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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="علم الأحياء الدقيقة الطبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء الدقيقة الطبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologia_m%C3%A8dica" title="Microbiologia mèdica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Microbiologia mèdica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizinische_Mikrobiologie" title="Medizinische Mikrobiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Medizinische Mikrobiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditsiiniline_mikrobioloogia" title="Meditsiiniline mikrobioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meditsiiniline mikrobioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiolog%C3%ADa_y_parasitolog%C3%ADa" title="Microbiología y parasitología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Microbiología y parasitología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="میکروبیولوژی پزشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میکروبیولوژی پزشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologie_m%C3%A9dicale" title="Microbiologie médicale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Microbiologie médicale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="आयुर्विज्ञान सूक्ष्मजैविकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आयुर्विज्ञान सूक्ष्मजैविकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDklafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Sýklafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sýklafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מיקרוביולוגיה קלינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיקרוביולוגיה קלינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrobiologi_perubatan" title="Mikrobiologi perubatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mikrobiologi perubatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medische_microbiologie" title="Medische microbiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Medische microbiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinisk_mikrobiologi" title="Klinisk mikrobiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Klinisk mikrobiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisinsk_mikrobiologi" title="Medisinsk mikrobiologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Medisinsk mikrobiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E2%80%8B%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="អតិសុខុមជីវសាស្រ្តវេជ្ជសាស្រ្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អតិសុខុមជីវសាស្រ្តវេជ្ជសាស្រ្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrobiologia_lekarska" title="Mikrobiologia lekarska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mikrobiologia lekarska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologia_cl%C3%ADnica" title="Microbiologia clínica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Microbiologia clínica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrobiologjia_mjek%C3%ABsore" title="Mikrobiologjia mjekësore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mikrobiologjia mjekësore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medical microbiology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinisk_mikrobiologi" title="Klinisk mikrobiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Klinisk mikrobiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1bbi_mikrobiyoloji" title="Tıbbi mikrobiyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tıbbi mikrobiyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi_sinh_y_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Vi sinh y học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vi sinh y học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%A8%E5%BA%8A%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="臨床微生物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="臨床微生物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學微生物學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="醫學微生物學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of medical science</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manusingmicroscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Manusingmicroscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="252" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="252" /></a><figcaption> A microbiologist examining cultures under a dissecting microscope.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Medical microbiology</b>, the large subset of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a> to <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, is a branch of medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious diseases</a>. In addition, this field of science studies various clinical applications of microbes for the improvement of health. There are four kinds of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> that cause infectious disease: <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, and one type of infectious protein called <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a>. </p><p>A medical <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> studies the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, their modes of transmission, mechanisms of infection and growth. The academic qualification as a clinical/Medical Microbiologist in a hospital or medical research centre generally requires a Bachelors degree while in some countries a Masters in Microbiology along with Ph.D. in any of the life-sciences (Biochem, Micro, Biotech, Genetics, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medical microbiologists often serve as consultants for <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a>, providing identification of pathogens and suggesting treatment options. Using this information, a treatment can be devised. Other tasks may include the identification of potential health risks to the community or monitoring the evolution of potentially <a href="/wiki/Virulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Virulent">virulent</a> or resistant strains of microbes, educating the community and assisting in the design of health practices. They may also assist in preventing or controlling <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a> and outbreaks of disease. Not all medical microbiologists study microbial <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>; some study common, non-pathogenic species to determine whether their properties can be used to develop <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> or other treatment methods. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a>, the study of the patterns, causes, and effects of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> conditions in populations, is an important part of medical microbiology, although the clinical aspect of the field primarily focuses on the presence and growth of microbial infections in individuals, their effects on the human body, and the methods of treating those infections. In this respect the entire field, as an applied science, can be conceptually subdivided into academic and clinical sub-specialties, although in reality there is a fluid continuum between <b>public health microbiology</b> and <b>clinical microbiology</b>, just as the state of the art in <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory">clinical laboratories</a> depends on continual improvements in academic medicine and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research laboratories</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_(1632-1723)._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/170px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/255px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/340px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="2547" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> was the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/170px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/255px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/340px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="2354" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, father of medical bacteriology,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1676, <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> observed bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> of his own design.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1796, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> developed a method using <a href="/wiki/Cowpox" title="Cowpox">cowpox</a> to successfully immunize a child against smallpox. The same principles are used for developing <a href="/wiki/Vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccines">vaccines</a> today.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following on from this, in 1857 <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> also designed vaccines against several diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, fowl <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurization</a> for <a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">food preservation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1867 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a> is considered to be the father of <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> surgery. By sterilizing the instruments with diluted <a href="/wiki/Carbolic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbolic acid">carbolic acid</a> and using it to clean wounds, post-operative infections were reduced, making surgery safer for patients.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years between 1876 and 1884 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> provided much insight into infectious diseases. He was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">pure culture</a>. This gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a>, a certain microorganism being responsible for a certain disease. He developed a series of criteria around this that have become known as the <a href="/wiki/Koch%27s_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">Koch's postulates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major milestone in medical microbiology is the <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a>. In 1884 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Gram" title="Hans Christian Gram">Hans Christian Gram</a> developed the method of staining bacteria to make them more visible and differentiated under a microscope. This technique is widely used today.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1910 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> tested multiple combinations of arsenic based chemicals on infected rabbits with <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>. Ehrlich then found that arsphenamine was found effective against syphilis spirochetes. The arsphenamines was then made available in 1910, known as <a href="/wiki/Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">Salvarsan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1929 <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> developed one of the most commonly used antibiotic substances both at the time and now: <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1939 <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> found <a href="/wiki/Prontosil" title="Prontosil">Prontosil</a> red protected mice from pathogenic <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">streptococci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococci</a> without toxicity. Domagk received the Nobel Prize in physiology, or medicine, for the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfa drug</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, a method developed by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> in 1977,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused a rapid change the development of <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a>, medical treatments and diagnostic methods. Some of these include synthetic <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> which was produced in 1979 using <a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a> and the first genetically engineered vaccine was created in 1986 for <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>. </p><p>In 1995 a team at <a href="/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="The Institute for Genomic Research">The Institute for Genomic Research</a> sequenced the first bacterial <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few months later, the first <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> genome was completed. This would prove invaluable for diagnostic techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007, a team at the Danish food company Danisco, were able to identify the purpose of the <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRIPR-Cas systems</a> as adaptive immunity to phages. The system was then quickly found to be able to help in genome editing through its ability to generate double strand breaks. A patient with sickle cell disease was the first person to be treated for a genetic disorder with CRISPR in July 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commonly_treated_infectious_diseases">Commonly treated infectious diseases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Commonly treated infectious diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial disease">Bacterial</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis" title="Streptococcal pharyngitis">Streptococcal pharyngitis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Shaikh_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaikh-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydia_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydia infection">Chlamydia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vos_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vos-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a><sup id="cite_ref-who_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a><sup id="cite_ref-who2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">Viral</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">Rotavirus</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22789574_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22789574-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">Hepatitis C</a><sup id="cite_ref-who1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">Human papillomavirus</a> (HPV)<sup id="cite_ref-Dunne_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunne-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">Parasitic</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a><sup id="cite_ref-who2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Kappus_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kappus-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-cdc1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdc1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Fungal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungal disease">Fungal</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a><b><sup id="cite_ref-cdc2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdc2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histoplasmosis" title="Histoplasmosis">Histoplasmosis</a><sup id="cite_ref-cdc3_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdc3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandruff" title="Dandruff">Dandruff</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_and_transmission_of_infectious_diseases">Causes and transmission of infectious diseases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Causes and transmission of infectious diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infection</a></div> <p>Infections may be caused by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>. The pathogen that causes the disease may be exogenous (acquired from an external source; environmental, animal or other people, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">Influenza</a>) or endogenous (from normal flora e.g. <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">Candidiasis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Baron_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The site at which a microbe enters the body is referred to as the portal of entry.<sup id="cite_ref-Bittar_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittar-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/GI_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="GI tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitourinary tract">genitourinary tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucous membranes">mucous membranes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhinehart_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhinehart-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The portal of entry for a specific microbe is normally dependent on how it travels from its natural habitat to the host.<sup id="cite_ref-Bittar_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittar-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various ways in which disease can be transmitted between individuals. These include:<sup id="cite_ref-Bittar_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittar-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Direct contact - Touching an infected host, including <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Sexual_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">sexual contact</a></li> <li>Indirect contact - Touching a contaminated surface</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Droplet_contact" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Droplet contact</a> - Coughing or sneezing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral route</a> - Ingesting contaminated food or water sources</li> <li>Airborne transmission - Pathogen carrying <a href="/wiki/Spore#Dispersal" title="Spore">spores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_borne_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector borne transmission">Vector transmission</a> - An organism that does not cause disease itself but transmits infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite transmission</a> - An inanimate object or substance capable of carrying infectious germs or parasites</li> <li>Environmental - Hospital-acquired infection (<a href="/wiki/Nosocomial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nosocomial">Nosocomial infections</a>)</li></ul> <p>Like other pathogens, viruses use these methods of transmission to enter the body, but viruses differ in that they must also enter into the host's actual cells. Once the virus has gained access to the host's cells, the virus' genetic material (<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>) must be <a href="/wiki/Viral_replication" title="Viral replication">introduced to the cell</a>. Replication between viruses is greatly varied and depends on the type of genes involved in them. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus while most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baron1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">body's own immune response</a>, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immunological resistance</a> or host death.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilleman_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilleman-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, some infectious agents such as the <a href="/wiki/Feline_leukemia_virus" title="Feline leukemia virus">Feline leukemia virus</a>, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-Greggs_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greggs-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnostic_tests">Diagnostic tests</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diagnostic tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology" title="Diagnostic microbiology">Diagnostic microbiology</a></div> <p>Identification of an infectious agent for a minor illness can be as simple as clinical presentation; such as <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">gastrointestinal disease</a> and skin infections. In order to make an educated estimate as to which microbe could be causing the disease, epidemiological factors need to be considered; such as the patient's likelihood of exposure to the suspected organism and the presence and prevalence of a microbial strain in a community. </p><p>Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by consulting the patient's medical history and conducting a physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve <a href="/wiki/Microbial_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial culture">microbial culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease#Biochemical_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">biochemical tests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genotyping" title="Genotyping">genotyping</a>. Other less common techniques (such as <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/CAT_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="CAT scans">CAT scans</a>, <a href="/wiki/PET_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scans">PET scans</a> or <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a>) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbial_culture">Microbial culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Microbial culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/220px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/330px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/440px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Four <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_agar" title="Nutrient agar">nutrient agar</a> plates growing colonies of common <a href="/wiki/Gram_negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram negative">Gram negative</a> bacteria.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a> is the primary method used for isolating infectious disease for study in the laboratory. Tissue or fluid samples are tested for the presence of a specific <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a>, which is determined by growth in a selective or differential <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">medium</a>. </p><p>The 3 main types of media used for testing are:<sup id="cite_ref-Nester_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nester-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Solid culture: A solid surface is created using a mixture of nutrients, salts and <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a>. A single microbe on an agar plate can then grow into colonies (clones where cells are identical to each other) containing thousands of cells. These are primarily used to culture bacteria and fungi.</li> <li>Liquid culture: Cells are grown inside a liquid media. Microbial growth is determined by the time taken for the liquid to form a <a href="/wiki/Colloidal_suspension" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloidal suspension">colloidal suspension</a>. This technique is used for diagnosing parasites and detecting <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacteria">mycobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Møller_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Møller-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cell culture: Human or animal <a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cell cultures</a> are infected with the microbe of interest. These cultures are then observed to determine the effect the microbe has on the cells. This technique is used for identifying viruses.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Microscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Culture techniques</a> will often use a microscopic examination to help in the identification of the microbe. Instruments such as <a href="/wiki/Compound_light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound light microscope">compound light microscopes</a> can be used to assess critical aspects of the organism. This can be performed immediately after the sample is taken from the patient and is used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, allowing for resolution of cellular features. <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopes">Electron microscopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">fluorescence microscopes</a> are also used for observing microbes in greater detail for research.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two main types of electron microscopy are scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">Transmission electron microscopy</a> passes electrons through a thin cross-section of the cell of interest, and it then redirects the electrons onto a fluorescent screen. This method is useful for looking at the inside of cells, and the structures within, especially cell walls and membranes. <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">Scanning electron microscopy</a> reads the electrons that are reflected off the surface of the cells. A 3-dimensional image is then made which shows the size and exterior structure of the cells. Both techniques help give more detailed information about the structure of microbes. This makes it useful in many medical fields, such as diagnostics and biopsies of many body parts, hygiene, and virology. They provide critical information about the structure of pathogens, which allow physicians to treat them with more knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical_tests">Biochemical tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biochemical tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fast and relatively simple <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease#Biochemical_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">biochemical tests</a> can be used to identify infectious agents. For bacterial identification, the use of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic">metabolic</a> or enzymatic characteristics are common due to their ability to ferment <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a> in patterns characteristic of their <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Acids, alcohols and gases are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in <a href="/wiki/Growth_Medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth Medium">selective liquid or solid media</a>, as mentioned above. In order to perform these tests en masse, automated machines are used. These machines perform multiple biochemical tests simultaneously, using cards with several wells containing different dehydrated chemicals. The microbe of interest will react with each chemical in a specific way, aiding in its identification. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">Serological</a> methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid laboratory tests used to identify different types of microorganisms. The tests are based upon the ability of an <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibody</a> to bind specifically to an <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>. The antigen (usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent) is bound by the antibody, allowing this type of test to be used for organisms other than bacteria. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be easily and definitively observed, depending on the test. More complex serological techniques are known as <a href="/wiki/Immunoassays" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoassays">immunoassays</a>. Using a similar basis as described above, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or the proteins generated by an infected host in response to the infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Nester_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nester-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymerase_chain_reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Polymerase chain reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) assays are the most commonly used molecular technique to detect and study microbes.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As compared to other methods, sequencing and analysis is definitive, reliable, accurate, and fast.<sup id="cite_ref-Viljoen_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Viljoen-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative PCR">quantitative PCR</a> is the primary technique used, as this method provides faster data compared to a standard PCR assay. For instance, traditional PCR techniques require the use of <a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">gel electrophoresis</a> to visualize amplified DNA molecules after the reaction has finished. <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative PCR">quantitative PCR</a> does not require this, as the detection system uses <a href="/wiki/Fluorometer" title="Fluorometer">fluorescence</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA probe">probes</a> to detect the DNA molecules as they are being amplified.<sup id="cite_ref-Tang_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tang-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to this, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative PCR">quantitative PCR</a> also removes the risk of contamination that can occur during standard PCR procedures (carrying over PCR product into subsequent PCRs).<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another advantage of using PCR to detect and study microbes is that the DNA sequences of newly discovered infectious microbes or strains can be compared to those already listed in databases, which in turn helps to increase understanding of which organism is causing the infectious disease and thus what possible methods of treatment could be used.<sup id="cite_ref-Viljoen_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Viljoen-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique is the current standard for detecting viral infections such as <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatments">Treatments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Treatments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once an infection has been diagnosed and identified, suitable treatment options must be assessed by the physician and consulting medical microbiologists. Some infections can be dealt with by the body's own <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, but more serious infections are treated with <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> drugs. <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Bacterial infections</a> are treated with <a href="/wiki/Antibacterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterials">antibacterials</a> (often called antibiotics) whereas <a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">fungal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral</a> infections are treated with <a href="/wiki/Antifungal_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal medication">antifungals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antivirals</a> respectively. A broad class of drugs known as <a href="/wiki/Antiparasitics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiparasitics">antiparasitics</a> are used to treat <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic diseases">parasitic diseases</a>. </p><p>Medical microbiologists often make treatment recommendations to the patient's physician based on the strain of <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbe</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistances</a>, the site of infection, the potential <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> of antimicrobial drugs and any <a href="/wiki/Drug_allergies" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug allergies">drug allergies</a> the patient has. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/220px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/330px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/440px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2456" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Antibiotic resistance tests: bacteria in the culture on the left are sensitive to the antibiotics contained in the white, paper discs. Bacteria in the culture on the right are resistant to most of the antibiotics.</figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to drugs being specific to a certain kind of organism (bacteria, fungi, etc.), some drugs are specific to a certain <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of organism, and will not work on other organisms. Because of this specificity, medical microbiologists must consider the effectiveness of certain antimicrobial drugs when making recommendations. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strains</a> of an organism may be resistant to a certain drug or class of drug, even when it is typically effective against the species. These strains, termed resistant strains, present a serious public health concern of growing importance to the medical industry as the spread of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> worsens. <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> is an increasingly problematic issue that leads to millions of deaths every year.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_2014_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_2014-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whilst drug resistance typically involves microbes chemically inactivating an antimicrobial drug or a cell mechanically stopping the uptake of a drug, another form of drug resistance can arise from the formation of <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a>. Some bacteria are able to form biofilms by adhering to surfaces on implanted devices such as catheters and prostheses and creating an <a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Extracellular_matrix" title="Biofilm">extracellular matrix</a> for other cells to adhere to.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provides them with a stable environment from which the bacteria can disperse and infect other parts of the host. Additionally, the extracellular matrix and dense outer layer of bacterial cells can protect the inner bacteria cells from antimicrobial drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a> is a technique that was discovered before antibiotics, but fell to the wayside as antibiotics became predominate. It is now being considered as a potential solution to increasing antimicrobial resistance. <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</a>, viruses that only infect bacteria, can specifically target the bacteria of interest and inject their genome. This process makes the bacteria halt its own production to make more phages, and this continues until the bacteria lyses itself and releases the phages into the surrounding environment. Phage therapy does not kill microbiota since it is specific, and it can help those with antibiotic allergies. Some drawbacks are that it is a time-intensive process since the specific bacterium needs to be identified. It also does not currently have the body of research supporting its effects and safety that antibiotics do. Bacteria can also eventually become resistant, through systems like CRISPR/Cas9 system. Many clinical trials have been promising though, showing that it could potentially help with the antimicrobial resistance problem. It can also be used in conjunction with antibiotics for a cumulative effect.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medical microbiology is not only about diagnosing and treating disease, it also involves the study of beneficial microbes. Microbes have been shown to be helpful in combating infectious disease and promoting health. Treatments can be developed from microbes, as demonstrated by Alexander Fleming's discovery of <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> as well as the development of new antibiotics from the bacterial genus <a href="/wiki/Streptomyces#Medicine" title="Streptomyces">Streptomyces</a> among many others.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only are microorganisms a source of antibiotics but some may also act as <a href="/wiki/Probiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Probiotics">probiotics</a> to provide health benefits to the host, such as providing better gastrointestinal health or inhibiting pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThomsonWilsonWeinstein2010" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, R. 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McGraw Hill. pp. 336–337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55938-814-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55938-814-6"><bdi>978-1-55938-814-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microbiology%3A+A+human+perspective&rft.pages=336-337&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-55938-814-6&rft.au=Nester+E&rft.au=Anderson+D&rft.au=Evans+Roberts%2C+C&rft.au=Nester+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Møller-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Møller_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMøller_MEl_Maghrabi_ROlesen_NThomsen_VØ2004" class="citation journal cs1">Møller M; El Maghrabi R; Olesen N; Thomsen VØ (November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foccmed%2Fkqh106">"Safe inoculation of blood and bone marrow for liquid culture detection of mycobacteria"</a>. <i>Occupational Medicine</i>. <b>54</b> (8): 530–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foccmed%2Fkqh106">10.1093/occmed/kqh106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15520021">15520021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Occupational+Medicine&rft.atitle=Safe+inoculation+of+blood+and+bone+marrow+for+liquid+culture+detection+of+mycobacteria&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=530-3&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foccmed%2Fkqh106&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15520021&rft.au=M%C3%B8ller+M&rft.au=El+Maghrabi+R&rft.au=Olesen+N&rft.au=Thomsen+V%C3%98&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Foccmed%252Fkqh106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madigan MT (2009) Brock Biology of Microorganisms: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Boseck 1982) (Slonczewski & Foster 2017)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackay-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay_I2007" class="citation book cs1">Mackay I (2007). <i>Real-time PCR in Microbiology: From Diagnosis to Characterisation</i>. 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(2005). <i>Molecular Diagnostic PCR Handbook</i>. Springer. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3404-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3404-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-3404-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Diagnostic+PCR+Handbook&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3404-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tang-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tang_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTang_YWPersing_DH2009" class="citation book cs1">Tang YW; Persing DH (2009). <i>Encyclopedia of Microbiology</i>. Oxford Academic Press. pp. 308–320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373944-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373944-5"><bdi>978-0-12-373944-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Microbiology&rft.pages=308-320&rft.pub=Oxford+Academic+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-12-373944-5&rft.au=Tang+YW&rft.au=Persing+DH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO_2014-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHO_2014_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWHO2014" class="citation web cs1">WHO (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150515101620/http://www.who.int/drugresistance/documents/surveillancereport/en/">"Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance 2014"</a>. <i>WHO</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/drugresistance/documents/surveillancereport/en/">the original</a> on May 15, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WHO&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+resistance%3A+global+report+on+surveillance+2014&rft.date=2014-04&rft.au=WHO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fdrugresistance%2Fdocuments%2Fsurveillancereport%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickery K, Hu H, Jacombs AS, Bradshaw DA, Deva AK (2013) A review of bacterial biofilms and their role in device-associated infection. Healthcare Infection .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart_PSCosterton_JW2001" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart PS; Costerton JW (July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/13570">"Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms"</a>. <i>Lancet</i>. <b>358</b> (9276): 135–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2801%2905321-1">10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05321-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11463434">11463434</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46125592">46125592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+resistance+of+bacteria+in+biofilms&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=9276&rft.pages=135-8&rft.date=2001-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46125592%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11463434&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2801%2905321-1&rft.au=Stewart+PS&rft.au=Costerton+JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.montana.edu%2Fxmlui%2Fhandle%2F1%2F13570&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedical+microbiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Gordillo Altamirano & Barr 2019) (Kortright et al. 2019)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taguchi T, Yabe M, Odaki H, Shinozaki M, Metsä-Ketelä M, Arai T, Okamoto S, Ichinose K (2013) Biosynthetic Conclusions from the Functional Dissection of Oxygenases for Biosynthesis of Actinorhodin and Related Streptomyces Antibiotics. Chemistry & Biology 20:510-520.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams NT (2010) Probiotics. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 67:449-458.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_microbiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%">Isolation techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaking_(microbiology)" title="Streaking (microbiology)">Streak plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective media">Selective media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultures by body site</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_culture" title="Blood culture">Blood culture</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genital culture (page does not exist)">Genital culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputum_culture" title="Sputum culture">Sputum culture</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Microbiological_identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiological identification">Identification</a><br />and testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manual testing: basic techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_morphology" title="Colonial morphology">Colonial morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemolysis_(microbiology)" title="Hemolysis (microbiology)">Hemolysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staining_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Staining (biology)">Staining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid-fast_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-fast stain">Acid-fast stain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giemsa_stain" title="Giemsa stain">Giemsa stain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_ink_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="India ink stain">India ink stain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziehl%E2%80%93Neelsen_stain" title="Ziehl–Neelsen stain">Ziehl–Neelsen stain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_prep" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet prep">Wet prep</a></li> <li>Rapid tests <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxidase_test" title="Oxidase test">Oxidase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalase_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalase test">Catalase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indole_test" title="Indole test">Indole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PYR_test" class="mw-redirect" title="PYR test">PYR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manual testing:<br />biochemical and immunologic tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology#ALA" title="Diagnostic microbiology">ALA test</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amino_acid_decarboxylase_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amino acid decarboxylase test (page does not exist)">Amino acid decarboxylase test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_solubility_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Bile solubility test">Bile solubility test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAMP_test" title="CAMP test">CAMP test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrate_test" title="Citrate test">Citrate test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulase_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulase test">Coagulase test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology#DNA_hydrolysis" title="Diagnostic microbiology">DNAse test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMViC" title="IMViC">IMViC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KOH_test" title="KOH test">KOH test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_red_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl red test">Methyl red test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology#Nitrite_test" title="Diagnostic microbiology">Nitrite test</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ONPG_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ONPG test (page does not exist)">ONPG test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidative/fermentation_glucose_test" title="Oxidative/fermentation glucose test">Oxidative/fermentation glucose test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine_deaminase_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenylalanine deaminase test">Phenylalanine deaminase test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology#Reverse_CAMP_test" title="Diagnostic microbiology">Reverse CAMP test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_microbiology#6.5%_salt_broth" title="Diagnostic microbiology">Salt tolerance test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfide_indole_motility_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfide indole motility test">Sulfide indole motility test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_sugar_iron_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple sugar iron test">Triple sugar iron test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urease#As_diagnostic_test" title="Urease">Urease test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_urease_test" title="Rapid urease test">rapid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voges%E2%80%93Proskauer_test" title="Voges–Proskauer test">Voges–Proskauer test</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=X_and_V_factor_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X and V factor test (page does not exist)">X and V factor test</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bacitracin_susceptibility_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bacitracin susceptibility test (page does not exist)">Bacitracin susceptibility test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optochin_susceptibility_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Optochin susceptibility test">Optochin susceptibility test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novobiocin_susceptibility_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Novobiocin susceptibility test">Novobiocin susceptibility test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancefield_grouping" title="Lancefield grouping">Lancefield grouping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPR_test" class="mw-redirect" title="RPR test">RPR test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Automated and <a href="/wiki/Point-of-care_testing" title="Point-of-care testing">point-of-care testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_profile_index" title="Analytical profile index">Analytical profile index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MALDI-TOF" class="mw-redirect" title="MALDI-TOF">MALDI-TOF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction#Infectious_disease_applications" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VITEK" title="VITEK">VITEK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_strep_test" title="Rapid strep test">Rapid strep test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monospot_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Monospot test">Monospot test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic sensitivity">Antibiotic susceptibility testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta-lactamase_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beta-lactamase test (page does not exist)">Beta-lactamase test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_diffusion_test" title="Disk diffusion test">Disk diffusion test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etest" title="Etest">Etest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McFarland_standards" title="McFarland standards">McFarland standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_inhibitory_concentration" title="Minimum inhibitory concentration">Minimum inhibitory concentration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agar_plate" title="Agar plate">Agar plate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">Growth medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McIntosh_and_Filde%27s_anaerobic_jar" class="mw-redirect" title="McIntosh and Filde's anaerobic jar">Anaerobic jar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas-pak" title="Gas-pak">Gas-pak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durham_tube" title="Durham tube">Durham tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosafety_cabinet" title="Biosafety cabinet">Biosafety cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubator_(culture)" title="Incubator (culture)">Incubator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation_loop" title="Inoculation loop">Inoculation loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation_needle" title="Inoculation needle">Inoculation needle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pathology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pathology" title="Template:Pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pathology" title="Template talk:Pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pathology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles of pathology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Neoplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_(medicine)" title="Cause (medicine)">Cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_damage" title="Cell damage">Cell damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">Wound healing</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cellular_adaptation" title="Cellular adaptation">Cellular adaptation</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atrophy" title="Atrophy">Atrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hypertrophy" title="Hypertrophy">Hypertrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metaplasia" title="Metaplasia">Metaplasia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Squamous_metaplasia" title="Squamous metaplasia">Squamous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glandular_metaplasia" title="Glandular metaplasia">Glandular</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Myocytolysis" title="Myocytolysis">Myocytolysis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Accumulations</i></dt> <dd><i><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a></i> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin" title="Hemosiderin">Hemosiderin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lipochrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipochrome">Lipochrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lipofuscin" title="Lipofuscin">Lipofuscin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steatosis" title="Steatosis">Steatosis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_processing" title="Gross processing">Gross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">Immunohistochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">Immunofluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">Fluorescence in situ hybridization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">Diagnostic immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">Immunopathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_bank" title="Blood bank">Blood bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">Serology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical 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