden" title="William Camden">William Camden</a>, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> The <a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a> first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as the usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Spon" title="Jacob Spon">Jacob Spon</a> who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">transcriptions of Roman inscriptions</a> which he had gleaned over the years of his travels, entitled Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis. Twelfth-century Indian scholar <a href="/wiki/Kalhana" title="Kalhana">Kalhana</a>'s writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1150 and is described as one of the first history books of India.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-renfrew-31">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_excavations">First excavations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First excavations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonehenge_1877.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="old photograph of stonehenge with toppled stones" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stonehenge_1877.JPG/250px-Stonehenge_1877.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="349"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stonehenge_1877.JPG/250px-Stonehenge_1877.JPG" data-alt="old photograph of stonehenge with toppled stones" data-width="250" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stonehenge_1877.JPG/375px-Stonehenge_1877.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stonehenge_1877.JPG/500px-Stonehenge_1877.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An early photograph of <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> taken July 1877</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_(Raphael_Mengs_after_1755).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg/250px-Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="325" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2885" data-file-height="3753"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 325px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg/250px-Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="325" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg/375px-Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg/500px-Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_%28Raphael_Mengs_after_1755%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Johann Joachim Winckelmann (Raphael Mengs after 1755)</figcaption></figure> One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalithic monuments</a> in England. <a href="/wiki/John_Aubrey" title="John Aubrey">John Aubrey</a> (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalithic</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Ancient_monument" title="Ancient monument">field monuments</a> in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Excavations were also carried out by the Spanish military engineer <a href="/wiki/Roque_Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_Alcubierre" title="Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre">Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre</a> in the ancient towns of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, both of which had been covered by ash during the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_AD_79" class="mw-redirect" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79">Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79</a>. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescos</a>, had a big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Stratification_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratification (archaeology)">stratification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_context" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological context">context</a> were overlooked.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> In the mid-18th century, the German <a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a> lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> Then, he visited the archaeological excavations being conducted at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">history of art</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of <a href="/wiki/Modern_archaeology" title="Modern archaeology">modern archaeology</a>"<a href="#cite_note-b584-38">[37]</a> and the father of the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_archaeological_method">Development of archaeological method</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development of archaeological method" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Both_Lozenges.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Both_Lozenges.jpg/200px-Both_Lozenges.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="712"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Both_Lozenges.jpg/200px-Both_Lozenges.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Both_Lozenges.jpg/300px-Both_Lozenges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Both_Lozenges.jpg/400px-Both_Lozenges.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Artifacts discovered at the 1808 <a href="/wiki/Bush_Barrow" title="Bush Barrow">Bush Barrow</a> excavation by Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Colt_Hoare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Colt Hoare">Richard Colt Hoare</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Cunnington" title="William Cunnington">William Cunnington</a>.</figcaption></figure> The father of archaeological excavation was <a href="/wiki/William_Cunnington" title="William Cunnington">William Cunnington</a> (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in <a href="/wiki/Wiltshire" title="Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a> from around 1798,<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">barrows</a>, and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> Future <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> also did his own excavations in 1784 using the <a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">trench method</a>, on several <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> burial mounds in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>. His excavations were prompted by the <a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">"Moundbuilders" question</a>; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">paleontological</a> work of scholars like <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>. The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistorical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Boucher_de_Perthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Boucher de Perthes">Jacques Boucher de Perthes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_J%C3%BCrgensen_Thomsen" title="Christian Jürgensen Thomsen">Christian Jürgensen Thomsen</a> began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lootsi_8,_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg/220px-Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg/220px-Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg/330px-Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg/440px-Lootsi_8%2C_R68.4_karv2.1_200x.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>This photo is made of a single goat hair from a textile found on the 14th century ship in Tallinn, Estonia. Photo was done in archaeology department (University of Tartu) by microscope Olympus BX51, magnification 200x</figcaption></figure> A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He <a href="/wiki/Pitt_Rivers_Museum" title="Pitt Rivers Museum">arranged his artifacts</a> by type or "<a href="/wiki/Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">Typology (archaeology)</a>", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glamilders,_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa,_Finland_(5228289913)_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg/220px-Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="840"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg/220px-Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg/330px-Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg/440px-Glamilders%2C_%C3%85land_Ahvenanmaa%2C_Finland_%285228289913%29_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Archaeological excavation of a Stone Age settlement at Glamilders in Långbergsöda village, <a href="/wiki/Saltvik" title="Saltvik">Saltvik</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land" title="Åland">Åland</a>, in 1906.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/William_Flinders_Petrie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Flinders Petrie">William Flinders Petrie</a> is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the <a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings</a>, which revolutionized the chronological basis of <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid</a> in Egypt during the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including <a href="/wiki/Howard_Carter" title="Howard Carter">Howard Carter</a> who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west,_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="earthern fort with many walls" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg/220px-Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="384"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg/220px-Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg" data-alt="earthern fort with many walls" data-width="220" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg/330px-Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg/440px-Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west%2C_1937.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a> pioneered <a href="/wiki/Wheeler-Kenyon_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeler-Kenyon method">systematic excavation</a> in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at <a href="/wiki/Maiden_Castle,_Dorset" title="Maiden Castle, Dorset">Maiden Castle, Dorset</a>, in October 1937.</figcaption></figure> The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of <a href="/wiki/Hissarlik" class="mw-redirect" title="Hissarlik">Hissarlik</a>, on the site of ancient <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a>, carried out by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Calvert" title="Frank Calvert">Frank Calvert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld" title="Wilhelm Dörpfeld">Wilhelm Dörpfeld</a> in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> Meanwhile, the work of Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a> at <a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a>, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the <a href="/wiki/Wheeler-Kenyon_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeler-Kenyon method">grid system of excavation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> which was further improved by his student <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Kenyon" title="Kathleen Kenyon">Kathleen Kenyon</a>. Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when <a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">maritime archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_archaeology" title="Urban archaeology">urban archaeology</a> became more prevalent and <a href="/wiki/Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">rescue archaeology</a> was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991#5-49">[48]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Purpose" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg/220px-Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5928" data-file-height="4912"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 182px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg/220px-Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="182" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg/330px-Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg/440px-Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cast of the skull of the <a href="/wiki/Taung_child" class="mw-redirect" title="Taung child">Taung child</a>, uncovered in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. The Child was an infant of the <a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a> species, an early form of <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominin</a></figcaption></figure> The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human race</a>. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">writing</a>, thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first stone tools are found – <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">The Oldowan Industry</a>. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolution of humanity</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period, when the <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominins</a> developed from the <a href="/wiki/Australopithecines" class="mw-redirect" title="Australopithecines">australopithecines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and eventually into modern <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a>. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.<a href="#cite_note-ncl-50">[49]</a> However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">historical archaeology</a>. For many literate cultures, such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> classes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> of court or temple. The literacy of <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocrats</a> has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">libraries</a> and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as <a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">sampling bias</a> and differential preservation.<a href="#cite_note-archaeological-51">[50]</a> Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a>). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a>). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory">Theory</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></div> There is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of <a href="/wiki/Cultural-history_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural-history archaeology">cultural-historical archaeology</a>, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">historical particularism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a> In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamericans</a> etc.) followed the <a href="/wiki/Direct_historical_approach" title="Direct historical approach">direct historical approach</a>, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a> In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kent_Flannery" title="Kent Flannery">Kent Flannery</a> arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-Binford1962-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Flannery1967-54">[53]</a> They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> testing and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> very important parts of what became known as <a href="/wiki/Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual archaeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a> In the 1980s, a new <a href="/wiki/Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a> movement arose led by the British archaeologists <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shanks_(archaeologist)" title="Michael Shanks (archaeologist)">Michael Shanks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shanks_Tilley1987-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks_Tilley1988-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks1991-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks1993-58">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Tilley" title="Christopher Tilley">Christopher Tilley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1993-59">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Miller_(anthropologist)" title="Daniel Miller (anthropologist)">Daniel Miller</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Miller_Tilley1984-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller_etal1989-61">[60]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ian_Hodder" title="Ian Hodder">Ian Hodder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hodder1982-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1985-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1987-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1990-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1991-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1992-67">[66]</a> which has become known as <a href="/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">post-processual archaeology</a>. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical <a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">reflexivity</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_processualism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical processualism (page does not exist)">historical processualism</a>, has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.<a href="#cite_note-Pauketat2001-68">[67]</a> Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">systems theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">neo-evolutionary thought</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">agency theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_archaeology" title="Cognitive archaeology">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">gender-based</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">feminist archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">queer theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial thoughts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materiality_(social_sciences_and_humanities)" title="Materiality (social sciences and humanities)">materiality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">posthumanism</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methods" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/220px--Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="102" data-mwtitle="Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"' data-width="1920" data-height="1080"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.360p.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"' data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm/Indusketa_arkeologikoa.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360"></source></video><figcaption>Video showing the different works in an archaeological recovery and analysis</figcaption></figure> An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological survey">surveyed</a> to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.<a href="#cite_note-renfrew-31">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Remote sensing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Before actually starting to dig in a location, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">remote sensing</a> can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Satellite imagery</a> is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments: <ul><li>Lidar: <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a> (light detection and ranging) uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.</li> <li>Laser altimeter: A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></li> <li>Drones: Archaeologists around the world use <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drones</a> to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> Drones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone <a href="/wiki/Blimp" title="Blimp">blimp</a>, employing open source software.<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley."<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> In September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg (11 lb) were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of <a href="/wiki/Aphrodisias" title="Aphrodisias">Aphrodisias</a>. The data are being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Field_survey">Field survey</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Field survey" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological survey">Archaeological survey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_(blue)_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_(yellow).webp" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp/220px-Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1380" data-file-height="976"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp/220px-Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp.png" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp/330px-Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp/440px-Distribution_of_surveyed_areas_%28blue%29_within_the_southern_Mesopotamian_floodplains_%28yellow%29.webp.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Satellite image of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (with the Persian Gulf in the lower right corner) indicating the areas that have been subjected to regional surveys (in blue) over the past decades</figcaption></figure> The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and <a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">middens</a>, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible <a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">features</a> there. <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Willey" title="Gordon Willey">Gordon Willey</a> pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the <a href="/wiki/Viru_Valley" title="Viru Valley">Viru Valley</a> of coastal <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Willey1953-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Willey1968-74">[73]</a> and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.<a href="#cite_note-Billmand_Feinman1999-75">[74]</a> Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">sampling</a> methods.)<a href="#cite_note-Redman1974-76">[75]</a> As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as <a href="/wiki/Human_settlement" title="Human settlement">settlement patterns</a> and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a>, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb,_eastern_Jordan,_May_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg/220px-Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="1444"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 275px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg/220px-Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="275" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg/330px-Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg/440px-Archaeological_survey_of_Kaf_al-Kalb%2C_eastern_Jordan%2C_May_2015.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Archaeologists surveying a site in the <a href="/wiki/Harrat_al-Sham" title="Harrat al-Sham">Harrat al-Sham</a>, eastern Jordan</figcaption></figure> The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Auger_(drill)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auger (drill)">augers</a>, corers, and <a href="/wiki/Shovel_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Shovel test">shovel test</a> pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed <a href="/wiki/Sterile_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterile deposit">sterile</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg/220px-Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1006"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 221px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg/220px-Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="221" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg/330px-Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg/440px-Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Inverted kite aerial photo of an excavation of a Roman building at Nesley near Tetbury in Gloucestershire.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Aerial_survey" title="Aerial survey">Aerial survey</a> is conducted using <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a> attached to <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloons</a>, <a href="/wiki/UAVs" class="mw-redirect" title="UAVs">UAVs</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Kite" title="Kite">Kites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> growing above a buried human-made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as <a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">middens</a>) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grain</a>, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar" title="Ground-penetrating radar">ground-penetrating radar</a> wavelengths, <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermography" title="Thermography">thermography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">Geophysical survey</a> can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">Magnetometers</a> detect minute deviations in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> artifacts, <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a>, some types of <a href="/wiki/Stone_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone structures">stone structures</a>, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a> of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of <a href="/wiki/Metal_detector" title="Metal detector">metal detectors</a> to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Portable_Antiquities_Scheme" title="Portable Antiquities Scheme">Portable Antiquities Scheme</a>. Regional survey in <a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">underwater archaeology</a> uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, <a href="/wiki/Side-scan_sonar" title="Side-scan sonar">side-scan sonar</a>, or sub-bottom sonar.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excavation">Excavation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Excavation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Archaeological excavation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG/220px-Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG/220px-Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG/330px-Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG/440px-Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Excavations at the 3800-year-old <a href="/wiki/Edgewater_Park_Site" title="Edgewater Park Site">Edgewater Park Site</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vill_excavation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vill_excavation.jpg/170px-Vill_excavation.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vill_excavation.jpg/170px-Vill_excavation.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vill_excavation.jpg/255px-Vill_excavation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vill_excavation.jpg/340px-Vill_excavation.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Archaeological excavation that discovered prehistoric caves in <a href="/wiki/Vill" title="Vill">Vill</a> (<a href="/wiki/Innsbruck" title="Innsbruck">Innsbruck</a>), <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sifting_for_POW_remains,_Wake_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg/220px-Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2039"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg/220px-Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg/330px-Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg/440px-Sifting_for_POW_remains%2C_Wake_Island.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An archaeologist sifting for <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POW</a> remains on <a href="/wiki/Wake_Island" title="Wake Island">Wake Island</a>.</figcaption></figure> Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their <a href="/wiki/Provenance" title="Provenance">provenance</a> or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see <a href="/wiki/Harris_matrix#Harris'_laws_of_archaeological_stratigraphy" title="Harris matrix">Primary Laws of Archaeology</a>). Likewise, their <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological association">association</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Relationship_(archaeology)" title="Relationship (archaeology)">relationship</a> with nearby objects and <a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">features</a>, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> and features were likely used together and which may be from different <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological phase">phases</a> of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Sampling</a> is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as <a href="/wiki/Backhoe" title="Backhoe">backhoes</a> (<a href="/wiki/J._C._Bamford" class="mw-redirect" title="J. C. Bamford">JCBs</a>), is used in excavation, especially to remove the <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> (<a href="/wiki/Overburden" title="Overburden">overburden</a>), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with <a href="/wiki/Trowel" title="Trowel">trowels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">hoes</a> to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological plan">site plan</a> and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological natural">natural subsoil</a> are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological section">archaeological section</a> for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the <a href="/wiki/Cut_(archaeology)" title="Cut (archaeology)">cut</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fill_(archaeology)" title="Fill (archaeology)">fill</a>. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and <a href="/wiki/Single_context_recording" title="Single context recording">recording</a> sheets are filled in describing the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_context" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological context">context</a> of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Analysis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation analysis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LuzonensisMolars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/220px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2208" data-file-height="1242"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/220px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/330px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/440px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Five of the seven known fossil teeth of <a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">Homo luzonensis</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Callao_Cave" title="Callao Cave">Callao Cave</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.</figcaption></figure> Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">post-excavation analysis</a>, and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published. At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them <a href="/wiki/Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">typologically</a> and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">archaeological science</a>, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed using the methods of <a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">zooarchaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">paleoethnobotany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotopes">stable isotopes</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> while any texts can usually be <a href="/wiki/Deciphering" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciphering">deciphered</a>. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Subfields" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Subfields of archaeology</a></div> As with most <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> disciplines, there are a very large number of <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_sub-disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological sub-disciplines">archaeological sub-disciplines</a> characterized by a specific method or type of material (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">lithic analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Music (archaeology)">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">archaeobotany</a>), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_archaeology" title="Islamic archaeology">Islamic archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval archaeology</a>), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">landscape archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">battlefield archaeology</a>), or a specific <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinology</a>).<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_archaeology">Historical archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Historical archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical archaeology</a></div> Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing and deals with objects and issues from the past. In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>, archaeologists have explored the illicit burial of unbaptized children in medieval texts and cemeteries.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> In downtown <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the <a href="/wiki/African_Burial_Ground_National_Monument" title="African Burial Ground National Monument">African Burial Ground</a>. When remnants of the <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a> <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Line" title="Siegfried Line">Siegfried Line</a> were being destroyed, emergency archaeological digs took place whenever any part of the line was removed, to further scientific knowledge and reveal details of the line's construction. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ethnoarchaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a> is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record.<a href="#cite_note-Gould1971a-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould1971b-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1972-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1977-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould_Yellen1987-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1991-89">[88]</a> The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches.<a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sillet_et_al2006-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schott_Sillitoe2005-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ogundele2005-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-kuznar2001-93">[92]</a> Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behaviour. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_archaeology">Experimental archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Experimental archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental archaeology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental archaeology</a> represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record.<a href="#cite_note-Ascher1961-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saraydar_Shimada1971-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saraydar_Shimada1973-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gifford-Gonzalez_et_al1985-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frison1989-98">[97]</a> In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemologies</a>, the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeometry">Archaeometry</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Archaeometry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeological science</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Archaeometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeometry">Archaeometry</a> aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis.<a href="#cite_note-Glasscock_et_al1994-99">[98]</a> Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> as well as computer-based tools such as <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information system</a> technology.<a href="#cite_note-GIS,_critique,_representation_and_beyond-100">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth elements">Rare earth elements</a> patterns may also be used.<a href="#cite_note-An_anthropic_soil_transformation_fingerprinted_by_REY_patterns-101">[100]</a> A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.<a href="#cite_note-mit-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_archaeology">Digital archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Digital archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital archeology">Digital archeology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual archaeology</a></div> Digital Archeology is an interdiscplinary field that applies <a href="/wiki/Information_technology_(IT)" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technology (IT)">information technology (IT)</a>, digital tools, and data management techniques to archaeology. It includes <a href="/wiki/Virtual_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual archeology">virtual archeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational archeology">computational archeology</a>. Examples of digital archaeology include the use of <a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">computer graphics</a> to create virtual <a href="/wiki/3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D models</a> of sites, like the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-virt-103">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a> and digital <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographical</a> models are combined with <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> calculations to check if structures, such as pillars, align with astronomical events like the sun's position at a <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-virt-103">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent-based modelling">Agent-based modelling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulation</a> are used to understand past social dynamics and outcomes. <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a> is applied to large collections of archaeological 'grey literature'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_resources_management">Cultural resources management</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cultural resources management" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural resources management">Cultural resources management</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a>. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2014) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within <a href="/wiki/Cultural_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural resources management">Cultural resources management</a> (CRM), also called <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage_management" title="Cultural heritage management">Cultural heritage management</a> (CHM) in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-The_University_of_Exeter_-_SoGAER_-_Department_of_Archaeology-104">[103]</a> CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites that are threatened by development. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a> as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Preservation_Act" title="National Historic Preservation Act">National Historic Preservation Act</a> (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a>. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990, <a href="/wiki/PPG_16" title="PPG 16">PPG 16</a><a href="#cite_note-Planning_Policy_Guidance_16:_Archaeology_and_planning_-_Planning,_building_and_the_environment_-_Communities_and_Local_Government-105">[104]</a> has required planners to consider archaeology as a <a href="/wiki/Material_consideration" title="Material consideration">material consideration</a> in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the <a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">developer's expense</a>. In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Culture,_Media_and_Sport" title="Department for Culture, Media and Sport">Department for Culture, Media and Sport</a><a href="#cite_note-Department_for_Culture_Media_and_Sport_-_historic_environment-106">[105]</a> in association with <a href="/wiki/English_Heritage" title="English Heritage">English Heritage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-English_Heritage_-_Stonehenge_&_the_History_of_England:_English_Heritage-107">[106]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, the same responsibilities lie with <a href="/wiki/Historic_Scotland" title="Historic Scotland">Historic Scotland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cadw" title="Cadw">Cadw</a><a href="#cite_note-Cadw-109">[108]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Environment_Agency" title="Northern Ireland Environment Agency">Northern Ireland Environment Agency</a><a href="#cite_note-Built_Environment-110">[109]</a> respectively. In France, the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_du_patrimoine" title="Institut national du patrimoine">Institut national du patrimoine</a> (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage) trains curators specialized in archaeology. Their mission is to enhance the objects discovered. The <a href="/wiki/Curator" title="Curator">curator</a> is the link between scientific knowledge, administrative regulations, heritage objects and the public. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard of for the agency responsible for the construction to choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate <a href="/wiki/State_Historic_Preservation_Office" title="State Historic Preservation Office">State Historic Preservation Office</a> (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace. The annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of <a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Postdoctoral">post-doc</a>, temporary, and non-tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is disproportionate. Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds",<a href="#cite_note-Flannery1982-111">[110]</a> has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Protection">Protection</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Protection" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg/220px-Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg/220px-Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg/330px-Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg/440px-Blue_Shield_Fact_Finding_Mission_Libyen.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, on a <a href="/wiki/Blue_Shield_International" title="Blue Shield International">Blue Shield International</a> fact-finding mission in Libya</figcaption></figure> The protection of archaeological finds for the public from catastrophes, wars and armed conflicts is increasingly being implemented internationally. This happens on the one hand through international agreements and on the other hand through organizations that monitor or enforce protection. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_Shield_International" title="Blue Shield International">Blue Shield International</a> deal with the protection of cultural heritage and thus also archaeological sites. This also applies to the integration of <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">United Nations peacekeeping</a>. Blue Shield International has undertaken various fact-finding missions in recent years to protect archaeological sites during the wars in Libya, Syria, Egypt and Lebanon. The importance of archaeological finds for identity, tourism and sustainable economic growth is repeatedly emphasized internationally.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> The President of Blue Shield International, <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, said during a cultural property protection mission in Lebanon in April 2019 with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland."<a href="#cite_note-unifil.unmissions.org-118">[117]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Popular_views_of_archaeology">Popular views of archaeology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Popular views of archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beit_shean1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Beit_shean1.jpg/220px-Beit_shean1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="297"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 136px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Beit_shean1.jpg/220px-Beit_shean1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Beit_shean1.jpg/330px-Beit_shean1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Beit_shean1.jpg/440px-Beit_shean1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Extensive excavations at <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Beit She'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG/220px-Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG/220px-Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG/330px-Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG/440px-Exhibition_in_a_multi-storey_car_park_on_archological_discoveries_having_been_made_during_construction.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Permanent exhibition in a German <a href="/wiki/Multi-storey_car_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-storey car park">multi-storey car park</a>, explaining the archaeological discoveries made during the construction of this building</figcaption></figure> Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities and was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This general tendency laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. Many of the public view archaeology as something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation",<a href="#cite_note-McGeough_2006_174%E2%80%93185-119">[118]</a> and as a hobby more than a job in the scientific community. Cinema audiences form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted",<a href="#cite_note-McGeough_2006_174%E2%80%93185-119">[118]</a> and is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. The modern depiction of archaeology has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is. Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kings" title="Valley of the Kings">Valley of the Kings</a>, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavations</a>, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology".<a href="#cite_note-Romancing_the_Past-Archaeology-120">[119]</a> Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of for whom they are working is often discussed.<a href="#cite_note-Denning2004-121">[120]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Current_issues_and_controversy">Current issues and controversy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Current issues and controversy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_archaeology">Public archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Public archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-Anthropological_Studies_Center_(ASC)-122">[121]</a> They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists, and making reports and publications accessible outside of academia.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats. One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. Archaeologists increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, <a href="/wiki/US_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Forest Service">Forest Service</a> (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.<a href="#cite_note-rapidcityjournal-125">[124]</a> Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> integrated a one-hour HD documentary,<a href="#cite_note-Mystery_Mardi_Gras_Shipwreck-127">[126]</a> short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live <a href="/wiki/Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">underwater video</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a> Shipwreck Project was <a href="/wiki/Webcast" title="Webcast">webcast</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> as a part of the QAR DiveLive<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSoutherlyGillman-Bryan2009" class="citation conference cs1">Southerly, C.; Gillman-Bryan, J. (19 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219004153/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760">Diving on the Queen Anne's Revenge</a>. The American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760">the original</a> on 19 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Diving+on+the+Queen+Anne%27s+Revenge&rft.pub=The+American+Academy+of+Underwater+Sciences&rft.date=2009-02-19&rft.aulast=Southerly&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Gillman-Bryan%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.rubicon-foundation.org%2F4760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> Created and co-produced by <a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a> and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies used by the underwater archaeology team.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as <a href="/wiki/Time_Team" title="Time Team">Time Team</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meet_the_Ancestors" title="Meet the Ancestors">Meet the Ancestors</a> have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did,<a href="#cite_note-internet-131">[130]</a> and many local archaeological organizations operate within the <a href="/wiki/Community_archaeology" title="Community archaeology">Community archaeology</a> framework<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary <a href="/wiki/Health_and_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Health and safety">health and safety</a> and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">building site</a> with tight deadlines. Certain charities and <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial <a href="/wiki/Training_excavations" class="mw-redirect" title="Training excavations">training excavations</a> and archaeological holiday tours.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why <a href="/wiki/Community_archaeology" title="Community archaeology">Community archaeology</a> projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do. Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), is a registered 501[c] [3] non-profit, media and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. ALI founded a website, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologychannel.org/">The Archaeology Channel</a> to support the organization's mission "to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage, by using media in the most efficient and effective ways possible."<a href="#cite_note-The_Archaeology_Channel_and_About_Us:_Archaeological_Legacy_Institute-133">[132]</a> There is a considerable international body of research focused on archaeology and public value and tangible benefits of archaeology include<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> helping to counteract racism, documenting accomplishments of ignored communities, providing time-depth as a response to short-termism of the modern age, and contributing to human ecology, independent evidence base, historic context development and tourism.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> The delivery of public benefits through archaeology can be summarised as follows: through making a contribution to a shared history,<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> artistic and cultural treasures, local values, place-making and social cohesion, educational benefits, contribution to science and innovation, health and wellbeing, and added economic value to developers.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-internet-131">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pseudoarchaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></div> Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in <a href="/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">post-processualism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An example of this type is the writing of <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_D%C3%A4niken" title="Erich von Däniken">Erich von Däniken</a>. His 1968 book, <a href="/wiki/Chariots_of_the_Gods%3F" title="Chariots of the Gods?">Chariots of the Gods?</a>, together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilization on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. This theory, known as <a href="/wiki/Palaeocontact_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeocontact theory">palaeocontact theory</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronaut_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient astronaut theory">Ancient astronaut theory</a>, is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Looting">Looting</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Looting" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Looting_rontoy2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Looting_rontoy2007.jpg/220px-Looting_rontoy2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="640"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Looting_rontoy2007.jpg/220px-Looting_rontoy2007.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Looting_rontoy2007.jpg/330px-Looting_rontoy2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Looting_rontoy2007.jpg/440px-Looting_rontoy2007.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A looter's pit on the morning following its excavation, taken at Rontoy, Huaura Valley, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> in June 2007. Several small holes left by looters' prospecting probes can be seen, as well as their footprints.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting" title="Archaeological looting">Looting of archaeological sites</a> is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> were looted during <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-civilizations-138">[137]</a> Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts contributes directly to the <a href="/wiki/Illicit_antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Illicit antiquities">illicit antiquities</a> trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-139">[138]</a> In 1937, W. F. Hodge the Director of the <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Museum">Southwest Museum</a> released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Hodge1937-140">[139]</a> The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Resources_Protection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological Resources Protection Act">Archaeological Resources Protection Act</a> was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-Munson_et_al1995-141">[140]</a> Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> Some historical archaeology sites are subjected to looting by <a href="/wiki/Metal_detector" title="Metal detector">metal detector</a> hobbyists who search for artifacts using increasingly advanced technology. Efforts are underway among all major Archaeological organizations to increase education and legitimate cooperation between amateurs and professionals in the metal detecting community.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> While most looting is deliberate, accidental looting can occur when amateurs, who are unaware of the importance of Archaeological rigor, collect artifacts from sites and place them into private collections. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendant_peoples">Descendant peoples</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Descendant peoples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the United States, examples such as the case of <a href="/wiki/Kennewick_Man" title="Kennewick Man">Kennewick Man</a> have illustrated the tensions between <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Postprocessualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postprocessualism">postprocessualism</a>, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Repatriation">Repatriation</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Repatriation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>See <a href="/wiki/Repatriation_and_reburial_of_human_remains" title="Repatriation and reburial of human remains">Repatriation and reburial of human remains</a></dd></dl> A new trend in the heated controversy between <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> groups and scientists is the <a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a> of native artifacts to the original descendants.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] An example of this occurred on 21 June 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> nations in the <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> area convened on the <a href="/wiki/Kitigan_Zibi" title="Kitigan Zibi">Kitigan Zibi reservation</a> near <a href="/wiki/Maniwaki,_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniwaki, Quebec">Maniwaki, Quebec</a>, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods—some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin people</a> who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The remains and artifacts, including <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons">weapons</a>, were originally excavated from various sites in the <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_Valley" title="Ottawa Valley">Ottawa Valley</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Morrison_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Morrison Island">Morrison</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Allumette_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Allumette Island">Allumette Islands</a>. They had been part of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Museum_of_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Museum of Civilization">Canadian Museum of Civilization</a>'s research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional <a href="/wiki/Juniperus_virginiana" title="Juniperus virginiana">red cedar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> boxes lined with red cedar chips, <a href="/wiki/Muskrat" title="Muskrat">muskrat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beaver#Commercial_use" title="Beaver">beaver pelts</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.<a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Geographic_Online-144">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_diaspora_archaeology">African diaspora archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: African diaspora archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_archaeology" title="African diaspora archaeology">African diaspora archaeology</a></div> African Diaspora Archaeology is an area of study within the subfield of historical archaeology that studies those that have been forcibly transported through the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic Slave Trade</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan Slave Trade</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean Slave Trade</a>, as well as their descendants. Although of global relevance, most research has been conducted in the Americas and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> In the United States, Similar to the experience of Native Americans, the history of African diaspora archaeology is one of controversies over <a href="/wiki/Whiteness_theory" title="Whiteness theory">Whiteness</a> in archaeology and anthropology, a lack of inclusion of the African descendant community,<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> and possession of human remains in the collections of universities and museums.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> In the 1990s, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Blakey_(anthropologist)" title="Michael Blakey (anthropologist)">Michael Blakey</a> was the director of research during the <a href="/wiki/African_Burial_Ground_National_Monument" title="African Burial Ground National Monument">New York African Burial Ground Project</a> where he initiated a protocol for collaborating with the African descendant community. In 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Black_Archaeologists" title="Society of Black Archaeologists">Society of Black Archaeologists</a> was created in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> Co-founders <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayana_Omilade_Flewellen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayana Omilade Flewellen (page does not exist)">Ayana Omilade Flewellen</a>, archaeologist at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside" title="University of California, Riverside">University of California, Riverside</a> and Justin Dunnavant, archaeologist and assistant professor of anthropology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> intend to build a restorative justice-based structure in archaeology. They suggest to define descendants not only in genealogical terms, but also to welcome input of African Americans whose ancestors had a shared historical experience in enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> unanimously passed a bill<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> in December 2020 that centers African American cemeteries at risk in South Carolina. The bill is made to better protect historic African burial grounds and can lead to the creation of an <a href="/w/index.php?title=African_American_Burial_Grounds_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="African American Burial Grounds Network (page does not exist)">African American Burial Grounds Network</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, eight days after becoming a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> on November 30, 2021, announced plans for the construction of the Newton Enslaved Burial Ground Memorial as well as a museum dedicated to the history of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-153">[152]</a> The Ghanaian-British architect <a href="/wiki/David_Adjaye" title="David Adjaye">David Adjaye</a> is to lead the project that is to commemorate an estimated 570 West Africans buried in unmarked graves at the site of the former Newton sugar plantation.<a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> Barbados can be seen as a good example of respectful preservation of an African burial ground. Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> however the burial grounds are in danger of being destroyed or human remains are being excavated without the descendant community being involved.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> In 2022, residents on <a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Caribbean" title="Dutch Caribbean">Dutch Caribbean</a> spoke out strongly against what they found were unethical excavations of their ancestors on the <a href="/wiki/Godet_African_Burial_Ground" title="Godet African Burial Ground">Godet African Burial Ground</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Rock_African_Burial_Ground" title="Golden Rock African Burial Ground">Golden Rock African Burial Ground</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_and_archaeology">Climate change and archaeology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Climate change and archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> affects our environment, projections show that there will be changes in rainfall with increased drought and desertification, increases in intensity and frequency of rainfall, increases in temperature (winter and summer), increases in both the temperature and frequency of heatwaves, rising sea levels, and warmer seas, ocean acidification and changes in oceanic currents. These climate drivers will result in changes to flora and fauna, and changes in ground conditions (both on and below the surface) and so will also affect archaeological deposits and structures, while human responses to the climate crisis will also impact archaeological sites. The archaeologist's knowledge and skills are relevant to supporting society in adapting to a changing climate and a low carbon future.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> Another effect of higher temperatures has been melting of glaciers and ice patches. This has led to the discovery of artifacts and bodies long buried in the ice, fostering the new field of glacial archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Archaeological sites can be seen as habitats that support ecosystems and fulfil biodiversity goals.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="AI_in_archaeology">AI in archaeology</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: AI in archaeology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_(AI)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial intelligence (AI)">artificial intelligence (AI)</a> continues to influence scientific research, its application in archaeological studies has become increasingly significant. For instance, AI models have been utilized to identify archaeological remains in <a href="/wiki/The_Empty_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="The Empty Quarter">the Empty Quarter</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> Additionally, AI technology has facilitated the discovery of 303 new geoglyphs in Nazca.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> – Scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> – Interdisciplinary study of astronomies in cultures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobiology" title="Archaeobiology">Archaeobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> – Application of the techniques of molecular population genetics to the study of the human past</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeological science</a> – Application of scientific techniques to archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_and_racism" title="Archaeology and racism">Archaeology and racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_religion_and_ritual" title="Archaeology of religion and ritual">Archaeology of religion and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a> – Type of research using evidence from archival records</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_archaeological_potential" title="Area of archaeological potential">Area of archaeological potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological dating</a> – Methods for estimating a realistic date for an event or object</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational archaeology</a> – Archaeological sub-discipline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a> – Process in archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital archaeology</a> – Application of digital technology to archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(archaeology)" title="Disturbance (archaeology)">Disturbance (archaeology)</a> – Change to an archaeological site</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_digging" title="Dump digging">Dump digging</a> – Excavating garbage dumps to find objects of interest</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a> – Specialisation of history</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">Geophysical survey (archaeology)</a> – Non-invasive physical sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_in_archaeology" title="GIS in archaeology">GIS in archaeology</a> – Aspect of GIS usage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_matrix" title="Harris matrix">Harris matrix</a> – Method of depicting site stratigraphy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a> – Study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_Issues_in_Cultural_Heritage_project" title="Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage project">Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage project</a> – Cultural heritage research initiative</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">Landscape archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_history" title="Landscape history">Landscape history</a> – Study of changes in the physical environment caused by human activities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_survey_(archaeology)" title="Magnetic survey (archaeology)">Magnetic survey (archaeology)</a> – Magnetic detection of archaeological artefacts and features</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a> – Archaeological study of human interaction with the sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_and_archaeology" title="Nationalism and archaeology">Nationalism and archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Palaeoanthropology</a> – Study of ancient humans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_in_archaeology" title="Remote sensing in archaeology">Remote sensing in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_archaeology" title="Urban archaeology">Urban archaeology</a> – Archaeological sub-discipline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a> – Analysis of animal remains found in archaeological sites</li></ul> Lists <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date" title="List of archaeological excavations by date">List of archaeological excavations by date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">List of archaeological periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeological sites by country">List of archaeological sites by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" title="List of archaeologists">List of archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeology_awards" title="List of archaeology awards">List of archaeology awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paleoethnobotanists" title="List of paleoethnobotanists">List of paleoethnobotanists</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-spelling-1"><a href="#cite_ref-spelling_1-0">^</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> ἀρχαῖος (archaios) 'ancient' and λογία (logia) 'study of'.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#ae_and_oe" title="American and British English spelling differences">American English usually does not use -ae spellings</a>, archaeology is the standard spelling across the English-speaking world, including the United States.<a href="#cite_note-HirstSpelling-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> Some US government bodies and university presses use archeology in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/GPO_Style_Manual" class="mw-redirect" title="GPO Style Manual">GPO Style Manual</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Society_for_American_Archaeology-172">[171]</a> Another uncommon variant is archæology, using the archaic <a href="/wiki/Orthographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthographic ligature">ligature</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">æ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HirstSpelling-170">[169]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Renfrew_Bahn1991_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Renfrew_Bahn1991_2-1">b</a> Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]:13) </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair,_A.2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair, A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.42.8">"The Intellectual Base of Archaeological Research 2004–2013: A visualisation and analysis of its disciplinary links, networks of authors, and conceptual language"</a>. Internet Archaeology (42). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.42.8">10.11141/ia.42.8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Intellectual+Base+of+Archaeological+Research+2004%E2%80%932013%3A+A+visualisation+and+analysis+of+its+disciplinary+links%2C+networks+of+authors%2C+and+conceptual+language&rft.issue=42&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11141%2Fia.42.8&rft.au=Sinclair%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11141%252Fia.42.8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair,_A.2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair, A. 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The Journal of Asian Studies. 22 (2): 169–177, esp. 171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2050010">10.2307/2050010</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2050010">2050010</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164153713">164153713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Preliminary+notes+on+Sung+archaeology&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169-177%2C+esp.+171&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164153713%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2050010%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2050010&rft.au=Rudolph%2C+R.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trigger-2006-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trigger-2006_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trigger-2006_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrigger,_Bruce_G.2006" class="citation book cs1">Trigger, Bruce G. (2006). A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84076-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84076-7"><bdi>0-521-84076-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Archaeological+Thought&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-84076-7&rft.au=Trigger%2C+Bruce+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clunas-2004-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clunas-2004_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clunas-2004_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClunas,_Craig2004" class="citation book cs1">Clunas, Craig (2004). Superfluous Things: Material culture and social status in early modern China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-2820-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-2820-8"><bdi>0-8248-2820-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superfluous+Things%3A+Material+culture+and+social+status+in+early+modern+China&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8248-2820-8&rft.au=Clunas%2C+Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser,_Julius_ThomasHaber,_Francis_C.1986" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Julius Thomas; Haber, Francis C. (1986). Time, Science, and Society in China and the West. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87023-495-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87023-495-1"><bdi>0-87023-495-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time%2C+Science%2C+and+Society+in+China+and+the+West&rft.place=Amherst%2C+MA&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-87023-495-1&rft.au=Fraser%2C+Julius+Thomas&rft.au=Haber%2C+Francis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Edward W. Bodnar, Later travels, with Clive Foss, introduction (pp. ix-xxiii) </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> E.W. Bodnar, Cyriacus of Ancona and Athens, Bruxelles-Berchem, 1960. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavio-Biondo">"Flavio Biondo"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Online ed.). 31 May 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027152435/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavio-Biondo">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Flavio+Biondo&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.edition=Online&rft.date=2021-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FFlavio-Biondo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Leland">"John Leland"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Online ed.). 14 April 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160422103503/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Leland">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Leland&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.edition=Online&rft.date=2021-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJohn-Leland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Camden">"William Camden"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Online ed.). 28 April 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027153034/https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Camden">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=William+Camden&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.edition=Online&rft.date=2021-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FWilliam-Camden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2009" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Upinder (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cvauDwAAQBAJ">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</a> (PB ed.). Pearson Education. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9332569966" title="Special:BookSources/978-9332569966"><bdi>978-9332569966</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220731065145/https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_Ancient_and_Early_Medieval/cvauDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=PB&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9332569966&rft.au=Singh%2C+Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcvauDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUcko2005" class="citation book cs1">Ucko, P.J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_hKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT192">Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-84346-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-84346-6"><bdi>978-1-134-84346-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510144036/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT192">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+in+Archaeology%3A+A+World+Perspective&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-134-84346-6&rft.aulast=Ucko&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_hKIAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-renfrew-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-renfrew_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-renfrew_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffeColin_RenfrewCunliffeDavies2002" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, B.W.; Colin Renfrew, B.W.C.; Cunliffe, P.; Davies, W.; Renfrew, C.; Davies, P.; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jkhgPgH330YC&pg=PA309">Archaeology: The widening debate</a>. British Academy centenary monographs. British Academy. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726255-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726255-9"><bdi>978-0-19-726255-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510144026/https://books.google.com/books?id=jkhgPgH330YC&pg=PA309">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology%3A+The+widening+debate&rft.series=British+Academy+centenary+monographs&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=British+Academy&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-726255-9&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=B.W.&rft.au=Colin+Renfrew%2C+B.W.C.&rft.au=Cunliffe%2C+P.&rft.au=Davies%2C+W.&rft.au=Renfrew%2C+C.&rft.au=Davies%2C+P.&rft.au=British+Academy&rft.au=Renfrew%2C+D.&rft.au=Davies%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjkhgPgH330YC%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hunter_(historian)" title="Michael Hunter (historian)">Hunter, Michael</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnaubreyrealmo0000hunt/page/156">John Aubrey and the Realm of Learning</a>. London: Duckworth. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnaubreyrealmo0000hunt/page/156">156–57, 162–66, 181</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-0818-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-0818-0"><bdi>978-0-7156-0818-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Aubrey+and+the+Realm+of+Learning&rft.place=London&rft.pages=156-57%2C+162-66%2C+181&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-7156-0818-0&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnaubreyrealmo0000hunt%2Fpage%2F156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing,_D.2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_King" title="Dorothy King">King, D.</a> (2006). The Elgin Marbles. Hutchinson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elgin+Marbles&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=2006&rft.au=King%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Sime, James; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Winckelmann, Johann Joachim". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 707 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> "WINCKELMANN, Johann Joachim (1779)" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.horti-hesperidum.com/show.php?item=192">1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210908220953/https://www.horti-hesperidum.com/show.php?item=192">Archived</a> 8 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> David Irwin, Winckelmann: Writings on Art (London: Phaidon) 1972. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinckelmann2006" class="citation book cs1">Winckelmann, Johann Joachim (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofartofan0000winc">History of the art of antiquity</a>. Potts, Alex. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0892366682" title="Special:BookSources/978-0892366682"><bdi>978-0892366682</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59818023">59818023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+art+of+antiquity&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Getty+Research+Institute&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59818023&rft.isbn=978-0892366682&rft.aulast=Winckelmann&rft.aufirst=Johann+Joachim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofartofan0000winc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-b584-38"><a href="#cite_ref-b584_38-0">^</a> <a href="#Boorstin">Boorstin</a>, 584 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1995" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Walter (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instantarthistor00robi/page/240">"Introduction"</a>. Instant Art History. Random House Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instantarthistor00robi/page/240">240</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-449-90698-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-449-90698-1"><bdi>0-449-90698-1</bdi></a>. <q>The father of official art history was a German named Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Instant+Art+History&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-449-90698-1&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstantarthistor00robi%2Fpage%2F240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverill,_P.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Everill, P. 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(2010). Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions. London: GHP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906137-17-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906137-17-5"><bdi>978-1-906137-17-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standards+of+Archaeological+Excavations%3A+A+Fieldguide+to+the+Methology%2C+Recording+Techniques+and+Conventions&rft.place=London&rft.pub=GHP&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-906137-17-5&rft.au=Tassie%2C+G+J.&rft.au=Owens%2C+L.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_W.W.1948" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, W.W. (1948). A Study of Archaeology. Menasha: American Anthropological Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906367-12-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906367-12-4"><bdi>978-0-906367-12-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9714935">9714935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Archaeology&rft.place=Menasha&rft.pub=American+Anthropological+Association&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9714935&rft.isbn=978-0-906367-12-4&rft.au=Taylor%2C+W.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilley,_Christopher1993" class="citation book cs1">Tilley, Christopher, ed. (1993). Interpretive Archaeology. Oxford, UK: Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85496-842-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85496-842-8"><bdi>978-0-85496-842-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185494001">185494001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpretive+Archaeology&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185494001&rft.isbn=978-0-85496-842-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrigger,_B.G.1989" class="citation book cs1">Trigger, B.G. (1989). A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Archaeological+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Trigger%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatters,_M.R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Watters, M.R. (1992). Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Geoarchaeology%3A+A+North+American+Perspective&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=The+University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Watters%2C+M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatters,_M.R.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Watters, M.R. (2000). "Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American Southwest". Geoarchaeology. 15 (6): 537–557. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Gearc..15..537W">2000Gearc..15..537W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1520-6548%28200008%2915%3A6%3C537%3A%3AAID-GEA5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-E">10.1002/1520-6548(200008)15:6<537::AID-GEA5>3.0.CO;2-E</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoarchaeology&rft.atitle=Alluvial+stratigraphy+and+geoarchaeology+in+the+American+Southwest&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=537-557&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1520-6548%28200008%2915%3A6%3C537%3A%3AAID-GEA5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-E&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Gearc..15..537W&rft.au=Watters%2C+M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilley,_G.R.1953" class="citation book cs1">Willey, G.R. (1953). Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Perú. Washington, DC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Settlement+Patterns+in+the+Vir%C3%BA+Valley%2C+Per%C3%BA&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.date=1953&rft.au=Willey%2C+G.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilley,_G.1968" class="citation book cs1">Willey, G. (1968). Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto, CA: National Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settlement+Archaeology&rft.place=Palo+Alto%2C+CA&rft.pub=National+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.au=Willey%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWylie,_A.1985" class="citation book cs1">Wylie, A. (1985). "The reaction against analogy". In Schiffer, Michael B. (ed.). Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. pp. 63–111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+reaction+against+analogy&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Archaeological+Method+and+Theory&rft.place=Orlando%2C+FL&rft.pages=63-111&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Wylie%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYellen,_J.Harpending,_H.1972" class="citation journal cs1">Yellen, J.; Harpending, H. (1972). "Hunter-Gatherer Populations and Archaeological Inference". World Archaeology. 4 (2): 244–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1972.9979535">10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16468220">16468220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Hunter-Gatherer+Populations+and+Archaeological+Inference&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=244-253&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1972.9979535&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16468220&rft.au=Yellen%2C+J.&rft.au=Harpending%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYellen,_J.1977" class="citation book cs1">Yellen, J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologicalap00yell">Archaeological Approaches to the Present</a>. New York: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-770350-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-770350-3"><bdi>978-0-12-770350-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2911020">2911020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Approaches+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2911020&rft.isbn=978-0-12-770350-3&rft.au=Yellen%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchaeologicalap00yell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography of anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology" title="Table of years in archaeology">Table of years in archaeology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodderShanksAlexandriBuchili2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hodder, Ian; Shanks, Michael; Alexandri, Alexandar; Buchili, Victor; Carman, John; Last, Jonathan; Lucas, Gavin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37558339">"Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past"</a>. Routledge. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816112849/https://www.academia.edu/37558339">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Routledge&rft.atitle=Interpreting+Archaeology%3A+Finding+Meaning+in+the+Past&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Hodder&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Shanks%2C+Michael&rft.au=Alexandri%2C+Alexandar&rft.au=Buchili%2C+Victor&rft.au=Carman%2C+John&rft.au=Last%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Lucas%2C+Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F37558339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsenShanksWebmoorWitmore2012" class="citation book cs1">Olsen, Bjørnar; Shanks, Michael; Webmoor, Timothy; Witmore, Christopher (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36747616">Archaeology: The Discipline of Things</a>. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95400-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95400-7"><bdi>978-0-520-95400-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817064224/https://www.academia.edu/36747616">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology%3A+The+Discipline+of+Things&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%2C+London&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95400-7&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B8rnar&rft.au=Shanks%2C+Michael&rft.au=Webmoor%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Witmore%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36747616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathjeShanksWitmore2013" class="citation book cs1">Rathje, William; Shanks, Michael; Witmore, Christoper (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37112895">Archaeology in the Making</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63480-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63480-9"><bdi>978-0-415-63480-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819010429/https://www.academia.edu/37112895">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+in+the+Making&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-63480-9&rft.aulast=Rathje&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Shanks%2C+Michael&rft.au=Witmore%2C+Christoper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F37112895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShanks1992" class="citation book cs1">Shanks, Michael (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4016761">Experiencing the Past: On the Character of Archaeology</a>. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-97363-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-97363-1"><bdi>0-203-97363-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817063907/https://www.academia.edu/4016761">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experiencing+the+Past%3A+On+the+Character+of+Archaeology&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-203-97363-1&rft.aulast=Shanks&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4016761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)" title="Archaeology (magazine)">Archaeology</a> (magazine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> - New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-202-33022-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-202-33022-2">0-202-33022-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glyn_Daniel" title="Glyn Daniel">Glyn Daniel</a> – A Short History of Archaeology (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Greene_(archaeologist)" title="Kevin Greene (archaeologist)">Kevin Greene</a> – Introduction to Archaeology (1983)</li> <li>Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_L._Feder" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth L. Feder">Kenneth L. Feder</a> – Field Methods in Archaeology 7th edition (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hodder" title="Ian Hodder">Ian Hodder</a> & Scott Hutson – "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchings_Rich,_La_Salle_Marina2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hutchings Rich, La Salle Marina (2014). "Teaching Anti-Colonial Archaeology". Archaeologies. 10 (1): 27–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11759-014-9250-y">10.1007/s11759-014-9250-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154800430">154800430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeologies&rft.atitle=Teaching+Anti-Colonial+Archaeology&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-69&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11759-014-9250-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154800430%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Hutchings+Rich%2C+La+Salle+Marina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchaeology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_South_American_Archaeology_-_IJSA_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of South American Archaeology - IJSA (magazine)">International Journal of South American Archaeology - IJSA (magazine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Archaeology" title="Internet Archaeology">Internet Archaeology</a>, e-journal</li> <li>C.U. Larsen - Sites and Monuments (1992)</li> <li>Adrian Praetzellis – Death by Theory, AltaMira Press (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0359-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0359-5">978-0-7425-0359-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Renfrew" title="Colin Renfrew">Colin Renfrew</a> & Paul Bahn – Archaeology: theories, methods and practice, 2nd edition (1996)</li> <li>Smekalova, T.N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S.L. (2008). "<a href="/wiki/Magnetic_survey_(archaeology)" title="Magnetic survey (archaeology)">Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology</a>. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hurst_Thomas" title="David Hurst Thomas">David Hurst Thomas</a> – Archaeology, 3rd. ed. (1998)</li> <li>Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore – Archaeology: Discovering our Past 2nd edition (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Trigger" title="Bruce Trigger">Bruce Trigger</a> – "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Wylie" title="Alison Wylie">Alison Wylie</a> – Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, Berkeley CA, 2002</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Archaeology <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Archaeology">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Archaeology&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Archaeological_sites#Q23498" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Archaeological sites">Archaeological sites</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fastionline.org/">Fasti Online</a> – an online database of archaeological sites</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/">The Archaeology Data Service – Open access online 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src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=mobile" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&oldid=1258827734">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&oldid=1258827734</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 21 November 2024, at 21:18 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argeologie" title="Argeologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Argeologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A4ologie" title="Archäologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Archäologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%89%85%E1%88%AD%E1%88%B5" title="ሥነ ቅርስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ቅርስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पुरातत्वशास्त्र – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="पुरातत्वशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="علم الآثار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الآثار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoloch%C3%ADa" title="Arqueolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Arqueolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqu%C3%A8ologia" title="Arquèologia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Arquèologia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolox%C3%ADa" title="Arqueoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arqueoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="पुरातत्त्व – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="पुरातत्त्व" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arxeologiya" title="Arxeologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Arxeologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="قازی بیلیم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قازی بیلیم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="প্রত্নতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রত্নতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B3-k%C3%B3%CD%98-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Khó-kó͘-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khó-kó͘-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Археалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Археалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Археалёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Археалёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="आर्कियोलॉजी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="आर्कियोलॉजी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolohiya" title="Arkeolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Arkeolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A4ologie" title="Archäologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Archäologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologija" title="Arheologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Arheologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologiezh" title="Arkeologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arkeologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologia" title="Arqueologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arqueologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Археологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Археологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeyolohiya" title="Arkeyolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Arkeyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archiulugia" title="Archiulugia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Archiulugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoleg" title="Archaeoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Archaeoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark%C3%A6ologi" title="Arkæologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arkæologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A4ologie" title="Archäologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Archäologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheoloogia" title="Arheoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Arheoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αρχαιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeolog%C3%AE" title="Archeologî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Archeologî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADa" title="Arqueología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arqueología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologio" title="Arkeologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Arkeologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquiolog%C3%ADa" title="Arquiología – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Arquiología" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologia" title="Arkeologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arkeologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="باستان‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باستان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9ologie" title="Archéologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Archéologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeology" title="Archeology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Archeology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologjie" title="Archeologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Archeologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seand%C3%A1la%C3%ADocht" title="Seandálaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seandálaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenndaaleeaght" title="Shenndaaleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shenndaaleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rc-e%C3%B2las" title="Àrc-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Àrc-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolox%C3%ADa" title="Arqueoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arqueoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%A1u-k%C3%BA-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Kháu-kú-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kháu-kú-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EA%B3%A0%ED%95%99" title="고고학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고고학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पुरातत्वशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पुरातत्वशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologija" title="Arheologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arheologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologio" title="Arkeologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Arkeologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi" title="Arkeologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arkeologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornleifafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Fornleifafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornleifafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="ארכאולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארכאולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark%C3%A9ologi" title="Arkéologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Arkéologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_kp%C9%9Bl%C9%9Bk%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ittarnisarsiorneq" title="Ittarnisarsiorneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Ittarnisarsiorneq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಪುರಾತತ್ತ್ವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪುರಾತತ್ತ್ವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="არქეოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არქეოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%94%D9%84%D9%85%DB%81%D9%90_%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="عٔلمہِ آثار – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="عٔلمہِ آثار" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arche%C3%B2logij%C3%B4" title="Archeòlogijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Archeòlogijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akiolojia" title="Akiolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Akiolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawopa" title="Rawopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Rawopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeyoloji" title="Akeyoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Akeyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lark%C3%A9yoloji" title="Larkéyoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Larkéyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeoloj%C3%AE" title="Arkeolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Arkeolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolojiya" title="Arkeolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Arkeolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%AE%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ບູຮານວິທະຍາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ບູຮານວິທະຍາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologia" title="Archaeologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Archaeologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheolo%C4%A3ija" title="Arheoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Arheoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologija" title="Archeologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Archeologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arceolojia" title="Arceolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Arceolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheolougii" title="Arheolougii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Arheolougii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9g%C3%A9szet" title="Régészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Régészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Археологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Археологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arke%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Arkeôlôjia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Arkeôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="പുരാവസ്തുശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പുരാവസ്തുശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolo%C4%A1ija" title="Arkeoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Arkeoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="არქეოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="არქეოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="علم الاثار – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم الاثار" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ကွတ်ပေါရာန် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ကွတ်ပေါရာန်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi" title="Arkeologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Arkeologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologie" title="Arqueologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Arqueologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Археологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Археологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9E%E1%80%94%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="ရှေးဟောင်းသုတေသနပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှေးဟောင်းသုတေသနပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ooldheaidkeunde" title="Ooldheaidkeunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ooldheaidkeunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="पुरातत्व – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पुरातत्व" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="考古学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="考古学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologgia" title="Archeologgia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Archeologgia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi" title="Arkeologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arkeologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi" title="Arkeologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Arkeologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9ologie" title="Archéologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Archéologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologia" title="Arqueologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arqueologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Археологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Археологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qorambaa" title="Qorambaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Qorambaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arxeologiya" title="Arxeologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Arxeologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="آثاریات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آثاریات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9E%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%81%E1%80%AB%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="သုတေသနစခါပညာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သုတေသနစခါပညာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologia" title="Arkeologia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Arkeologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="لرغونپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="បុរាណវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បុរាណវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark%C3%A9olodjie" title="Arkéolodjie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Arkéolodjie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akiolosi" title="Akiolosi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Akiolosi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A4ologie" title="Archäologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Archäologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologia" title="Arqueologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arqueologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arxeologiya" title="Arxeologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Arxeologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologie" title="Arheologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arheologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Археолоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Археолоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Археология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Археология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पुरातत्त्वशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia" title="Archeologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Archeologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airchaeology" title="Airchaeology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Airchaeology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologjia" title="Arkeologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arkeologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archiolugg%C3%ACa" title="Archioluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Archioluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පුරාවිද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාවිද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Archaeology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="قديم آثار – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قديم آثار" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeol%C3%B3gia" title="Archeológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Archeológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologija" title="Arheologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Arheologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="شوێنەوارناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شوێنەوارناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Археологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Археологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologija" title="Arheologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arheologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark%C3%A9ologi" title="Arkéologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Arkéologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologia" title="Arkeologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arkeologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi" title="Arkeologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arkeologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolohiya" title="Arkeolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Arkeolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தொல்லியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொல்லியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="పురావస్తు శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పురావస్తు శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akarolojia" title="Akarolojia – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Akarolojia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5" title="โบราณคดี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โบราณคดี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Бостоншиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бостоншиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeoloji" title="Arkeoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Arkeoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologi%C3%BDa" title="Arheologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Arheologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Археологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Археологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="آثاریات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آثاریات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeo%C5%82ozia" title="Archeołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Archeołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3o_c%E1%BB%95_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khảo cổ học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khảo cổ học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6notav" title="Vönotav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Vönotav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeoloogia" title="Arkeoloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Arkeoloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeyolodjeye" title="Arkeyolodjeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Arkeyolodjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologie" title="Archeologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Archeologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeyolohiya" title="Arkeyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Arkeyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="考古学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="考古学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ארכעאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ארכעאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8C%CC%80r%E1%BB%8D%CC%80ay%C3%A9ij%E1%BB%8D%CC%81un" title="Ọ̀rọ̀ayéijọ́un – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ọ̀rọ̀ayéijọ́un" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%B8" title="考古學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="考古學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolociye" title="Arkeolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Arkeolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeolohie" title="Archeolohie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Archeolohie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeuoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Arkeuoluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Arkeuoluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="考古学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="考古学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 21:18 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> 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