CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Genetics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"752d1eee-19cb-4c25-a159-4db218ce1d2a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Genetics","wgTitle":"Genetics","wgCurRevisionId":1257445867,"wgRevisionId":1257445867,"wgArticleId":12266,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Pages containing links to subscription-only content","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Articles with separate introductions","Wikipedia pending changes protected pages","Use dmy dates from March 2022","Articles with excerpts","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022","Commons category link is on Wikidata", "Featured articles","Genetics"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Genetics","wgRelevantArticleId":12266,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgStableRevisionId":1257445867,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty" :false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q7162","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.flaggedRevs.basic":"ready","mediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements", "mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.flaggedRevs.advanced","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.flaggedRevs.basic%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/1200px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="592"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/800px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="395"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/640px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="316"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Genetics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Genetics rootpage-Genetics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Genetics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Genetics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Genetics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Genetics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mendelian_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendelian_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mendelian genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendelian_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Molecular genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features_of_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features_of_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Features of inheritance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Features_of_inheritance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Features of inheritance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Features_of_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discrete_inheritance_and_Mendel's_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discrete_inheritance_and_Mendel's_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discrete_inheritance_and_Mendel's_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notation_and_diagrams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notation_and_diagrams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Notation and diagrams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notation_and_diagrams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiple_gene_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_gene_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Multiple gene interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_gene_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_basis_for_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_basis_for_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Molecular basis for inheritance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Molecular_basis_for_inheritance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Molecular basis for inheritance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Molecular_basis_for_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-DNA_and_chromosomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_and_chromosomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>DNA and chromosomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_and_chromosomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recombination_and_genetic_linkage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recombination_and_genetic_linkage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Recombination and genetic linkage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recombination_and_genetic_linkage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Gene expression</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gene_expression-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gene expression subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gene_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_code" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_code"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Genetic code</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_code-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature_and_nurture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_and_nurture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Nature and nurture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_and_nurture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Gene regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Genetic change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetic_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetic change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetic_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mutations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Mutations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_selection_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_selection_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Natural selection and evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_selection_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Research and technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research and technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Model_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Model_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Model organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Model_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Research methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_sequencing_and_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_sequencing_and_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>DNA sequencing and genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_sequencing_and_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 131 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-131" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">131 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%89%A3%E1%88%85%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%AD" title="ሥነ ባህርይ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ባህርይ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="علم الوراثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الوراثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenetica" title="Chenetica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chenetica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xenética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژنتیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বংশাণুবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বংশাণুবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Bi-tho%C3%A2n-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Ûi-thoân-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ûi-thoân-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Генетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генэтыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Генэтыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A8tica" title="Genètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambamabari" title="Ruambamabari – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambamabari" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneteg" title="Geneteg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Geneteg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneetika" title="Geneetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geneetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γενετική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενετική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetiko" title="Genetiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genetiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژنتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Génétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erflikheidslear" title="Erflikheidslear – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Erflikheidslear" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ineola%C3%ADocht" title="Géineolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Géineolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gintinneachd" title="Gintinneachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gintinneachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A9th%C4%A9_(genetics)" title="Maũthĩ (genetics) – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Maũthĩ (genetics)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%95%99" title="유전학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Գենետիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենետիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="आनुवंशिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आनुवंशिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetiko" title="Genetiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Genetiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Генетикæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Генетикæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erf%C3%B0afr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Erfðafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Erfðafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גנטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גנטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ತಳಿವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತಳಿವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გენეტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენეტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetikia" title="Jenetikia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jenetikia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastopa" title="Nastopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Nastopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetik" title="Jenetik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jenetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9n%C3%A9tik" title="Jénétik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Jénétik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genet%C3%AEk" title="Genetîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Genetîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ພັນທຸສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພັນທຸສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2en%C4%93tika" title="Ģenētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģenētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneetik" title="Geneetik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geneetik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetica" title="Jenetica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jenetica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ginske" title="ginske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ginske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomabuzaale" title="Essomabuzaale – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomabuzaale" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജനിതകശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജനിതകശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გენეტიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გენეტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Генетик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Генетик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%87%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="မျိုးရိုးဗီဇပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မျိုးရိုးဗီဇပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E4%BC%9D%E5%AD%A6" title="遺伝学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="遺伝学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetikk" title="Genetikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Genetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetikk" title="Genetikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Genetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetike" title="Genetike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Genetike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Генетике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Генетике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeneetiik" title="Jeneetiik – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jeneetiik" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="جینیٹکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جینیٹکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جنتیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جنتیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinetix" title="Jinetix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jinetix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="ពន្ធុវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ពន្ធុវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetyka" title="Genetyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Genetyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic%C4%83" title="Genetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinitika" title="Hinitika – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hinitika" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjenetika" title="Gjenetika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjenetika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ප්‍රවේණි විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රවේණි විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جينيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جينيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جێنەتیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جێنەتیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9tika" title="Génétika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Génétika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinn%C3%B6llisyystiede" title="Perinnöllisyystiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Perinnöllisyystiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henetika" title="Henetika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Henetika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மரபியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மரபியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="జన్యుశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జన్యుశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="พันธุศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พันธุศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Офаринишшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Офаринишшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%B0%E1%8E%B6%E1%8F%92_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᎤᎾᏓᏰᎶᏒ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᎾᏓᏰᎶᏒ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جینیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جینیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_truy%E1%BB%81n_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Di truyền học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Di truyền học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henetika" title="Henetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Henetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="遗传学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="גענעטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גענעטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3i%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9%CC%81%C3%A0b%C3%ADnim%E1%BB%8D%CC%81" title="Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́ – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="遺傳學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="遺傳學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%AAnetik" title="Cênetik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cênetik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="遗传学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7162#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Genetics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Genetics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Genetics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Genetics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Genetics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&oldid=1257445867" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Genetics&id=1257445867&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGenetics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGenetics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Genetics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Genetics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Genetics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikinews</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Genetics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7162" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-indicator-fr-review-status" class="mw-indicator"><indicator name="fr-review-status" class="mw-fr-review-status-indicator" id="mw-fr-revision-toggle"><span class="cdx-fr-css-icon-review--status--stable"></span><b>Checked</b></indicator></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Genetics">reviewed</a> on <i>14 November 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general scientific term. For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Genetics_(journal)" title="Genetics (journal)"><i>Genetics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction to genetics</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Meghan Trainor song, see <a href="/wiki/Treat_Myself" title="Treat Myself">Treat Myself</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/12px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/18px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/24px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics">template</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics#Branches_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Branches of genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Genetics</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> in <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect60_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect60-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartl_and_Jones-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an important branch in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> because heredity is vital to organisms' <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravian</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> friar working in the 19th century in <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a>, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">Trait</a> inheritance and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular</a> inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded to study the function and behavior of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>, the organism (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominance</a>), and within the context of a population. Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domains of life (<a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eukarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukarya">eukarya</a>). </p><p>Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">behavior</a>, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">nature versus nurture</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular">extracellular</a> environment of a living cell or organism may increase or decrease gene transcription. A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate climate</a> and one in an <a href="/wiki/Arid_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid climate">arid climate</a> (lacking sufficient waterfall or rain). While the average height the two corn stalks could grow to is genetically determined, the one in the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of water and nutrients in its environment. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>genetics</i> stems from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γενετικός</span></span> <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">genetikos</i></span></i> meaning "genitive"/"generative", which in turn derives from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γένεσις</span></span> <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">genesis</i></span></i> meaning "origin".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History of genetics</a></div> <p>The observation that living things inherit <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">traits</a> from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Publishing2009_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publishing2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022a_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022a-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> friar <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> in the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiling_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiling-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg/220px-Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg/330px-Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg/440px-Festetics_Imre-Oelenhainz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1504" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Imre_Festetics" title="Imre Festetics">Imre Festetics</a> the first <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethologist</a>. His concepts of <a href="/wiki/Selection_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection (biology)">selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> were later formulated in <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Charles Darwin's theory of evolution</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to Mendel, <a href="/wiki/Imre_Festetics" title="Imre Festetics">Imre Festetics</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word "genetic" in hereditarian context, and is considered the first geneticist. He described several rules of biological inheritance in his work <i>The genetic laws of nature</i> (Die genetischen Gesetze der Natur, 1819).<sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His second law is the same as that which Mendel published.<sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_and_Szabó_2019_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_and_Szabó_2019-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation (he can be considered a forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Festetics argued that changes observed in the generation of farm animals, plants, and humans are the result of scientific laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_2022_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Festetics empirically deduced that organisms inherit their characteristics, not acquire them. He recognized recessive traits and inherent variation by postulating that traits of past generations could reappear later, and organisms could produce progeny with different attributes.<sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_et_al._2022_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_et_al._2022-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations represent an important prelude to Mendel's theory of particulate inheritance insofar as it features a transition of heredity from its status as myth to that of a scientific discipline, by providing a fundamental theoretical basis for genetics in the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022b_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022b-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blending_Inheritance.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Blending_Inheritance.svg/220px-Blending_Inheritance.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Blending_Inheritance.svg/330px-Blending_Inheritance.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Blending_Inheritance.svg/440px-Blending_Inheritance.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a> leads to the averaging out of every characteristic, which as the engineer <a href="/wiki/Fleeming_Jenkin" title="Fleeming Jenkin">Fleeming Jenkin</a> pointed out, makes <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> impossible.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel's work. A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s 1859 <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, was <a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">blending inheritance</a>: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2011_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2011-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mendel's work provided examples where traits were definitely not blended after hybridization, showing that traits are produced by combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of multiple genes with <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">quantitative effects</a>. Another theory that had some support at that time was the <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">inheritance of acquired characteristics</a>: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other theories included Darwin's <a href="/wiki/Pangenesis" title="Pangenesis">pangenesis</a> (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>'s reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mendelian_genetics">Mendelian genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mendelian genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg/220px-Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg/330px-Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Morgan's observation of <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">sex-linked inheritance</a> of a mutation causing white eyes in <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></i> led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></div> <p>Modern genetics started with Mendel's studies of the nature of inheritance in plants. In his paper "<i>Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden</i>" ("<a href="/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization" title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a>"), presented in 1865 to the <i>Naturforschender Verein</i> (Society for Research in Nature) in <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a>, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios.<sup id="cite_ref-mendel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mendel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide understanding until 1900, after his death, when <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> and other scientists rediscovered his research. <a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word <i>genetics</i> in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective <i>genetic</i>, derived from the Greek word <i>genesis</i>—γένεσις, "origin", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bateson both acted as a mentor and was aided significantly by the work of other scientists from Newnham College at Cambridge, specifically the work of <a href="/wiki/Becky_Saunders" class="mw-redirect" title="Becky Saunders">Becky Saunders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nora_Darwin_Barlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Nora Darwin Barlow">Nora Darwin Barlow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muriel_Wheldale_Onslow" class="mw-redirect" title="Muriel Wheldale Onslow">Muriel Wheldale Onslow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bateson popularized the usage of the word <i>genetics</i> to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-bateson_genetics_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bateson_genetics-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In 1900, Nettie Stevens began studying the mealworm.<sup id="cite_ref-net_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-net-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-net_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-net-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was able to conclude that sex is a chromosomal factor and is determined by the male.<sup id="cite_ref-net_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-net-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1911, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> argued that genes are on <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, based on observations of a sex-linked <a href="/wiki/White_(mutation)" title="White (mutation)">white eye</a> mutation in <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit flies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1913, his student <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred Sturtevant</a> used the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a> to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_genetics">Molecular genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Molecular genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_Overview2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/130px-DNA_Overview2.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/195px-DNA_Overview2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/260px-DNA_Overview2.png 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="1454" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, the molecular basis for <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">biological inheritance</a>. Each strand of DNA is a chain of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>, matching each other in the center to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> and DNA, and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for inheritance. <a href="/wiki/Griffith%27s_experiment" title="Griffith's experiment">In 1928</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Griffith" title="Frederick Griffith">Frederick Griffith</a> discovered the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a>: dead bacteria could transfer <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> to "transform" other still-living bacteria. Sixteen years later, in 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment" title="Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment">Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment</a> identified DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Avery_et_al_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Avery_et_al-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of the nucleus as the repository of genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by <a href="/wiki/Joachim_H%C3%A4mmerling" title="Joachim Hämmerling">Hämmerling</a> in 1943 in his work on the single celled alga <i><a href="/wiki/Acetabularia" title="Acetabularia">Acetabularia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hershey%E2%80%93Chase_experiment" title="Hershey–Chase experiment">Hershey–Chase experiment</a> in 1952 confirmed that DNA (rather than protein) is the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the molecule responsible for inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a> work of <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> that indicated DNA has a <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-watsoncrick_1953a_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watsoncrick_1953a-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder.<sup id="cite_ref-watsoncrick_1953b_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watsoncrick_1953b-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA. The structure also suggested a simple method for <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">replication</a>: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. This property is what gives DNA its semi-conservative nature where one strand of new DNA is from an original parent strand.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works, it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells. In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of <a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">protein production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Betz2010_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betz2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a>, molecules with <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> very similar to DNA. The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences is known as the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice2009_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice2009-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar1998_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar1998-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A notable theory arose from <a href="/wiki/Tomoko_Ohta" title="Tomoko Ohta">Tomoko Ohta</a> in 1973 with her amendment to the <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">neutral theory of molecular evolution</a> through publishing the <a href="/wiki/Nearly_neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution">nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution</a>. In this theory, Ohta stressed the importance of natural selection and the environment to the rate at which genetic <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One important development was chain-termination <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> in 1977 by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a>. This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-sanger_et_al_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sanger_et_al-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, <a href="/wiki/Kary_Banks_Mullis" class="mw-redirect" title="Kary Banks Mullis">Kary Banks Mullis</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a>, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of DNA from a mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-saiki_et_al_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saiki_et_al-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>, Department of Energy, NIH, and parallel private efforts by <a href="/wiki/Celera_Genomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Celera Genomics">Celera Genomics</a> led to the sequencing of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-human_genome_project_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human_genome_project-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features_of_inheritance">Features of inheritance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Features of inheritance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrete_inheritance_and_Mendel's_laws"><span id="Discrete_inheritance_and_Mendel.27s_laws"></span>Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/220px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/330px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/440px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms</figcaption></figure> <p>At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete heritable units, called <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, from parents to offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect199_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect199-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">pea</a> plants, showing for example that flowers on a single plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors. The discrete versions of the same gene controlling the inherited appearance (phenotypes) are called <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mendel_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mendel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect200_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect200-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of the pea, which is a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> species, each individual plant has two copies of each gene, one copy inherited from each parent.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect484-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called <a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a> at that <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">gene locus</a>, while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called <a href="/wiki/Heterozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygous">heterozygous</a>. The set of alleles for a given organism is called its <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>, while the observable traits of the organism are called its <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called <a href="/wiki/Dominant_allele" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominant allele">dominant</a> as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called <a href="/wiki/Recessive_allele" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive allele">recessive</a> as its qualities recede and are not observed. Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have <a href="/wiki/Dominance_relationship#Incomplete_dominance" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominance relationship">incomplete dominance</a> by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or <a href="/wiki/Dominance_relationship#Co-dominance" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominance relationship">codominance</a> by expressing both alleles at once.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect630_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect630-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a pair of organisms <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">reproduce sexually</a>, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Segregation" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendel's first law</a> or the Law of Segregation. However, the probability of getting one gene over the other can change due to dominant, recessive, homozygous, or heterozygous genes. For example, Mendel found that if you cross heterozygous organisms your odds of getting the dominant trait is 3:1. Real geneticist study and calculate probabilities by using theoretical probabilities, empirical probabilities, the product rule, the sum rule, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notation_and_diagrams">Notation and diagrams</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notation and diagrams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedigree-chart-example.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pedigree-chart-example.svg/240px-Pedigree-chart-example.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pedigree-chart-example.svg/360px-Pedigree-chart-example.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pedigree-chart-example.svg/480px-Pedigree-chart-example.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>Genetic pedigree charts help track the inheritance patterns of traits.</figcaption></figure> <p>Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. A gene is represented by one or a few letters. Often a "+" symbol is used to mark the usual, <a href="/wiki/Wild_type" title="Wild type">non-mutant allele</a> for a gene.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Mendel's laws) the parents are referred to as the "P" generation and the offspring as the "F1" (first filial) generation. When the F1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the "F2" (second filial) generation. One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Müller-Wille-Parolini_2020_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Müller-Wille-Parolini_2020-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When studying human genetic diseases, geneticists often use <a href="/wiki/Pedigree_chart" title="Pedigree chart">pedigree charts</a> to represent the inheritance of traits.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect229_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect229-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These charts map the inheritance of a trait in a family tree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_gene_interactions">Multiple gene interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Multiple gene interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galton-height-regress.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Galton-height-regress.png/220px-Galton-height-regress.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Galton-height-regress.png/330px-Galton-height-regress.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Galton-height-regress.png/440px-Galton-height-regress.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>Human height is a trait with complex genetic causes. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>'s data from 1889 shows the relationship between offspring height as a function of mean parent height.</figcaption></figure> <p>Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms these genes generally assort independently of each other. This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers. This phenomenon, known as "<a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Independent_Assortment_(The_"Second_Law")" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendel's second law</a>" or the "law of independent assortment," means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations. Different genes often interact to influence the same trait. In the <a href="/wiki/Omphalodes_verna" title="Omphalodes verna">Blue-eyed Mary</a> (<i>Omphalodes verna</i>), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers: blue or magenta. Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white. When a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white—regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles. This interaction between genes is called <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">epistasis</a>, with the second gene epistatic to the first.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect644_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect644-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">skin color</a>). These <a href="/wiki/Complex_traits" title="Complex traits">complex traits</a> are products of many genes.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced. The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect4009_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect4009-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative—in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait. For example, human height is a trait with complex causes. It has a heritability of 89% in the United States. In Nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, height has a heritability of only 62%.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molecular_basis_for_inheritance">Molecular basis for inheritance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Molecular basis for inheritance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_and_chromosomes">DNA and chromosomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: DNA and chromosomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_chemical_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/220px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/330px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/440px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1750" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure">molecular structure</a> of DNA. Bases pair through the arrangement of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonding">hydrogen bonding</a> between the strands.</figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a> basis for genes is <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA). DNA is composed of <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">deoxyribose</a> (sugar molecule), a phosphate group, and a base (amine group). There are four types of bases: <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a> (A), <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a> (G), and <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a> (T). The phosphates make phosphodiester bonds with the sugars to make long phosphate-sugar backbones. Bases specifically pair together (T&A, C&G) between two backbones and make like rungs on a ladder. The bases, phosphates, and sugars together make a <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> that connects to make long chains of DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_2006_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson_2006-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chains coil into a double a-helix structure and wrap around proteins called <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histones</a> which provide the structural support. DNA wrapped around these histones are called chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a> sometimes use the similar molecule <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> instead of DNA as their genetic material.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a>. Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1523_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect1523-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyogram</a> of a human, showing 22 <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosome</a> pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a> (bottom right), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (at bottom left) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base-pair sequences. In <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, each cell usually contains a single circular <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">genophore</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> organisms (such as plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in length.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of <a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">nucleosomes</a>, segments of DNA wound around cores of <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histone</a> proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. </p><p>DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-ruth_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruth-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In plants, these are often found in the chloroplasts and in other organisms, in the mitochondria.<sup id="cite_ref-ruth_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruth-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These nonchromosomal genes can still be passed on by either partner in sexual reproduction and they control a variety of hereditary characteristics that replicate and remain active throughout generations.<sup id="cite_ref-ruth_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruth-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a>, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on identical <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">loci</a> of the two <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologous chromosomes">homologous chromosomes</a>, each allele inherited from a different parent.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect484-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many species have so-called <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a> that determine the sex of each organism.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect222_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect222-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans and many other animals, the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a> contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a> is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. This being said, Mary Frances Lyon discovered that there is X-chromosome inactivation during reproduction to avoid passing on twice as many genes to the offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-lyon_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyon-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lyon's discovery led to the discovery of X-linked diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-lyon_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyon-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zellsubstanz-Kern-Kerntheilung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Zellsubstanz-Kern-Kerntheilung.jpg/220px-Zellsubstanz-Kern-Kerntheilung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Zellsubstanz-Kern-Kerntheilung.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Walther_Flemming" title="Walther Flemming">Walther Flemming</a>'s 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized. Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells.</figcaption></figure> <p>When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">daughter cell</a> inherits one copy. This process, called <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent. Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotic</a> organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome (<a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>) and double copies (<a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect484-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">eggs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a>, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1304_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect1304-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1343_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect1343-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These processes result in <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated. <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Natural bacterial transformation</a> occurs in many <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a> species, and can be regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual process</a> for transferring DNA from one cell to another cell (usually of the same species).<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2018-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transformation requires the action of numerous bacterial <a href="/wiki/Gene_product" title="Gene product">gene products</a>, and its primary adaptive function appears to be <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repair</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damages</a> in the recipient cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2018-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recombination_and_genetic_linkage">Recombination and genetic linkage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Recombination and genetic linkage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">Chromosomal crossover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">Genetic linkage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png/220px-Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png/330px-Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png/440px-Morgan_crossover_2_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>'s 1916 illustration of a double crossover between chromosomes</figcaption></figure> <p>The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to <a href="/wiki/Independent_assortment" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent assortment">assort independently</a> or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed. In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair. Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine. However, they do, via the cellular process of <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">chromosomal crossover</a>. During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect929_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect929-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells. <a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiotic recombination</a>, particularly in microbial <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, appears to serve the adaptive function of repair of DNA damages.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2018-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> in 1931. Their research and experiments on corn provided cytological evidence for the genetic theory that linked genes on paired chromosomes do in fact exchange places from one homolog to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between the points. For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.<sup id="cite_ref-Staub1994_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staub1994-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage; alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together. The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage#Linkage_map" title="Genetic linkage">linkage map</a> that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect899_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect899-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gene_expression">Gene expression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gene expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_code">Genetic code</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Genetic code"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genetic_code.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Genetic_code.svg/290px-Genetic_code.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Genetic_code.svg/435px-Genetic_code.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Genetic_code.svg/580px-Genetic_code.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>: Using a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code#Discovery" title="Genetic code">triplet code</a>, DNA, through a <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> intermediary, specifies a protein.</figcaption></figure> <p>Genes <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">express</a> their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each composed of a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. The DNA sequence of a gene is used to produce a specific <a href="/wiki/Protein_primary_structure" title="Protein primary structure">amino acid sequence</a>. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>. </p><p>This <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> molecule then serves to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>. Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codon</a>, corresponds either to one of the twenty possible amino acids in a protein or an <a href="/wiki/Stop_codon" title="Stop codon">instruction to end the amino acid sequence</a>; this correspondence is called the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flow of information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA—a phenomenon <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">central dogma of molecular biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crick1970_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crick1970-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The specific sequence of amino acids <a href="/wiki/Protein_folding" title="Protein folding">results</a> in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> by facilitating <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single nucleotide difference</a> within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, <a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell anemia">sickle-cell anemia</a> is a human <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disease</a> that results from a single base difference within the <a href="/wiki/Coding_region" title="Coding region">coding region</a> for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding RNA</a>. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a>). RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (such as <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_and_nurture">Nature and nurture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nature and nurture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nature_and_nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature and nurture">Nature and nurture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg/170px-Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg/255px-Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg/340px-Niobe050905-Siamese_Cat.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siamese_(cat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese (cat)">Siamese cats</a> have a temperature-sensitive pigment-production mutation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism displays. The phrase "<a href="/wiki/Nature_and_nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature and nurture">nature and nurture</a>" refers to this complementary relationship. The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genes and the environment. An interesting example is the coat coloration of the <a href="/wiki/Siamese_(cat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese (cat)">Siamese cat</a>. In this case, the body temperature of the cat plays the role of the environment. The cat's genes code for dark hair, thus the hair-producing cells in the cat make cellular proteins resulting in dark hair. But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and <a href="/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denature</a> in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature. In a low-temperature environment, however, the protein's structure is stable and produces dark-hair pigment normally. The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder—such as its legs, ears, tail, and face—so the cat has dark hair at its extremities.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environment plays a major role in effects of the human genetic disease <a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">phenylketonuria</a>. The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a>, causing a toxic build-up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive intellectual disability and seizures. However, if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, they remain normal and healthy.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common method for determining how genes and environment ("nature and nurture") contribute to a phenotype involves <a href="/wiki/Twin_study" title="Twin study">studying identical and fraternal twins</a>, or other siblings of <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">multiple births</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Identical siblings are genetically the same since they come from the same zygote. Meanwhile, fraternal twins are as genetically different from one another as normal siblings. By comparing how often a certain disorder occurs in a pair of identical twins to how often it occurs in a pair of fraternal twins, scientists can determine whether that disorder is caused by genetic or postnatal environmental factors. One famous example involved the study of the <a href="/wiki/Genain_quadruplets" title="Genain quadruplets">Genain quadruplets</a>, who were <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">identical quadruplets</a> all diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Genain_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genain-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_regulation">Gene regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Gene regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Regulation of gene expression</a></div> <p>The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell. <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcription factors</a> are regulatory proteins that bind to DNA, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of a gene.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the genome of <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i> bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>. However, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes—tryptophan molecules bind to the <a href="/wiki/Trp_repressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Trp repressor">tryptophan repressor</a> (a transcription factor), changing the repressor's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes. The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png/170px-Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png/255px-Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png/340px-Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png 2x" data-file-width="1606" data-file-height="1506" /></a><figcaption>Transcription factors bind to DNA, influencing the transcription of associated genes.</figcaption></figure> <p>Differences in gene expression are especially clear within <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a>, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">intercellular signals</a> and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. As no single gene is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">development</a> of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Within <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, there exist structural features of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These features are called "<a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetic</a>" because they exist "on top" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. Because of epigenetic features, different cell types <a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">grown</a> within the same medium can retain very different properties. Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Paramutation" title="Paramutation">paramutation</a>, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_change">Genetic change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Genetic change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutations">Mutations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mutations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gene-duplication.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Gene-duplication.png/170px-Gene-duplication.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Gene-duplication.png/255px-Gene-duplication.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Gene-duplication.png/340px-Gene-duplication.png 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="777" /></a><figcaption>Gene duplication allows diversification by providing redundancy: one gene can mutate and lose its original function without harming the organism.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2706_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect2706-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kunkel_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunkel-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called <a href="/wiki/Mutagenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutagenic">mutagenic</a>: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a> induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2727_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect2727-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well and cells use <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks. The repair does not, however, always restore the original sequence. A particularly important source of DNA damages appears to be <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23378590_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23378590-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> produced by <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular aerobic respiration</a>, and these can lead to mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22750987_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22750987-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In organisms that use <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">chromosomal crossover</a> to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—<a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">duplications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">inversions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_deletion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene deletion">deletions</a> of entire regions—or the accidental exchange of whole parts of sequences between different chromosomes, <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">chromosomal translocation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2844_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect2844-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mutations.svg/220px-Mutations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mutations.svg/330px-Mutations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mutations.svg/440px-Mutations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>This is a diagram showing mutations in an RNA sequence. Figure (1) is a normal RNA sequence, consisting of 4 codons. Figure (2) shows a missense, single point, non silent mutation. Figures (3 and 4) both show <a href="/wiki/Frameshift_mutation" title="Frameshift mutation">frameshift mutations</a>, which is why they are grouped together. Figure 3 shows a deletion of the second base pair in the second codon. Figure 4 shows an insertion in the third base pair of the second codon. Figure (5) shows a repeat expansion, where an entire codon is duplicated.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_selection_and_evolution">Natural selection and evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Natural selection and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></div> <p>Mutations alter an organism's genotype and occasionally this causes different phenotypes to appear. Most mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, or reproductive <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutations that do have an effect are usually detrimental, but occasionally some can be beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-CalverLymbery2009_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CalverLymbery2009-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies in the fly <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, about 70 percent of these mutations are harmful with the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eukaryote_tree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eukaryote_tree.svg/220px-Eukaryote_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eukaryote_tree.svg/330px-Eukaryote_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eukaryote_tree.svg/440px-Eukaryote_tree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary tree">evolutionary tree</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> organisms, constructed by the comparison of several <a href="/wiki/Orthologous_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthologous gene">orthologous gene</a> sequences</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a> studies the distribution of genetic differences within populations and how these distributions change over time.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3842_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect3842-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in the <a href="/wiki/Allele_frequency" title="Allele frequency">frequency of an allele</a> in a population are mainly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, where a given allele provides a selective or reproductive advantage to the organism,<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3886_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect3886-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as other factors such as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_hitchhiking" title="Genetic hitchhiking">genetic hitchhiking</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial selection">artificial selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">migration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3906_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect3906-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over many generations, the genomes of organisms can change significantly, resulting in evolution. In the process called <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms better able to survive in their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Darwin_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darwin-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New species are formed through the process of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, often caused by geographical separations that prevent populations from exchanging genes with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Gavrilets_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gavrilets-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By comparing the <a href="/wiki/Sequence_homology" title="Sequence homology">homology</a> between different species' genomes, it is possible to calculate the evolutionary distance between them and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">when they may have diverged</a>. Genetic comparisons are generally considered a more accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species than the comparison of phenotypic characteristics. The evolutionary distances between species can be used to form <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary tree">evolutionary trees</a>; these trees represent the <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> and divergence of species over time, although they do not show the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species (known as <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> and most common in bacteria).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_technology">Research and technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Model_organisms">Model organisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Model organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Common_fruit_fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Common fruit fly">common fruit fly</a> (<i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>) is a popular <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> in genetics research.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide variety of organisms, the range of species studied has narrowed. One reason is that when significant research already exists for a given organism, new researchers are more likely to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> became the basis for most genetics research. Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">gene regulation</a> and the involvement of genes in <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. Organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience—short generation times and easy <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic manipulation</a> made some organisms popular genetics research tools. Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, the plant <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, baker's yeast (<i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>), the nematode <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i>, the common fruit fly (<i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>), the zebrafish (<i><a href="/wiki/Danio_rerio" class="mw-redirect" title="Danio rerio">Danio rerio</a></i>), and the common house mouse (<i><a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">Mus musculus</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biochemistry,_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/220px-Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/330px-Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/440px-Biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="854" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption>Schematic relationship between <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, genetics and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a> seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic <a href="/wiki/Pedigree_chart" title="Pedigree chart">pedigree charts</a> to find the location on the genome associated with the disease. At the population level, researchers take advantage of <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_randomization" title="Mendelian randomization">Mendelian randomization</a> to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a method especially useful for <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_trait_locus" title="Quantitative trait locus">multigenic traits</a> not clearly defined by a single gene.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the corresponding (or <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a>) genes of model organisms. In addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping methods has led to the field of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">pharmacogenetics</a>: the study of how genotype can affect drug responses.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individuals differ in their inherited tendency to develop <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, and cancer is a genetic disease. The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events. Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide. Although these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently. There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">cell death</a>, but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages. An internal process of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous <a href="/wiki/Tumour_heterogeneity" title="Tumour heterogeneity">tumor</a> that grows and invades various tissues of the body. Normally, a cell divides only in response to signals called <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">growth factors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contact_inhibition" title="Contact inhibition">stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells</a> and in response to growth-inhibitory signals. It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies, staying within the <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> where it is unable to migrate to other organs. To become a cancer cell, a cell has to accumulate mutations in a number of genes (three to seven). A cancer cell can divide without growth factor and ignores inhibitory signals. Also, it is immortal and can grow indefinitely, even after it makes contact with neighboring cells. It may escape from the epithelium and ultimately from the <a href="/wiki/Primary_tumor" title="Primary tumor">primary tumor</a>. Then, the escaped cell can cross the endothelium of a blood vessel and get transported by the bloodstream to colonize a new organ, forming deadly <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasis</a>. Although there are some genetic predispositions in a small fraction of cancers, the major fraction is due to a set of new genetic mutations that originally appear and accumulate in one or a small number of cells that will divide to form the tumor and are not transmitted to the progeny (<a href="/wiki/Somatic_mutation" title="Somatic mutation">somatic mutations</a>). The most frequent mutations are a loss of function of <a href="/wiki/P53_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="P53 protein">p53 protein</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tumor_suppressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor suppressor">tumor suppressor</a>, or in the p53 pathway, and gain of function mutations in the <a href="/wiki/Ras_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Ras proteins">Ras proteins</a>, or in other <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogenes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_methods">Research methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Research methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecoli_colonies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ecoli_colonies.png/180px-Ecoli_colonies.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ecoli_colonies.png/270px-Ecoli_colonies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ecoli_colonies.png/360px-Ecoli_colonies.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonies</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> produced by <a href="/wiki/Cloning#Unicellular_organisms" title="Cloning">cellular cloning</a>. A similar methodology is often used in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloning" title="Molecular cloning">molecular cloning</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. <a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction enzymes">Restriction enzymes</a> are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA fragments can be visualized through use of <a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">gel electrophoresis</a>, which separates fragments according to their length.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/DNA_ligase" title="DNA ligase">ligation enzymes</a> allows DNA fragments to be connected. By binding ("ligating") fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can create <a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a>, the DNA often associated with <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organisms</a>. Recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>: short circular DNA molecules with a few genes on them. In the process known as <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloning" title="Molecular cloning">molecular cloning</a>, researchers can amplify the DNA fragments by inserting plasmids into bacteria and then culturing them on plates of agar (to isolate <a href="/wiki/Cloning#Unicellular_organisms" title="Cloning">clones of bacteria cells</a>). "Cloning" can also refer to the various means of creating cloned ("clonal") organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR).<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using specific short sequences of DNA, PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA. Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA, PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_2017_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang_2017-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garibyan_2013_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garibyan_2013-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_sequencing_and_genomics">DNA sequencing and genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: DNA sequencing and genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></div> <p>DNA sequencing, one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. The technique of <a href="/wiki/Sanger_sequencing" title="Sanger sequencing">chain-termination sequencing</a>, developed in 1977 by a team led by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a>, is still routinely used to sequence DNA fragments. Using this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As sequencing has become less expensive, researchers have <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">sequenced the genomes</a> of many organisms using a process called <a href="/wiki/Genome_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome assembly">genome assembly</a>, which uses computational tools to stitch together sequences from many different fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These technologies were used to sequence the human genome in the Human Genome Project completed in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-human_genome_project_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human_genome_project-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing#New_sequencing_methods" title="DNA sequencing">high-throughput sequencing</a> technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Next-generation sequencing">Next-generation sequencing</a> (or high-throughput sequencing) came about due to the ever-increasing demand for low-cost sequencing. These sequencing technologies allow the production of potentially millions of sequences concurrently.<sup id="cite_ref-hall2007_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-church2006_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-church2006-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large amount of sequence data available has created the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of <a href="/wiki/Biological_data" title="Biological data">biological data</a>. A common problem to these fields of research is how to manage and share data that deals with human subject and <a href="/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Personally identifiable information">personally identifiable information</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetics_in_fiction" title="Genetics in fiction">Genetics in fiction</a></div> <p>On 19 March 2015, a group of leading biologists urged a worldwide ban on clinical use of methods, particularly the use of <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc_finger" title="Zinc finger">zinc finger</a>, to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20150319_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150319-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20150303-AP_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150303-AP-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20150319_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20150319-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20150312_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20150312-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2015, Chinese researchers <a href="/wiki/CRISPR#Society_and_culture" title="CRISPR">reported</a> results of <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> to edit the DNA of non-viable <a href="/wiki/Human_embryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryos">human embryos</a> using CRISPR.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20150423_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150423-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PC-20150418_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC-20150418-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_genome_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial genome size">Bacterial genome size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryoconservation_of_animal_genetic_resources" title="Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources">Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic enhancement">Genetic enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics_(M%E2%88%92Z)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics (M−Z)">Glossary of genetics (M−Z)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index of genetics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_tools_for_gene_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular tools for gene study">Molecular tools for gene study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepigenetics" title="Neuroepigenetics">Neuroepigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline of genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics" title="Timeline of the history of genetics">Timeline of the history of genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">Plant genetic resources</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect60-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect60_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60">"Genetics and the Organism: Introduction"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genetics+and+the+Organism%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hartl_and_Jones-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartl D, Jones E (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/genetics">"the definition of genetics"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=the+definition+of+genetics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fgenetics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321880&redirect=true">"Genetikos (γενετ-ικός)"</a>. <i>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100615000649/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=#1980&redirect=true">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Henry+George+Liddell%2C+Robert+Scott%2C+A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.atitle=Genetikos+%28%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%84-%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253D%252321880%26redirect%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321873&redirect=true">"Genesis (γένεσις)"</a>. <i>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100615000649/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=#1980&redirect=true">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Henry+George+Liddell%2C+Robert+Scott%2C+A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.atitle=Genesis+%28%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253D%252321873%26redirect%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Genetic&searchmode=none">"Genetic"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110823020616/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Genetic&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genetic&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3DGenetic%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Publishing2009-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Publishing2009_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sFiJFuzRVFQC&pg=PA362"><i>Science: The Definitive Visual Guide</i></a>. Penguin. 2009. p. 362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6490-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6490-9"><bdi>978-0-7566-6490-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+The+Definitive+Visual+Guide&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7566-6490-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsFiJFuzRVFQC%26pg%3DPA362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022a-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022a_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczaiSantiago-Blay2022" class="citation journal cs1">Poczai P, Santiago-Blay JA (July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9332421">"Themes of Biological Inheritance in Early Nineteenth Century Sheep Breeding as Revealed by J. M. Ehrenfels"</a>. <i>Genes</i>. <b>13</b> (8): 1311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgenes13081311">10.3390/genes13081311</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9332421">9332421</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35893050">35893050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genes&rft.atitle=Themes+of+Biological+Inheritance+in+Early+Nineteenth+Century+Sheep+Breeding+as+Revealed+by+J.+M.+Ehrenfels&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1311&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9332421%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35893050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fgenes13081311&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Santiago-Blay%2C+JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9332421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiling-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weiling_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiling1991" class="citation journal cs1">Weiling F (July 1991). "Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822-1884". <i>American Journal of Medical Genetics</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 1–25, discussion 26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajmg.1320400103">10.1002/ajmg.1320400103</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1887835">1887835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Medical+Genetics&rft.atitle=Historical+study%3A+Johann+Gregor+Mendel+1822-1884&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-25%2C+discussion+26&rft.date=1991-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajmg.1320400103&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1887835&rft.aulast=Weiling&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2021_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczaiSantiago-Blay2021" class="citation journal cs1">Poczai P, Santiago-Blay JA (October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8532317">"Principles and biological concepts of heredity before Mendel"</a>. <i>Biology Direct</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13062-021-00308-4">10.1186/s13062-021-00308-4</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8532317">8532317</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34674746">34674746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Direct&rft.atitle=Principles+and+biological+concepts+of+heredity+before+Mendel&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2021-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8532317%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34674746&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13062-021-00308-4&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Santiago-Blay%2C+JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8532317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/50px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/75px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/100px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="88" data-file-height="31" /></a></span> Text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Archived</a> 16 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_and_Szabó_2019-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_and_Szabó_2019_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabóPoczai2019" class="citation journal cs1">Szabó AT, Poczai P (June 2019). "The emergence of genetics from Festetics' sheep through Mendel's peas to Bateson's chickens". <i>Journal of Genetics</i>. <b>98</b> (2): 63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12041-019-1108-z">10.1007/s12041-019-1108-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F324962">10138/324962</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31204695">31204695</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:174803150">174803150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+emergence+of+genetics+from+Festetics%27+sheep+through+Mendel%27s+peas+to+Bateson%27s+chickens&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=63&rft.date=2019-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10138%2F324962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A174803150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31204695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12041-019-1108-z&rft.aulast=Szab%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=AT&rft.au=Poczai%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczaiBellHyvönen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Poczai P, Bell N, Hyvönen J (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3897355">"Imre Festetics and the Sheep Breeders' Society of Moravia: Mendel's Forgotten "Research Network"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>12</b> (1): e1001772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001772">10.1371/journal.pbio.1001772</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3897355">3897355</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24465180">24465180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Imre+Festetics+and+the+Sheep+Breeders%27+Society+of+Moravia%3A+Mendel%27s+Forgotten+%22Research+Network%22&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e1001772&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3897355%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24465180&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001772&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Bell%2C+N&rft.au=Hyv%C3%B6nen%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3897355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_2022-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_2022_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczai2022" class="citation book cs1">Poczai P (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QJRwEAAAQBAJ&dq=info:maQOFGaQPfYJ:scholar.google.com&pg=PT6"><i>Heredity Before Mendel: Festetics and the Question of Sheep's Wool in Central Europe</i></a>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-032-02743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-032-02743-2"><bdi>978-1-032-02743-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heredity+Before+Mendel%3A+Festetics+and+the+Question+of+Sheep%27s+Wool+in+Central+Europe&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-032-02743-2&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQJRwEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dinfo%3AmaQOFGaQPfYJ%3Ascholar.google.com%26pg%3DPT6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_et_al._2022-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_et_al._2022_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczaiSantiago-BlaySekerákBariska2022" class="citation journal cs1">Poczai P, Santiago-Blay JA, Sekerák J, Bariska I, Szabó AT (October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9668798">"Mimush Sheep and the Spectre of Inbreeding: Historical Background for Festetics's Organic and Genetic Laws Four Decades Before Mendel's Experiments in Peas"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>55</b> (3): 495–536. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10739-022-09678-5">10.1007/s10739-022-09678-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9668798">9668798</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35670984">35670984</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249433049">249433049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Mimush+Sheep+and+the+Spectre+of+Inbreeding%3A+Historical+Background+for+Festetics%27s+Organic+and+Genetic+Laws+Four+Decades+Before+Mendel%27s+Experiments+in+Peas&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=495-536&rft.date=2022-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9668798%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249433049%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35670984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10739-022-09678-5&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Santiago-Blay%2C+JA&rft.au=Seker%C3%A1k%2C+J&rft.au=Bariska%2C+I&rft.au=Szab%C3%B3%2C+AT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9668798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022b-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poczai_and_Santiago-Blay_2022b_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoczaiSantiago-Blay2022" class="citation journal cs1">Poczai P, Santiago-Blay JA (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8959437">"Chip Off the Old Block: Generation, Development, and Ancestral Concepts of Heredity"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Genetics</i>. <b>13</b>: 814436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffgene.2022.814436">10.3389/fgene.2022.814436</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8959437">8959437</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35356423">35356423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Chip+Off+the+Old+Block%3A+Generation%2C+Development%2C+and+Ancestral+Concepts+of+Heredity&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=814436&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8959437%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35356423&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffgene.2022.814436&rft.aulast=Poczai&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Santiago-Blay%2C+JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8959437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamilton2011-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hamilton2011_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2011" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton H (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ng85sd1UR7EC&pg=PT26"><i>Population Genetics</i></a>. Georgetown University. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6245-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6245-9"><bdi>978-1-4443-6245-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+Genetics&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Georgetown+University&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-6245-9&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dng85sd1UR7EC%26pg%3DPT26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamarck, J-B (2008). In <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-273180">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200414173437/http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-273180">Archived</a> 14 April 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on 16 March 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Peter J. Bowler</a>, <i>The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergency of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989): chapters 2 & 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mendel-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mendel_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mendel_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumberg" class="citation web cs1">Blumberg RB. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html">"Mendel's Paper in English"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160113051202/http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mendel%27s+Paper+in+English&rft.aulast=Blumberg&rft.aufirst=RB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mendelweb.org%2FMendel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">genetics, <i>n.</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>, 3rd ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateson" class="citation web cs1">Bateson W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071013020831/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm">"Letter from William Bateson to Alan Sedgwick in 1905"</a>. The John Innes Centre. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm">the original</a> on 13 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+from+William+Bateson+to+Alan+Sedgwick+in+1905&rft.pub=The+John+Innes+Centre&rft.aulast=Bateson&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jic.ac.uk%2Fcorporate%2Fabout%2Fbateson.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span> The letter was to an Adam Sedgwick, a zoologist and "Reader in Animal Morphology" at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">genetic, <i>adj.</i>, Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2007" class="citation journal cs1">Richmond ML (November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/reviews/genetics">"Opportunities for women in early genetics"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. Genetics</i>. <b>8</b> (11): 897–902. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2200">10.1038/nrg2200</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17893692">17893692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21992183">21992183</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516070928/http://www.nature.com/reviews/genetics/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Genetics&rft.atitle=Opportunities+for+women+in+early+genetics&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=897-902&rft.date=2007-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21992183%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17893692&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2200&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=ML&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Freviews%2Fgenetics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bateson_genetics-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bateson_genetics_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateson1907" class="citation conference cs1">Bateson W (1907). "The Progress of Genetic Research". In Wilks, W (ed.). <i>Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding</i>. London: Royal Horticultural Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+Progress+of+Genetic+Research&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Third+1906+International+Conference+on+Genetics%3A+Hybridization+%28the+cross-breeding+of+genera+or+species%29%2C+the+cross-breeding+of+varieties%2C+and+general+plant+breeding&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Royal+Horticultural+Society&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Bateson&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span> :Initially titled the "International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding", the title was changed as a result of Bateson's speech. See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCockForsdyke2008" class="citation book cs1">Cock AG, Forsdyke DR (2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasureyourexce00cock"><i>Treasure your exceptions: the science and life of William Bateson</i></a></span>. Springer. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasureyourexce00cock/page/n265">248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-75687-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-75687-5"><bdi>978-0-387-75687-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treasure+your+exceptions%3A+the+science+and+life+of+William+Bateson&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-75687-5&rft.aulast=Cock&rft.aufirst=AG&rft.au=Forsdyke%2C+DR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftreasureyourexce00cock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-net-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-net_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-net_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-net_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/nettie-stevens-a-discoverer-of-sex-chromosomes-6580266/">"Nettie Stevens: A Discoverer of Sex Chromosomes"</a>. <i>Scitable</i>. Nature Education<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scitable&rft.atitle=Nettie+Stevens%3A+A+Discoverer+of+Sex+Chromosomes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fscitable%2Ftopicpage%2Fnettie-stevens-a-discoverer-of-sex-chromosomes-6580266%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1983" class="citation journal cs1">Moore JA (1983). "Thomas Hunt Morgan – The Geneticist". <i>Integrative and Comparative Biology</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 855–865. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F23.4.855">10.1093/icb/23.4.855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Thomas+Hunt+Morgan+%E2%80%93+The+Geneticist&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=855-865&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F23.4.855&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturtevant1913" class="citation journal cs1">Sturtevant AH (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/s/ahs-13.pdf">"The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 43–59. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913JEZ....14...43S">1913JEZ....14...43S</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.37.9595">10.1.1.37.9595</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjez.1400140104">10.1002/jez.1400140104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:82583173">82583173</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080227183131/http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/s/ahs-13.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=The+linear+arrangement+of+six+sex-linked+factors+in+Drosophila%2C+as+shown+by+their+mode+of+association&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-59&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.37.9595%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A82583173%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjez.1400140104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1913JEZ....14...43S&rft.aulast=Sturtevant&rft.aufirst=AH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esp.org%2Ffoundations%2Fgenetics%2Fclassical%2Fholdings%2Fs%2Fahs-13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Avery_et_al-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Avery_et_al_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAveryMacleodMcCarty1944" class="citation journal cs1">Avery OT, Macleod CM, McCarty M (February 1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2135445">"STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES : INDUCTION OF TRANSFORMATION BY A DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID FRACTION ISOLATED FROM PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPE III"</a>. <i>The Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>. <b>79</b> (2): 137–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1084%2Fjem.79.2.137">10.1084/jem.79.2.137</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2135445">2135445</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19871359">19871359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.atitle=STUDIES+ON+THE+CHEMICAL+NATURE+OF+THE+SUBSTANCE+INDUCING+TRANSFORMATION+OF+PNEUMOCOCCAL+TYPES+%3A+INDUCTION+OF+TRANSFORMATION+BY+A+DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC+ACID+FRACTION+ISOLATED+FROM+PNEUMOCOCCUS+TYPE+III&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-158&rft.date=1944-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2135445%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19871359&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1084%2Fjem.79.2.137&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=OT&rft.au=Macleod%2C+CM&rft.au=McCarty%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2135445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span> Reprint: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAveryMacLeodMcCarty1979" class="citation journal cs1">Avery OT, MacLeod CM, McCarty M (February 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2184805">"Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. Inductions of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III"</a>. <i>The Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>. <b>149</b> (2): 297–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1084%2Fjem.149.2.297">10.1084/jem.149.2.297</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2184805">2184805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33226">33226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Studies+on+the+chemical+nature+of+the+substance+inducing+transformation+of+pneumococcal+types.+Inductions+of+transformation+by+a+desoxyribonucleic+acid+fraction+isolated+from+pneumococcus+type+III&rft.volume=149&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=297-326&rft.date=1979-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2184805%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1084%2Fjem.149.2.297&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=OT&rft.au=MacLeod%2C+CM&rft.au=McCarty%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2184805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanna2008" class="citation book cs1">Khanna P (2008). <i>Cell and Molecular Biology</i>. I.K. International Pvt Ltd. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89866-59-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89866-59-4"><bdi>978-81-89866-59-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cell+and+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=I.K.+International+Pvt+Ltd&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-89866-59-4&rft.aulast=Khanna&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHersheyChase1952" class="citation journal cs1">Hershey AD, Chase M (May 1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2147348">"Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage"</a>. <i>The Journal of General Physiology</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 39–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1085%2Fjgp.36.1.39">10.1085/jgp.36.1.39</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2147348">2147348</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12981234">12981234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Physiology&rft.atitle=Independent+functions+of+viral+protein+and+nucleic+acid+in+growth+of+bacteriophage&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-56&rft.date=1952-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2147348%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12981234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1085%2Fjgp.36.1.39&rft.aulast=Hershey&rft.aufirst=AD&rft.au=Chase%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2147348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudson1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Freeland_Judson" title="Horace Freeland Judson">Judson H</a> (1979). <i>The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology</i>. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. pp. 51–169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-477-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-477-7"><bdi>978-0-87969-477-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eighth+Day+of+Creation%3A+Makers+of+the+Revolution+in+Biology&rft.pages=51-169&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-87969-477-7&rft.aulast=Judson&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watsoncrick_1953a-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watsoncrick_1953a_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonCrick1953" class="citation journal cs1">Watson JD, Crick FH (April 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf">"Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>171</b> (4356): 737–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953Natur.171..737W">1953Natur.171..737W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F171737a0">10.1038/171737a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13054692">13054692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4253007">4253007</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070204110320/http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Molecular+structure+of+nucleic+acids%3B+a+structure+for+deoxyribose+nucleic+acid&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=4356&rft.pages=737-738&rft.date=1953-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F171737a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4253007%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13054692&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953Natur.171..737W&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Crick%2C+FH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fdna50%2Fwatsoncrick.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watsoncrick_1953b-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watsoncrick_1953b_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonCrick1953" class="citation journal cs1">Watson JD, Crick FH (May 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick2.pdf">"Genetical implications of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>171</b> (4361): 964–967. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953Natur.171..964W">1953Natur.171..964W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F171964b0">10.1038/171964b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13063483">13063483</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4256010">4256010</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030621051153/http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 21 June 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genetical+implications+of+the+structure+of+deoxyribonucleic+acid&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=4361&rft.pages=964-967&rft.date=1953-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F171964b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4256010%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13063483&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953Natur.171..964W&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Crick%2C+FH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fdna50%2Fwatsoncrick2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStratmannvan_Oijen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Stratmann SA, van Oijen AM (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/14412201/2014ChemSocRevStratmann.pdf">"DNA replication at the single-molecule level"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Chemical Society Reviews</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 1201–1220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fc3cs60391a">10.1039/c3cs60391a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24395040">24395040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205856075">205856075</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170706055534/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/14412201/2014ChemSocRevStratmann.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Society+Reviews&rft.atitle=DNA+replication+at+the+single-molecule+level&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1201-1220&rft.date=2014-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205856075%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24395040&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fc3cs60391a&rft.aulast=Stratmann&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=van+Oijen%2C+AM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F14412201%2F2014ChemSocRevStratmann.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Betz2010-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Betz2010_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederick2010" class="citation book cs1">Frederick B (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ARRexcXgAgC&pg=PA76"><i>Managing Science: Methodology and Organization of Research</i></a>. Springer. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7488-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7488-4"><bdi>978-1-4419-7488-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Science%3A+Methodology+and+Organization+of+Research&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-7488-4&rft.aulast=Frederick&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ARRexcXgAgC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rice2009-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rice2009_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice2009" class="citation book cs1">Rice SA (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YRcAVvmE6eMC&pg=PA134"><i>Encyclopedia of Evolution</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1005-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1005-9"><bdi>978-1-4381-1005-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Evolution&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1005-9&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=SA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYRcAVvmE6eMC%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarkar1998-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar1998_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkar1998" class="citation book cs1">Sarkar S (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7lzpDHFw-40C&pg=PA140"><i>Genetics and Reductionism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63713-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63713-8"><bdi>978-0-521-63713-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetics+and+Reductionism&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63713-8&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7lzpDHFw-40C%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhta1973" class="citation journal cs1">Ohta T (November 1973). "Slightly deleterious mutant substitutions in evolution". <i>Nature</i>. <b>246</b> (5428): 96–98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.246...96O">1973Natur.246...96O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F246096a0">10.1038/246096a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4585855">4585855</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4226804">4226804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Slightly+deleterious+mutant+substitutions+in+evolution&rft.volume=246&rft.issue=5428&rft.pages=96-98&rft.date=1973-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F246096a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4226804%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4585855&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973Natur.246...96O&rft.aulast=Ohta&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sanger_et_al-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sanger_et_al_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerNicklenCoulson1977" class="citation journal cs1">Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR (December 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431765">"DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>74</b> (12): 5463–5467. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PNAS...74.5463S">1977PNAS...74.5463S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.74.12.5463">10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431765">431765</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/271968">271968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=DNA+sequencing+with+chain-terminating+inhibitors&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=5463-5467&rft.date=1977-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC431765%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F271968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.74.12.5463&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977PNAS...74.5463S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Nicklen%2C+S&rft.au=Coulson%2C+AR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC431765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-saiki_et_al-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-saiki_et_al_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaikiScharfFaloonaMullis1985" class="citation journal cs1">Saiki RK, Scharf S, Faloona F, Mullis KB, Horn GT, Erlich HA, et al. (December 1985). "Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia". <i>Science</i>. <b>230</b> (4732): 1350–1354. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Sci...230.1350S">1985Sci...230.1350S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.2999980">10.1126/science.2999980</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2999980">2999980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Enzymatic+amplification+of+beta-globin+genomic+sequences+and+restriction+site+analysis+for+diagnosis+of+sickle+cell+anemia&rft.volume=230&rft.issue=4732&rft.pages=1350-1354&rft.date=1985-12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2999980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.2999980&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Sci...230.1350S&rft.aulast=Saiki&rft.aufirst=RK&rft.au=Scharf%2C+S&rft.au=Faloona%2C+F&rft.au=Mullis%2C+KB&rft.au=Horn%2C+GT&rft.au=Erlich%2C+HA&rft.au=Arnheim%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-human_genome_project-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-human_genome_project_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-human_genome_project_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080315062131/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml">"Human Genome Project Information"</a>. Human Genome Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml">the original</a> on 15 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Genome+Project+Information&rft.pub=Human+Genome+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ornl.gov%2Fsci%2Ftechresources%2FHuman_Genome%2Fhome.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The sequence of the human genome". <i>Science</i>. <b>291</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+sequence+of+the+human+genome&rft.volume=291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect199-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect199_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.199">"Patterns of Inheritance: Introduction"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+Inheritance%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect200-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect200_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.200">"Mendel's experiments"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mendel%27s+experiments&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect484-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect484_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.484">"Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mendelian+genetics+in+eukaryotic+life+cycles&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect630-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect630_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.630">"Interactions between the alleles of one gene"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interactions+between+the+alleles+of+one+gene&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.630&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/mendelian-genetics-ap/a/probabilities-in-genetics">"Probabilities in genetics (article)"</a>. <i>Khan Academy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Khan+Academy&rft.atitle=Probabilities+in+genetics+%28article%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fscience%2Fap-biology%2Fheredity%2Fmendelian-genetics-ap%2Fa%2Fprobabilities-in-genetics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheney" class="citation web cs1">Cheney RW. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080103021518/http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm">"Genetic Notation"</a>. Christopher Newport University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm">the original</a> on 3 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genetic+Notation&rft.pub=Christopher+Newport+University&rft.aulast=Cheney&rft.aufirst=RW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.users.cnu.edu%2Frcheney%2FGenetic%2520Notation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Müller-Wille-Parolini_2020-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Müller-Wille-Parolini_2020_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller-WilleParolini2020" class="citation book cs1">Müller-Wille S, Parolini G (9 December 2020). "Punnett squares and hybrid crosses: how Mendelians learned their trade by the book". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjhs-themes/article/punnett-squares-and-hybrid-crosses-how-mendelians-learned-their-trade-by-the-book/18A1CE37A6EE536CC1CE1D4FF6FF3174"><i>Learning by the Book: Manuals and Handbooks in the History of Science</i></a>. BJHS Themes. Vol. 5. <a href="/wiki/British_Society_for_the_History_of_Science" title="British Society for the History of Science">British Society for the History of Science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 149–165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbjt.2020.12">10.1017/bjt.2020.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229344415">229344415</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210329111650/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjhs-themes/article/punnett-squares-and-hybrid-crosses-how-mendelians-learned-their-trade-by-the-book/18A1CE37A6EE536CC1CE1D4FF6FF3174">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Punnett+squares+and+hybrid+crosses%3A+how+Mendelians+learned+their+trade+by+the+book&rft.btitle=Learning+by+the+Book%3A+Manuals+and+Handbooks+in+the+History+of+Science&rft.series=BJHS+Themes&rft.pages=149-165&rft.pub=British+Society+for+the+History+of+Science+%2F+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020-12-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fbjt.2020.12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229344415%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller-Wille&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Parolini%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fbjhs-themes%2Farticle%2Fpunnett-squares-and-hybrid-crosses-how-mendelians-learned-their-trade-by-the-book%2F18A1CE37A6EE536CC1CE1D4FF6FF3174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect229-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect229_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.229">"Human Genetics"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+Genetics&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect644-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect644_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.644">"Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gene+interaction+and+modified+dihybrid+ratios&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayeux2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mayeux R (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1137013">"Mapping the new frontier: complex genetic disorders"</a>. <i>The Journal of Clinical Investigation</i>. <b>115</b> (6): 1404–1407. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1172%2FJCI25421">10.1172/JCI25421</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1137013">1137013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15931374">15931374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Clinical+Investigation&rft.atitle=Mapping+the+new+frontier%3A+complex+genetic+disorders&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1404-1407&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1137013%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15931374&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1172%2FJCI25421&rft.aulast=Mayeux&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1137013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect4009-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect4009_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.4009">"Quantifying heritability"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Quantifying+heritability&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.4009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukeGuoAdeyemoWilks2001" class="citation journal cs1">Luke A, Guo X, Adeyemo AA, Wilks R, Forrester T, Lowe W, et al. (July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0801650">"Heritability of obesity-related traits among Nigerians, Jamaicans and US black people"</a>. <i>International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders</i>. <b>25</b> (7): 1034–1041. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0801650">10.1038/sj.ijo.0801650</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11443503">11443503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Obesity+and+Related+Metabolic+Disorders&rft.atitle=Heritability+of+obesity-related+traits+among+Nigerians%2C+Jamaicans+and+US+black+people&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1034-1041&rft.date=2001-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0801650&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11443503&rft.aulast=Luke&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Guo%2C+X&rft.au=Adeyemo%2C+AA&rft.au=Wilks%2C+R&rft.au=Forrester%2C+T&rft.au=Lowe%2C+W&rft.au=Comuzzie%2C+AG&rft.au=Martin%2C+LJ&rft.au=Zhu%2C+X&rft.au=Rotimi%2C+CN&rft.au=Cooper%2C+RS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.ijo.0801650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrryCainWassermanMinorsky" class="citation web cs1">Urry L, Cain M, Wasserman S, Minorsky P, Reece J, Campbell N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plus.pearson.com/courses/gregg91165/products/GTP1DPWIL20/pages/ac865b14db19976dfd6054de245cd8d8e65000756?locale=&key=2790626781132109428282022&iesCode=5VEW6xrTXI">"Campbell Biology"</a>. <i>plus.pearson.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plus.pearson.com&rft.atitle=Campbell+Biology&rft.aulast=Urry&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Cain%2C+M&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+S&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+P&rft.au=Reece%2C+J&rft.au=Campbell%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplus.pearson.com%2Fcourses%2Fgregg91165%2Fproducts%2FGTP1DPWIL20%2Fpages%2Fac865b14db19976dfd6054de245cd8d8e65000756%3Flocale%3D%26key%3D2790626781132109428282022%26iesCode%3D5VEW6xrTXI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson_2006-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_2006_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Pearson H (May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F441398a">"Genetics: what is a gene?"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>441</b> (7092): 398–401. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..398P">2006Natur.441..398P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F441398a">10.1038/441398a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16724031">16724031</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4420674">4420674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genetics%3A+what+is+a+gene%3F&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=7092&rft.pages=398-401&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F441398a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4420674%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16724031&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..398P&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F441398a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/histone">"Histone"</a>. <i>Genome.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genome.gov&rft.atitle=Histone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2Fgenetics-glossary%2Fhistone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrescottHarleyKlein1996" class="citation book cs1">Prescott LM, Harley JP, Klein DA (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/microbiology0000pres/page/342/mode/2up"><i>Microbiology</i></a> (3rd ed.). Wm. C. Brown. p. 343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-697-21865-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-697-21865-1"><bdi>0-697-21865-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microbiology&rft.pages=343&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wm.+C.+Brown&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-697-21865-1&rft.aulast=Prescott&rft.aufirst=LM&rft.au=Harley%2C+JP&rft.au=Klein%2C+DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmicrobiology0000pres%2Fpage%2F342%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect1523-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1523_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1523">"Mechanism of DNA Replication"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mechanism+of+DNA+Replication&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.1523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregoryBarlowMcLayKaul2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gregory SG, Barlow KF, McLay KE, Kaul R, Swarbreck D, Dunham A, et al. (May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04727">"The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>441</b> (7091): 315–321. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..315G">2006Natur.441..315G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04727">10.1038/nature04727</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16710414">16710414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+DNA+sequence+and+biological+annotation+of+human+chromosome+1&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=7091&rft.pages=315-321&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16710414&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04727&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..315G&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=SG&rft.au=Barlow%2C+KF&rft.au=McLay%2C+KE&rft.au=Kaul%2C+R&rft.au=Swarbreck%2C+D&rft.au=Dunham%2C+A&rft.au=Scott%2C+CE&rft.au=Howe%2C+KL&rft.au=Woodfine%2C+K&rft.au=Spencer%2C+CC&rft.au=Jones%2C+MC&rft.au=Gillson%2C+C&rft.au=Searle%2C+S&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Y&rft.au=Kokocinski%2C+F&rft.au=McDonald%2C+L&rft.au=Evans%2C+R&rft.au=Phillips%2C+K&rft.au=Atkinson%2C+A&rft.au=Cooper%2C+R&rft.au=Jones%2C+C&rft.au=Hall%2C+RE&rft.au=Andrews%2C+TD&rft.au=Lloyd%2C+C&rft.au=Ainscough%2C+R&rft.au=Almeida%2C+JP&rft.au=Ambrose%2C+KD&rft.au=Anderson%2C+F&rft.au=Andrew%2C+RW&rft.au=Ashwell%2C+RI&rft.au=Aubin%2C+K&rft.au=Babbage%2C+AK&rft.au=Bagguley%2C+CL&rft.au=Bailey%2C+J&rft.au=Beasley%2C+H&rft.au=Bethel%2C+G&rft.au=Bird%2C+CP&rft.au=Bray-Allen%2C+S&rft.au=Brown%2C+JY&rft.au=Brown%2C+AJ&rft.au=Buckley%2C+D&rft.au=Burton%2C+J&rft.au=Bye%2C+J&rft.au=Carder%2C+C&rft.au=Chapman%2C+JC&rft.au=Clark%2C+SY&rft.au=Clarke%2C+G&rft.au=Clee%2C+C&rft.au=Cobley%2C+V&rft.au=Collier%2C+RE&rft.au=Corby%2C+N&rft.au=Coville%2C+GJ&rft.au=Davies%2C+J&rft.au=Deadman%2C+R&rft.au=Dunn%2C+M&rft.au=Earthrowl%2C+M&rft.au=Ellington%2C+AG&rft.au=Errington%2C+H&rft.au=Frankish%2C+A&rft.au=Frankland%2C+J&rft.au=French%2C+L&rft.au=Garner%2C+P&rft.au=Garnett%2C+J&rft.au=Gay%2C+L&rft.au=Ghori%2C+MR&rft.au=Gibson%2C+R&rft.au=Gilby%2C+LM&rft.au=Gillett%2C+W&rft.au=Glithero%2C+RJ&rft.au=Grafham%2C+DV&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+C&rft.au=Griffiths-Jones%2C+S&rft.au=Grocock%2C+R&rft.au=Hammond%2C+S&rft.au=Harrison%2C+ES&rft.au=Hart%2C+E&rft.au=Haugen%2C+E&rft.au=Heath%2C+PD&rft.au=Holmes%2C+S&rft.au=Holt%2C+K&rft.au=Howden%2C+PJ&rft.au=Hunt%2C+AR&rft.au=Hunt%2C+SE&rft.au=Hunter%2C+G&rft.au=Isherwood%2C+J&rft.au=James%2C+R&rft.au=Johnson%2C+C&rft.au=Johnson%2C+D&rft.au=Joy%2C+A&rft.au=Kay%2C+M&rft.au=Kershaw%2C+JK&rft.au=Kibukawa%2C+M&rft.au=Kimberley%2C+AM&rft.au=King%2C+A&rft.au=Knights%2C+AJ&rft.au=Lad%2C+H&rft.au=Laird%2C+G&rft.au=Lawlor%2C+S&rft.au=Leongamornlert%2C+DA&rft.au=Lloyd%2C+DM&rft.au=Loveland%2C+J&rft.au=Lovell%2C+J&rft.au=Lush%2C+MJ&rft.au=Lyne%2C+R&rft.au=Martin%2C+S&rft.au=Mashreghi-Mohammadi%2C+M&rft.au=Matthews%2C+L&rft.au=Matthews%2C+NS&rft.au=McLaren%2C+S&rft.au=Milne%2C+S&rft.au=Mistry%2C+S&rft.au=Moore%2C+MJ&rft.au=Nickerson%2C+T&rft.au=O%27Dell%2C+CN&rft.au=Oliver%2C+K&rft.au=Palmeiri%2C+A&rft.au=Palmer%2C+SA&rft.au=Parker%2C+A&rft.au=Patel%2C+D&rft.au=Pearce%2C+AV&rft.au=Peck%2C+AI&rft.au=Pelan%2C+S&rft.au=Phelps%2C+K&rft.au=Phillimore%2C+BJ&rft.au=Plumb%2C+R&rft.au=Rajan%2C+J&rft.au=Raymond%2C+C&rft.au=Rouse%2C+G&rft.au=Saenphimmachak%2C+C&rft.au=Sehra%2C+HK&rft.au=Sheridan%2C+E&rft.au=Shownkeen%2C+R&rft.au=Sims%2C+S&rft.au=Skuce%2C+CD&rft.au=Smith%2C+M&rft.au=Steward%2C+C&rft.au=Subramanian%2C+S&rft.au=Sycamore%2C+N&rft.au=Tracey%2C+A&rft.au=Tromans%2C+A&rft.au=Van+Helmond%2C+Z&rft.au=Wall%2C+M&rft.au=Wallis%2C+JM&rft.au=White%2C+S&rft.au=Whitehead%2C+SL&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+JE&rft.au=Willey%2C+DL&rft.au=Williams%2C+H&rft.au=Wilming%2C+L&rft.au=Wray%2C+PW&rft.au=Wu%2C+Z&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A&rft.au=Vaudin%2C+M&rft.au=Sulston%2C+JE&rft.au=Durbin%2C+R&rft.au=Hubbard%2C+T&rft.au=Wooster%2C+R&rft.au=Dunham%2C+I&rft.au=Carter%2C+NP&rft.au=McVean%2C+G&rft.au=Ross%2C+MT&rft.au=Harrow%2C+J&rft.au=Olson%2C+MV&rft.au=Beck%2C+S&rft.au=Rogers%2C+J&rft.au=Bentley%2C+DR&rft.au=Banerjee%2C+R&rft.au=Bryant%2C+SP&rft.au=Burford%2C+DC&rft.au=Burrill%2C+WD&rft.au=Clegg%2C+SM&rft.au=Dhami%2C+P&rft.au=Dovey%2C+O&rft.au=Faulkner%2C+LM&rft.au=Gribble%2C+SM&rft.au=Langford%2C+CF&rft.au=Pandian%2C+RD&rft.au=Porter%2C+KM&rft.au=Prigmore%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature04727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberts et al. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608">II.4. DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071018075642/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608">Archived</a> 18 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ruth-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ruth_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ruth_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ruth_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ruth-Sager">"Ruth Sager"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ruth+Sager&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FRuth-Sager&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect222-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect222_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.222">"Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sex+chromosomes+and+sex-linked+inheritance&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lyon-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lyon_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lyon_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRastan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Rastan S (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F518036a">"Mary F. Lyon (1925-2014)"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>518</b> (7537). Springer Nature Limited: 36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.518...36R">2015Natur.518...36R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F518036a">10.1038/518036a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25652989">25652989</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4405984">4405984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mary+F.+Lyon+%281925-2014%29&rft.volume=518&rft.issue=7537&rft.pages=36&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F518036a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4405984%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25652989&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.518...36R&rft.aulast=Rastan&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F518036a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clone">"clone"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.atitle=clone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fclone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/haploid">"Haploid"</a>. <i>www.genome.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.genome.gov&rft.atitle=Haploid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2Fgenetics-glossary%2Fhaploid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect1304-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1304_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1304">"Bacterial conjugation"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bacterial+conjugation&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.1304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect1343-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect1343_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1343">"Bacterial transformation"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bacterial+transformation&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.1343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernstein2018-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein2018_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernsteinBernsteinMichod2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.meegid.2017.10.024">"Sex in microbial pathogens"</a>. <i>Infection, Genetics and Evolution</i>. <b>57</b>: 8–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018InfGE..57....8B">2018InfGE..57....8B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.meegid.2017.10.024">10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29111273">29111273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection%2C+Genetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Sex+in+microbial+pathogens&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=8-25&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29111273&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.meegid.2017.10.024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018InfGE..57....8B&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+C&rft.au=Michod%2C+RE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.meegid.2017.10.024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect929-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect929_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbar, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.929">"Nature of crossing-over"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nature+of+crossing-over&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.929&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreightonMcClintock1931" class="citation journal cs1">Creighton HB, McClintock B (August 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1076098">"A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea Mays"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>17</b> (8): 492–497. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931PNAS...17..492C">1931PNAS...17..492C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.17.8.492">10.1073/pnas.17.8.492</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1076098">1076098</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16587654">16587654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=A+Correlation+of+Cytological+and+Genetical+Crossing-Over+in+Zea+Mays&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=492-497&rft.date=1931-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1076098%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16587654&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.17.8.492&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931PNAS...17..492C&rft.aulast=Creighton&rft.aufirst=HB&rft.au=McClintock%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1076098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staub1994-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Staub1994_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaub1994" class="citation book cs1">Staub JE (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R43qWg5A-GsC&pg=PA55"><i>Crossover: Concepts and Applications in Genetics, Evolution, and Breeding</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-13564-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-13564-5"><bdi>978-0-299-13564-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossover%3A+Concepts+and+Applications+in+Genetics%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Breeding&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-299-13564-5&rft.aulast=Staub&rft.aufirst=JE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR43qWg5A-GsC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect899-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect899_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbar, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.899">"Linkage maps"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linkage+maps&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergTymoczkoStryerClarke2002" class="citation book cs1">Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=stryer.section.685">"I. 5. DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Genetic Information: Amino Acids Are Encoded by Groups of Three Bases Starting from a Fixed Point"</a>. <i>Biochemistry</i> (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060411095303/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=stryer.section.685">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I.+5.+DNA%2C+RNA%2C+and+the+Flow+of+Genetic+Information%3A+Amino+Acids+Are+Encoded+by+Groups+of+Three+Bases+Starting+from+a+Fixed+Point&rft.btitle=Biochemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Tymoczko%2C+JL&rft.au=Stryer%2C+L&rft.au=Clarke%2C+ND&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dstryer.section.685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crick1970-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-crick1970_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrick1970" class="citation journal cs1">Crick F (August 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/pdf/crick227.pdf">"Central dogma of molecular biology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>227</b> (5258): 561–563. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Natur.227..561C">1970Natur.227..561C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F227561a0">10.1038/227561a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4913914">4913914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4164029">4164029</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060215024341/http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/pdf/crick227.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 15 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Central+dogma+of+molecular+biology&rft.volume=227&rft.issue=5258&rft.pages=561-563&rft.date=1970-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F227561a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4164029%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4913914&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970Natur.227..561C&rft.aulast=Crick&rft.aufirst=F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Ffocus%2Fcrick%2Fpdf%2Fcrick227.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberts et al. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.388">I.3. Proteins: The Shape and Structure of Proteins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230101101721/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/">Archived</a> 1 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberts et al. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452">I.3. Proteins: Protein Function</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060425162405/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452">Archived</a> 25 April 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/scd_background.html">"How Does Sickle Cell Cause Disease?"</a>. Brigham and Women's Hospital: Information Center for Sickle Cell and Thalassemic Disorders. 11 April 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100923165921/http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/scd_background.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Does+Sickle+Cell+Cause+Disease%3F&rft.pub=Brigham+and+Women%27s+Hospital%3A+Information+Center+for+Sickle+Cell+and+Thalassemic+Disorders&rft.date=2002-04-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsickle.bwh.harvard.edu%2Fscd_background.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImesGearyGrahnLyons2006" class="citation journal cs1">Imes DL, Geary LA, Grahn RA, Lyons LA (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1464423">"Albinism in the domestic cat (Felis catus) is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation"</a>. <i>Animal Genetics</i>. <b>37</b> (2): 175–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2052.2005.01409.x">10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1464423">1464423</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16573534">16573534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Genetics&rft.atitle=Albinism+in+the+domestic+cat+%28Felis+catus%29+is+associated+with+a+tyrosinase+%28TYR%29+mutation&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-178&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1464423%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16573534&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2052.2005.01409.x&rft.aulast=Imes&rft.aufirst=DL&rft.au=Geary%2C+LA&rft.au=Grahn%2C+RA&rft.au=Lyons%2C+LA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1464423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/phenylketonuria.html">"MedlinePlus: Phenylketonuria"</a>. NIH: National Library of Medicine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725183720/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/phenylketonuria.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MedlinePlus%3A+Phenylketonuria&rft.pub=NIH%3A+National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fmedlineplus%2Fphenylketonuria.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2003" class="citation book cs1">Ridley M (2003). <i>Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience and What Makes Us Human</i>. Fourth Estate. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84115-745-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84115-745-0"><bdi>978-1-84115-745-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+via+Nurture%3A+Genes%2C+Experience+and+What+Makes+Us+Human&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84115-745-0&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genain-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Genain_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal1964" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenthal D (1964). "The Genain Quadruplets: A Case Study and Theoretical Analysis of Heredity and Environment in Schizophrenia". <i>Behavioral Science</i>. <b>9</b> (4): 371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbs.3830090407">10.1002/bs.3830090407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Science&rft.atitle=The+Genain+Quadruplets%3A+A+Case+Study+and+Theoretical+Analysis+of+Heredity+and+Environment+in+Schizophrenia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=371&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbs.3830090407&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrivanlouDarnell2002" class="citation journal cs1">Brivanlou AH, Darnell JE (February 2002). "Signal transduction and the control of gene expression". <i>Science</i>. <b>295</b> (5556): 813–818. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...295..813B">2002Sci...295..813B</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.485.6042">10.1.1.485.6042</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1066355">10.1126/science.1066355</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11823631">11823631</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14954195">14954195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Signal+transduction+and+the+control+of+gene+expression&rft.volume=295&rft.issue=5556&rft.pages=813-818&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14954195%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...295..813B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.485.6042%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11823631&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1066355&rft.aulast=Brivanlou&rft.aufirst=AH&rft.au=Darnell%2C+JE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberts et al. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269#1270">II.3. Control of Gene Expression – The Tryptophan Repressor is a Simple Switch That Turns Genes On and Off in Bacteria</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629040218/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269">Archived</a> 29 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaenischBird2003" class="citation journal cs1">Jaenisch R, Bird A (March 2003). "Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals". <i>Nature Genetics</i>. <b>33</b> (Suppl): 245–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng1089">10.1038/ng1089</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12610534">12610534</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17270515">17270515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Epigenetic+regulation+of+gene+expression%3A+how+the+genome+integrates+intrinsic+and+environmental+signals&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=Suppl&rft.pages=245-254&rft.date=2003-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17270515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12610534&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng1089&rft.aulast=Jaenisch&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Bird%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler2007" class="citation journal cs1">Chandler VL (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.02.007">"Paramutation: from maize to mice"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>128</b> (4): 641–645. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.02.007">10.1016/j.cell.2007.02.007</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17320501">17320501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6928707">6928707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Paramutation%3A+from+maize+to+mice&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=641-645&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6928707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17320501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.02.007&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=VL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cell.2007.02.007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect2706-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2706_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2706">"Spontaneous mutations"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spontaneous+mutations&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.2706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kunkel-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kunkel_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreisingerGrollmanMillerKisker2004" class="citation journal cs1">Freisinger E, Grollman AP, Miller H, Kisker C (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC391067">"Lesion (in)tolerance reveals insights into DNA replication fidelity"</a>. <i>The EMBO Journal</i>. <b>23</b> (7): 1494–1505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.emboj.7600158">10.1038/sj.emboj.7600158</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC391067">391067</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15057282">15057282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+EMBO+Journal&rft.atitle=Lesion+%28in%29tolerance+reveals+insights+into+DNA+replication+fidelity&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1494-1505&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC391067%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15057282&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.emboj.7600158&rft.aulast=Freisinger&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Grollman%2C+AP&rft.au=Miller%2C+H&rft.au=Kisker%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC391067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect2727-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2727_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2727">"Induced mutations"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Induced+mutations&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.2727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23378590-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23378590_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCadetWagner2013" class="citation journal cs1">Cadet J, Wagner JR (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3552502">"DNA base damage by reactive oxygen species, oxidizing agents, and UV radiation"</a>. <i>Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology</i>. <b>5</b> (2): a012559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a012559">10.1101/cshperspect.a012559</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3552502">3552502</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23378590">23378590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Perspectives+in+Biology&rft.atitle=DNA+base+damage+by+reactive+oxygen+species%2C+oxidizing+agents%2C+and+UV+radiation&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=a012559&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3552502%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23378590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a012559&rft.aulast=Cadet&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Wagner%2C+JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3552502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid22750987-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid22750987_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJena2012" class="citation journal cs1">Jena NR (July 2012). "DNA damage by reactive species: Mechanisms, mutation and repair". <i>Journal of Biosciences</i>. <b>37</b> (3): 503–517. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12038-012-9218-2">10.1007/s12038-012-9218-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22750987">22750987</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14837181">14837181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biosciences&rft.atitle=DNA+damage+by+reactive+species%3A+Mechanisms%2C+mutation+and+repair&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=503-517&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14837181%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22750987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12038-012-9218-2&rft.aulast=Jena&rft.aufirst=NR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect2844-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect2844_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2844">"Chromosome Mutation I: Changes in Chromosome Structure: Introduction"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chromosome+Mutation+I%3A+Changes+in+Chromosome+Structure%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.2844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaechter2009" class="citation book cs1">Schaechter M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rLhdW5YzuO4C&pg=RA1-PA551"><i>Encyclopedia of Microbiology</i></a>. Academic Press. p. 551. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373944-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373944-5"><bdi>978-0-12-373944-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Microbiology&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-12-373944-5&rft.aulast=Schaechter&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrLhdW5YzuO4C%26pg%3DRA1-PA551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CalverLymbery2009-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CalverLymbery2009_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalverLymberyMcCombBamford2009" class="citation book cs1">Calver M, Lymbery A, McComb J, Bamford M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HemnRxzdiFQC&pg=PA118"><i>Environmental Biology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-67982-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-67982-4"><bdi>978-0-521-67982-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Biology&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-67982-4&rft.aulast=Calver&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Lymbery%2C+A&rft.au=McComb%2C+J&rft.au=Bamford%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHemnRxzdiFQC%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyerParschZhangHartl2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sawyer SA, Parsch J, Zhang Z, Hartl DL (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1871816">"Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>104</b> (16): 6504–6510. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6504S">2007PNAS..104.6504S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0701572104">10.1073/pnas.0701572104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1871816">1871816</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409186">17409186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+positive+selection+among+nearly+neutral+amino+acid+replacements+in+Drosophila&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=6504-6510&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1871816%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17409186&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0701572104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.6504S&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Parsch%2C+J&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z&rft.au=Hartl%2C+DL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1871816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect3842-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3842_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3842">"Variation and its modulation"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variation+and+its+modulation&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.3842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect3886-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3886_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3886">"Selection"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Selection&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.3886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillespie2001" class="citation journal cs1">Gillespie JH (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x">"Is the population size of a species relevant to its evolution?"</a>. <i>Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution</i>. <b>55</b> (11): 2161–2169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x">10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11794777">11794777</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221735887">221735887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution%3B+International+Journal+of+Organic+Evolution&rft.atitle=Is+the+population+size+of+a+species+relevant+to+its+evolution%3F&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2161-2169&rft.date=2001-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221735887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11794777&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x&rft.aulast=Gillespie&rft.aufirst=JH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-griffiths2000sect3906-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-griffiths2000sect3906_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3906">"Random events"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i> (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Random+events&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Diga.section.3906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darwin-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Darwin_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1859" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin C</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16"><i>On the Origin of Species</i></a>. London: John Murray. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-1319-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20061212020054/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1859&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-1319-3&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF373%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span><br />Earlier related ideas were acknowledged in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1861" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin C</a> (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=20"><i>On the Origin of Species</i></a> (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-1319-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223145332/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=20">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species&rft.place=London&rft.pages=xiii&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1861&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-1319-3&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF381%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gavrilets-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gavrilets_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGavrilets2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gavrilets S (October 2003). "Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years?". <i>Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution</i>. <b>57</b> (10): 2197–2215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1554%2F02-727">10.1554/02-727</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14628909">14628909</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198158082">198158082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution%3B+International+Journal+of+Organic+Evolution&rft.atitle=Perspective%3A+models+of+speciation%3A+what+have+we+learned+in+40+years%3F&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2197-2215&rft.date=2003-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198158082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14628909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1554%2F02-727&rft.aulast=Gavrilets&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfRogozinGrishinKoonin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wolf YI, Rogozin IB, Grishin NV, Koonin EV (September 2002). "Genome trees and the tree of life". <i>Trends in Genetics</i>. <b>18</b> (9): 472–479. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902744-0">10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02744-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12175808">12175808</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genome+trees+and+the+tree+of+life&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=472-479&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902744-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12175808&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=YI&rft.au=Rogozin%2C+IB&rft.au=Grishin%2C+NV&rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080313023531/http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html">"The Use of Model Organisms in Instruction"</a>. University of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Outreach Research Modules. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html">the original</a> on 13 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Use+of+Model+Organisms+in+Instruction&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin%3A+Wisconsin+Outreach+Research+Modules&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.loci.wisc.edu%2Foutreach%2Ftext%2Fmodel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070220074727/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd&ref=sidebar">"NCBI: Genes and Disease"</a>. NIH: National Center for Biotechnology Information. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd">the original</a> on 20 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NCBI%3A+Genes+and+Disease&rft.pub=NIH%3A+National+Center+for+Biotechnology+Information&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dgnd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithEbrahim2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Davey_Smith" title="George Davey Smith">Smith GD</a>, Ebrahim S (February 2003). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Mendelian randomization': can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease?". <i>International Journal of Epidemiology</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg070">10.1093/ije/dyg070</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12689998">12689998</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=%27Mendelian+randomization%27%3A+can+genetic+epidemiology+contribute+to+understanding+environmental+determinants+of+disease%3F&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg070&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12689998&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=GD&rft.au=Ebrahim%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080512012316/http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm">"Pharmacogenetics Fact Sheet"</a>. NIH: National Institute of General Medical Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm">the original</a> on 12 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pharmacogenetics+Fact+Sheet&rft.pub=NIH%3A+National+Institute+of+General+Medical+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nigms.nih.gov%2FInitiatives%2FPGRN%2FBackground%2FFactSheet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank2004" class="citation journal cs1">Frank SA (October 2004). "Genetic predisposition to cancer - insights from population genetics". <i>Nature Reviews. Genetics</i>. <b>5</b> (10): 764–772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1450">10.1038/nrg1450</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15510167">15510167</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6049662">6049662</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genetic+predisposition+to+cancer+-+insights+from+population+genetics&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=764-772&rft.date=2004-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6049662%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15510167&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1450&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=SA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrachanRead1999" class="citation book cs1">Strachan T, Read AP (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanmolecularge0002stra"><i>Human Molecular Genetics 2</i></a></span> (second ed.). John Wiley & Sons Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Molecular+Genetics+2&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Inc.&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Strachan&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Read%2C+AP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhumanmolecularge0002stra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.chapter.2342">Chapter 18: Cancer Genetics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050926163641/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.chapter.2342">Archived</a> 26 September 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lodish et al. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582">Chapter 7: 7.1. DNA Cloning with Plasmid Vectors</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090527183555/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582">Archived</a> 27 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimmsCramer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Timms JF, Cramer R (December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmic.200800298">"Difference gel electrophoresis"</a>. <i>Proteomics</i>. <b>8</b> (23–24): 4886–4897. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpmic.200800298">10.1002/pmic.200800298</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1615-9853">1615-9853</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19003860">19003860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proteomics&rft.atitle=Difference+gel+electrophoresis&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=23%E2%80%9324&rft.pages=4886-4897&rft.date=2008-12&rft.issn=1615-9853&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19003860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpmic.200800298&rft.aulast=Timms&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft.au=Cramer%2C+Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanalyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fpmic.200800298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeefer2015" class="citation journal cs1">Keefer CL (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4517265">"Artificial cloning of domestic animals"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>112</b> (29): 8874–8878. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..112.8874K">2015PNAS..112.8874K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1501718112">10.1073/pnas.1501718112</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4517265">4517265</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26195770">26195770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Artificial+cloning+of+domestic+animals&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=8874-8878&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4517265%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26195770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1501718112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PNAS..112.8874K&rft.aulast=Keefer&rft.aufirst=CL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4517265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lodish et al. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=PCR&rid=mcb.section.1718">Chapter 7: 7.7. Polymerase Chain Reaction: An Alternative to Cloning</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang_2017-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chang_2017_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangTramLiFeng2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chang D, Tram K, Li B, Feng Q, Shen Z, Lee CH, et al. (8 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5465217">"Detection of DNA Amplicons of Polymerase Chain Reaction Using Litmus Test"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>7</b> (3110): 3110. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...7.3110C">2017NatSR...7.3110C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-03009-z">10.1038/s41598-017-03009-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5465217">5465217</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28596600">28596600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Detection+of+DNA+Amplicons+of+Polymerase+Chain+Reaction+Using+Litmus+Test&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3110&rft.pages=3110&rft.date=2017-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5465217%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28596600&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-03009-z&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...7.3110C&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Dingran&rft.au=Tram%2C+Kha&rft.au=Li%2C+Ben&rft.au=Feng%2C+Qian&rft.au=Shen%2C+Zhifa&rft.au=Lee%2C+Christine+H.&rft.au=Salena%2C+Bruno+J.&rft.au=Li%2C+Yingfu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5465217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garibyan_2013-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garibyan_2013_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaribyanNidhi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Garibyan L, Nidhi (March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jidonline.org/article/S0022-202X(15)36139-X/fulltext">"Polymerase Chain Reaction"</a>. <i>Journal of Investigative Dermatology</i>. <b>133</b> (3): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fjid.2013.1">10.1038/jid.2013.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4102308">4102308</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399825">23399825</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Investigative+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Polymerase+Chain+Reaction&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4102308%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23399825&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fjid.2013.1&rft.aulast=Garibyan&rft.aufirst=Lilit&rft.au=Nidhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jidonline.org%2Farticle%2FS0022-202X%2815%2936139-X%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2002" class="citation book cs1">Brown TA (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6452">"Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.1. The Methodology for DNA Sequencing"</a>. <i>Genomes 2</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Bios. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-228-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-228-2"><bdi>978-1-85996-228-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+2%2C+Chapter+6%3A+6.1.+The+Methodology+for+DNA+Sequencing&rft.btitle=Genomes+2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bios&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85996-228-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=TA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dgenomes.section.6452&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481">Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.2. Assembly of a Contiguous DNA Sequence</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208115742/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481">Archived</a> 8 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2006" class="citation journal cs1">Service RF (March 2006). "Gene sequencing. The race for the $1000 genome". <i>Science</i>. <b>311</b> (5767): 1544–1546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.311.5767.1544">10.1126/science.311.5767.1544</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16543431">16543431</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23411598">23411598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Gene+sequencing.+The+race+for+the+%241000+genome&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5767&rft.pages=1544-1546&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23411598%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16543431&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.311.5767.1544&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=RF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hall2007-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hall2007_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hall N (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.001370">"Advanced sequencing technologies and their wider impact in microbiology"</a>. <i>The Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>210</b> (Pt 9): 1518–1525. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.001370">10.1242/jeb.001370</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17449817">17449817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Advanced+sequencing+technologies+and+their+wider+impact+in+microbiology&rft.volume=210&rft.issue=Pt+9&rft.pages=1518-1525&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.001370&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17449817&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1242%252Fjeb.001370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-church2006-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-church2006_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurch2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_M._Church" class="mw-redirect" title="George M. Church">Church GM</a> (January 2006). "Genomes for all". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>294</b> (1): 46–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SciAm.294a..46C">2006SciAm.294a..46C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0106-46">10.1038/scientificamerican0106-46</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16468433">16468433</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28769137">28769137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Genomes+for+all&rft.volume=294&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46-54&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0106-46&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28769137%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16468433&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006SciAm.294a..46C&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=GM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20150319-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20150319_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2015" class="citation news cs1">Wade N (19 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/20/science/biologists-call-for-halt-to-gene-editing-technique-in-humans.html">"Scientists Seek Ban on Method of Editing the Human Genome"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319230002/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/20/science/biologists-call-for-halt-to-gene-editing-technique-in-humans.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Scientists+Seek+Ban+on+Method+of+Editing+the+Human+Genome&rft.date=2015-03-19&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F03%2F20%2Fscience%2Fbiologists-call-for-halt-to-gene-editing-technique-in-humans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20150303-AP-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20150303-AP_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollack2015" class="citation news cs1">Pollack A (3 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/health/a-powerful-new-way-to-edit-dna.html">"A Powerful New Way to Edit DNA"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326051509/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/04/health/a-powerful-new-way-to-edit-dna.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Powerful+New+Way+to+Edit+DNA&rft.date=2015-03-03&rft.aulast=Pollack&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F03%2F04%2Fhealth%2Fa-powerful-new-way-to-edit-dna.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCI-20150319-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20150319_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaltimoreBergBotchanCarroll2015" class="citation journal cs1">Baltimore D, Berg P, Botchan M, Carroll D, Charo RA, Church G, et al. (April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4394183">"Biotechnology. A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>348</b> (6230): 36–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Sci...348...36B">2015Sci...348...36B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aab1028">10.1126/science.aab1028</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4394183">4394183</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25791083">25791083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Biotechnology.+A+prudent+path+forward+for+genomic+engineering+and+germline+gene+modification&rft.volume=348&rft.issue=6230&rft.pages=36-38&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4394183%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25791083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aab1028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...348...36B&rft.aulast=Baltimore&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Berg%2C+P&rft.au=Botchan%2C+M&rft.au=Carroll%2C+D&rft.au=Charo%2C+RA&rft.au=Church%2C+G&rft.au=Corn%2C+JE&rft.au=Daley%2C+GQ&rft.au=Doudna%2C+JA&rft.au=Fenner%2C+M&rft.au=Greely%2C+HT&rft.au=Jinek%2C+M&rft.au=Martin%2C+GS&rft.au=Penhoet%2C+E&rft.au=Puck%2C+J&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+SH&rft.au=Weissman%2C+JS&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+KR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4394183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAT-20150312-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAT-20150312_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanphierUrnovHaeckerWerner2015" class="citation journal cs1">Lanphier E, Urnov F, Haecker SE, Werner M, Smolenski J (March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F519410a">"Don't edit the human germ line"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>519</b> (7544): 410–411. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.519..410L">2015Natur.519..410L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F519410a">10.1038/519410a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25810189">25810189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Don%27t+edit+the+human+germ+line&rft.volume=519&rft.issue=7544&rft.pages=410-411&rft.date=2015-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25810189&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F519410a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.519..410L&rft.aulast=Lanphier&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Urnov%2C+F&rft.au=Haecker%2C+SE&rft.au=Werner%2C+M&rft.au=Smolenski%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F519410a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20150423-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20150423_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolata2015" class="citation news cs1">Kolata G (23 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/24/health/chinese-scientists-edit-genes-of-human-embryos-raising-concerns.html">"Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos, Raising Concerns"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150424050616/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/24/health/chinese-scientists-edit-genes-of-human-embryos-raising-concerns.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chinese+Scientists+Edit+Genes+of+Human+Embryos%2C+Raising+Concerns&rft.date=2015-04-23&rft.aulast=Kolata&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F04%2F24%2Fhealth%2Fchinese-scientists-edit-genes-of-human-embryos-raising-concerns.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PC-20150418-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PC-20150418_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiangXuZhangDing2015" class="citation journal cs1">Liang P, Xu Y, Zhang X, Ding C, Huang R, Zhang Z, et al. (May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4417674">"CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes"</a>. <i>Protein & Cell</i>. <b>6</b> (5): 363–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13238-015-0153-5">10.1007/s13238-015-0153-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4417674">4417674</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25894090">25894090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Protein+%26+Cell&rft.atitle=CRISPR%2FCas9-mediated+gene+editing+in+human+tripronuclear+zygotes&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=363-372&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4417674%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25894090&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13238-015-0153-5&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Xu%2C+Y&rft.au=Zhang%2C+X&rft.au=Ding%2C+C&rft.au=Huang%2C+R&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z&rft.au=Lv%2C+J&rft.au=Xie%2C+X&rft.au=Chen%2C+Y&rft.au=Li%2C+Y&rft.au=Sun%2C+Y&rft.au=Bai%2C+Y&rft.au=Songyang%2C+Z&rft.au=Ma%2C+W&rft.au=Zhou%2C+C&rft.au=Huang%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4417674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology#Genetics" title="Bibliography of biology">Bibliography of biology § Genetics</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cg4WAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Essential Cell Biology, 4th Edition</i></a>. Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-80627-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-80627-1"><bdi>978-1-317-80627-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Cell+Biology%2C+4th+Edition&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-317-80627-1&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Bray%2C+D&rft.au=Hopkin%2C+K&rft.au=Johnson%2C+A&rft.au=Lewis%2C+J&rft.au=Raff%2C+M&rft.au=Roberts%2C+K&rft.au=Walter%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCg4WAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge0000unse_v1d3"><i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis</i></a> (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3520-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Genetic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoge0000unse_v1d3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hartl D, Jones E (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genetics00dani"><i>Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes</i></a> (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1511-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1511-3"><bdi>978-0-7637-1511-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetics%3A+Analysis+of+Genes+and+Genomes&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-1511-3&rft.aulast=Hartl&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Jones%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenetics00dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">King RC, Mulligan PK, Stansfield WD (2013). <i>A Dictionary of Genetics</i> (8th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976644-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976644-4"><bdi>978-0-19-976644-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Genetics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976644-4&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Mulligan%2C+PK&rft.au=Stansfield%2C+WD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00lodi"><i>Molecular Cell Biology</i></a> (4th ed.). New York: Scientific American Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3136-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3136-8"><bdi>978-0-7167-3136-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Cell+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Scientific+American+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3136-8&rft.aulast=Lodish&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Berk%2C+A&rft.au=Zipursky%2C+LS&rft.au=Matsudaira%2C+P&rft.au=Baltimore%2C+D&rft.au=Darnell%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmolecularcellbio00lodi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">At <a href="/wiki/Wikiversity" title="Wikiversity">Wikiversity</a>, you can learn more and teach others about <b>Genetics</b> at the <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Genetics" class="extiw" title="v:Topic:Genetics">Department of Genetics</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Genetics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Genetics">Genetics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Genetics" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Genetics">Genetics</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Genetics" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Genetics">Genetics</a> at Wikibooks</li> <li>Library resources <a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Genetics">in your library</a> and <a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Genetics&library=0CHOOSE0">in other libraries</a> about Genetics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547md">Genetics</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics" title="Template:Genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics" title="Template talk:Genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics" title="Timeline of the history of genetics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_affair" title="He Jiankui affair">He Jiankui affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template talk:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Ploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genetic material</a>/<a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex chromosome</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">allosome</a> or heterosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Macrochromosome/Microchromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">Circular chromosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Extra chromosome</a> (or accessory chromosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Supernumerary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_chromosome" title="B chromosome">A chromosome/B chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinoflagellate chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isochromosome" title="Isochromosome">Isochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">Satellite chromosome</a></li> <li><i>Centromere position</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Metacentric" title="Centromere">Metacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submetacentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Submetacentric">Submetacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Telocentric">Telocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrocentric">Acrocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocentric_chromosome" title="Holocentric chromosome">Holocentric</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Centromere number</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acentric_fragment" title="Acentric fragment">Acentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocentric">Monocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicentric_chromosome" title="Dicentric chromosome">Dicentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycentric_chromosome" title="Polycentric chromosome">Polycentric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes<br />and evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Structural_abnormalities" title="Chromosome abnormality">Structural alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">Chromosomal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Chromosomal translocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Numerical_disorders" title="Chromosome abnormality">Numerical alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Euploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploidization">Polyploidization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a>: <a href="/wiki/Telomere-binding_protein" title="Telomere-binding protein">Telomere-binding protein</a> (<a href="/wiki/TINF2" title="TINF2">TINF2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H1" title="Histone H1">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2A" title="Histone H2A">H2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2B" title="Histone H2B">H2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H3" title="Histone H3">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H4" title="Histone H4">H4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CENPA" title="CENPA">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_B" title="Centromere protein B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPC1" title="CENPC1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPC2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPC2 (page does not exist)">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_E" title="Centromere protein E">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPF" title="CENPF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPH" title="CENPH">H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPI" title="CENPI">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPJ" title="CENPJ">J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPK" title="CENPK">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPM" title="CENPM">M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPN" title="CENPN">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPO" title="CENPO">O</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPP (page does not exist)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPQ (page does not exist)">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPT" title="CENPT">T</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature">International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li>Genetics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7162#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Genetik"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4071711-2">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Genetics"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85053877">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Génétique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11939046z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Génétique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11939046z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563884">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="genetika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114609&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562698805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639210">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=29060">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetics&oldid=1257445867">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetics&oldid=1257445867</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Genetics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_separate_introductions" title="Category:Articles with separate introductions">Articles with separate introductions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pending_changes_protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages">Wikipedia pending changes protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2022">Use dmy dates from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Featured_articles" title="Category:Featured articles">Featured articles</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 November 2024, at 22:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-5tpvc","wgBackendResponseTime":202,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.959","walltime":"2.416","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9723,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":410576,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6327,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":30,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":528097,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2056.054 1 -total"," 42.87% 881.383 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.33% 315.222 52 Template:Cite_journal"," 14.61% 300.390 45 Template:Cite_book"," 9.31% 191.467 1 Template:Genetics_sidebar"," 9.15% 188.076 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.73% 138.440 1 Template:About"," 5.71% 117.335 3 Template:Excerpt"," 5.46% 112.233 7 Template:Navbox"," 5.32% 109.459 4 Template:Lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.253","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20048936,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","25.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","18.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","12.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::newTitle","40","3.0"],["\u003CModule:Citation/CS1/COinS:175\u003E","40","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::test","40","3.0"],["[others]","240","18.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-qd9kp","timestamp":"20241130105730","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Genetics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7162","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7162","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-10T18:55:08Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f0\/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg","headline":"science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms"}</script> </body> </html>