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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="স্বাভাবিক ভাষা উপলব্ধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্বাভাবিক ভাষা উপলব্ধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razumijevanje_prirodnog_jezika" title="Razumijevanje prirodnog jezika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Razumijevanje prirodnog jezika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprensi%C3%B3_del_llenguatge_natural" title="Comprensió del llenguatge natural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comprensió del llenguatge natural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprensi%C3%B3n_del_lenguaje_natural" title="Comprensión del lenguaje natural – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comprensión del lenguaje natural" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%87%D9%85_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="فهم زبان‌های طبیعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فهم زبان‌های طبیعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compr%C3%A9hension_du_langage_naturel" title="Compréhension du langage naturel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Compréhension du langage naturel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%EC%96%B4_%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%B4" title="자연어 이해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자연어 이해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Բնական լեզվի գիտակցում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բնական լեզվի գիտակցում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemahaman_bahasa_alami" title="Pemahaman bahasa alami – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemahaman bahasa alami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3" title="自然言語理解 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自然言語理解" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6" title="ការស្វែងយល់ពីភាសា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការស្វែងយល់ពីភាសា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entendimento_de_linguagem_natural" title="Entendimento de linguagem natural – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Entendimento de linguagem natural" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8En%C8%9Belegerea_limbajului_natural" title="Înțelegerea limbajului natural – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Înțelegerea limbajului natural" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Понимание естественного языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Понимание естественного языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razumevanje_prirodnog_jezika" title="Razumevanje prirodnog jezika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Razumevanje prirodnog jezika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Розуміння природної мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Розуміння природної мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%E1%BB%83u_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_t%E1%BB%B1_nhi%C3%AAn" title="Hiểu ngôn ngữ tự nhiên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hiểu ngôn ngữ tự nhiên" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3" title="自然語言理解 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="自然語言理解" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3" title="自然语言理解 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="自然语言理解" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subtopic of natural language processing in artificial intelligence</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the computer processing ability. For the psychological concept, see <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">Language processing in the brain</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: lack of discussion of recent developments related to <a href="/wiki/Large_language_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Large language models">large language models</a>, but also no mention of older techniques like <a href="/wiki/Word_embedding" title="Word embedding">word embedding</a> or <a href="/wiki/Word2vec" title="Word2vec">word2vec</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Natural language understanding</b> (<b>NLU</b>) or <b>natural language interpretation</b> (<b>NLI</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a subset of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> in <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> that deals with machine <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a>. NLU has been considered an <a href="/wiki/AI-hard" class="mw-redirect" title="AI-hard">AI-hard</a> problem.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is considerable commercial interest in the field because of its application to <a href="/wiki/Automated_reasoning" title="Automated reasoning">automated reasoning</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Question_answering" title="Question answering">question answering</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> news-gathering, <a href="/wiki/Text_categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Text categorization">text categorization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">voice-activation</a>, archiving, and large-scale <a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">content analysis</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_language_understanding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The program <a href="/wiki/STUDENT_(computer_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="STUDENT (computer program)">STUDENT</a>, written in 1964 by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bobrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Bobrow">Daniel Bobrow</a> for his PhD dissertation at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, is one of the earliest known attempts at NLU by a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight years after <a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, Bobrow's dissertation (titled <i>Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System</i>) showed how a computer could understand simple natural language input to solve algebra word problems. </p><p>A year later, in 1965, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum" title="Joseph Weizenbaum">Joseph Weizenbaum</a> at MIT wrote <a href="/wiki/ELIZA" title="ELIZA">ELIZA</a>, an interactive program that carried on a dialogue in English on any topic, the most popular being psychotherapy. ELIZA worked by simple parsing and substitution of key words into canned phrases and Weizenbaum sidestepped the problem of giving the program a <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> of real-world knowledge or a rich <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>. Yet ELIZA gained surprising popularity as a toy project and can be seen as a very early precursor to current commercial systems such as those used by <a href="/wiki/Ask.com" title="Ask.com">Ask.com</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1969, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Schank" title="Roger Schank">Roger Schank</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_dependency_theory" title="Conceptual dependency theory">conceptual dependency theory</a> for NLU.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model, partially influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Lamb" title="Sydney Lamb">Sydney Lamb</a>, was extensively used by Schank's students at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wilensky" title="Robert Wilensky">Robert Wilensky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Lehnert" title="Wendy Lehnert">Wendy Lehnert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Janet_Kolodner" class="mw-redirect" title="Janet Kolodner">Janet Kolodner</a>. </p><p>In 1970, <a href="/wiki/William_Aaron_Woods" title="William Aaron Woods">William A. Woods</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Augmented_transition_network" title="Augmented transition network">augmented transition network</a> (ATN) to represent natural language input.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of <i><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_rules" title="Phrase structure rules">phrase structure rules</a></i> ATNs used an equivalent set of <a href="/wiki/Finite_state_automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite state automata">finite state automata</a> that were called recursively. ATNs and their more general format called "generalized ATNs" continued to be used for a number of years. </p><p>In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Terry_Winograd" title="Terry Winograd">Terry Winograd</a> finished writing <a href="/wiki/SHRDLU" title="SHRDLU">SHRDLU</a> for his PhD thesis at MIT. SHRDLU could understand simple English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks to direct a robotic arm to move items. The successful demonstration of SHRDLU provided significant momentum for continued research in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winograd continued to be a major influence in the field with the publication of his book <i>Language as a Cognitive Process</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Stanford, Winograd would later advise <a href="/wiki/Larry_Page" title="Larry Page">Larry Page</a>, who co-founded <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>. </p><p>In the 1970s and 1980s, the natural language processing group at <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a> continued research and development in the field. A number of commercial efforts based on the research were undertaken, <i>e.g.</i>, in 1982 <a href="/wiki/Gary_Hendrix" title="Gary Hendrix">Gary Hendrix</a> formed <a href="/wiki/Symantec_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Symantec Corporation">Symantec Corporation</a> originally as a company for developing a natural language interface for database queries on personal computers. However, with the advent of mouse-driven <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interfaces</a>, Symantec changed direction. A number of other commercial efforts were started around the same time, <i>e.g.</i>, Larry R. Harris at the Artificial Intelligence Corporation and Roger Schank and his students at Cognitive Systems Corp.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, Michael Dyer developed the BORIS system at Yale which bore similarities to the work of Roger Schank and W. G. Lehnert.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third millennium saw the introduction of systems using machine learning for text classification, such as the IBM <a href="/wiki/Watson_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Watson (computer)">Watson</a>. However, experts debate how much "understanding" such systems demonstrate: <i>e.g.</i>, according to <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, Watson did not even understand the questions.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Ball_(cognitive_scientist)" title="John Ball (cognitive scientist)">John Ball</a>, cognitive scientist and inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Patom_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Patom Theory">Patom Theory</a>, supports this assessment. Natural language processing has made inroads for applications to support human productivity in service and e-commerce, but this has largely been made possible by narrowing the scope of the application. There are thousands of ways to request something in a human language that still defies conventional natural language processing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to Wibe Wagemans, "To have a meaningful conversation with machines is only possible when we match every word to the correct meaning based on the meanings of the other words in the sentence – just like a 3-year-old does without guesswork."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_and_context">Scope and context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_language_understanding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope and context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The umbrella term "natural language understanding" can be applied to a diverse set of computer applications, ranging from small, relatively simple tasks such as short commands issued to <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>, to highly complex endeavors such as the full comprehension of newspaper articles or poetry passages. Many real-world applications fall between the two extremes, for instance <a href="/wiki/Document_classification" title="Document classification">text classification</a> for the automatic analysis of emails and their routing to a suitable department in a corporation does not require an in-depth understanding of the text,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but needs to deal with a much larger vocabulary and more diverse syntax than the management of simple queries to database tables with fixed schemata. </p><p>Throughout the years various attempts at processing natural language or <i>English-like</i> sentences presented to computers have taken place at varying degrees of complexity. Some attempts have not resulted in systems with deep understanding, but have helped overall system usability. For example, <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Ratliff" title="Wayne Ratliff">Wayne Ratliff</a> originally developed the <i>Vulcan</i> program with an English-like syntax to mimic the English speaking computer in <a href="/wiki/Star_Trek" title="Star Trek">Star Trek</a>. Vulcan later became the <a href="/wiki/DBase" title="DBase">dBase</a> system whose easy-to-use syntax effectively launched the personal computer database industry.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systems with an easy to use or English-like syntax are, however, quite distinct from systems that use a rich <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> and include an internal <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">representation</a> (often as <a href="/wiki/First_order_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="First order logic">first order logic</a>) of the semantics of natural language sentences. </p><p>Hence the breadth and depth of "understanding" aimed at by a system determine both the complexity of the system (and the implied challenges) and the types of applications it can deal with. The "breadth" of a system is measured by the sizes of its vocabulary and grammar. The "depth" is measured by the degree to which its understanding approximates that of a fluent native speaker. At the narrowest and shallowest, <i>English-like</i> command interpreters require minimal complexity, but have a small range of applications. Narrow but deep systems explore and model mechanisms of understanding,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they still have limited application. Systems that attempt to understand the contents of a document such as a news release beyond simple keyword matching and to judge its suitability for a user are broader and require significant complexity,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they are still somewhat shallow. Systems that are both very broad and very deep are beyond the current state of the art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components_and_architecture">Components and architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_language_understanding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Components and architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regardless of the approach used, most NLU systems share some common components. The system needs a <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of the language and a <a href="/wiki/Parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Parser">parser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> rules to break sentences into an internal representation. The construction of a rich lexicon with a suitable <a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a> requires significant effort, <i>e.g.</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Wordnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Wordnet">Wordnet</a> lexicon required many person-years of effort.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system also needs theory from <i><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a></i> to guide the comprehension. The interpretation capabilities of a language-understanding system depend on the semantic theory it uses. Competing semantic theories of language have specific trade-offs in their suitability as the basis of computer-automated semantic interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These range from <i><a href="/wiki/Naive_semantics" title="Naive semantics">naive semantics</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_semantic_analysis" title="Stochastic semantic analysis">stochastic semantic analysis</a></i> to the use of <i><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a></i> to derive meaning from context.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Semantic_parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic parser">Semantic parsers</a> convert natural-language texts into formal meaning representations.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advanced applications of NLU also attempt to incorporate logical <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> within their framework. This is generally achieved by mapping the derived meaning into a set of assertions in <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a>, then using <a href="/wiki/Logical_deduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical deduction">logical deduction</a> to arrive at conclusions. Therefore, systems based on functional languages such as <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> need to include a subsystem to represent logical assertions, while logic-oriented systems such as those using the language <a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> generally rely on an extension of the built-in logical representation framework.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The management of <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a> in NLU can present special challenges. A large variety of examples and counter examples have resulted in multiple approaches to the <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">formal modeling</a> of context, each with specific strengths and weaknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_language_understanding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_linguistic_processing" title="Deep linguistic processing">Deep linguistic processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_language_processing" title="History of natural language processing">History of natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">Information extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematica">Mathematica</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural-language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_programming" title="Natural-language programming">Natural-language programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_user_interface" title="Natural-language user interface">Natural-language user interface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siri_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siri (software)">Siri (software)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfram Alpha">Wolfram Alpha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_information_extraction" title="Open information extraction">Open information extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Part-of-speech_tagging" title="Part-of-speech tagging">Part-of-speech tagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_language_understanding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Semaan, P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lacsc.org/papers/PaperA6.pdf">Natural Language Generation: An Overview</a>. Journal of Computer Science & Research (JCSCR)-ISSN, 50-57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf">http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Harmelen, Frank, Vladimir Lifschitz, and Bruce Porter, eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xwBDylHhJhYC&q=%22natural+language+understanding%22">Handbook of knowledge representation</a>. Vol. 1. Elsevier, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macherey, Klaus, Franz Josef Och, and Hermann Ney. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Klaus_Macherey/publication/2371092_Natural_Language_Understanding_Using_Statistical_Machine_Translation/links/00463523b62bc9b5e6000000/Natural-Language-Understanding-Using-Statistical-Machine-Translation.pdf">Natural language understanding using statistical machine translation</a>." Seventh European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology. 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirschman, Lynette, and Robert Gaizauskas. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rob_Gaizauskas/publication/231807195_Natural_Language_Question_Answering_The_View_from_Here/links/0c96052a09fa7b819e000000/Natural-Language-Question-Answering-The-View-from-Here.pdf">Natural language question answering: the view from here</a>." natural language engineering 7.4 (2001): 275-300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_Artificial_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association for Artificial Intelligence">American Association for Artificial Intelligence</a> <i>Brief History of AI</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/BriefHistory">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bobrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Bobrow">Daniel Bobrow</a>'s PhD Thesis <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/5922">Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Machines who think</i> by Pamela McCorduck 2004 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56881-205-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56881-205-1">1-56881-205-1</a> page 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Stuart J.; 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Lexicograph. 3, 4, pp. 235-244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Using computers in linguistics: a practical guide</i> by John Lawler, Helen Aristar Dry 198 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16792-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-16792-2">0-415-16792-2</a> page 209</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Naive semantics for natural language understanding<i> by Kathleen Dahlgren 1988 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89838-287-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89838-287-4">0-89838-287-4</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Stochastically-based semantic analysis</i> by Wolfgang Minker, <a href="/wiki/Alex_Waibel" title="Alex Waibel">Alex Waibel</a>, Joseph Mariani 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-8571-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-8571-3">0-7923-8571-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Pragmatics and natural language understanding</i> by Georgia M. Green 1996 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-2166-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-2166-X">0-8058-2166-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wong, Yuk Wah, and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_J._Mooney" title="Raymond J. Mooney">Raymond J. Mooney</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/N06-1056">Learning for semantic parsing with statistical machine translation</a>." Proceedings of the main conference on Human Language Technology Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural Language Processing Prolog Programmers</i> by M. Covington, 1994 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-629478-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-629478-2">0-13-629478-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural language processing in Prolog</i> by Gerald Gazdar, Christopher S. Mellish 1989 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-18053-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-18053-7">0-201-18053-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Understanding language understanding</i> by Ashwin Ram, Kenneth Moorman 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-18192-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-18192-4">0-262-18192-4</a> page 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Formal aspects of context</i> by Pierre Bonzon et al 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-6350-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-6350-7">0-7923-6350-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.wolfram.com/2010/11/16/programming-with-natural-language-is-actually-going-to-work/">Programming with Natural Language Is Actually Going to Work—Wolfram Blog</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Valin,_Jr" class="citation web cs1">Van Valin, Jr, Robert D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isi.hhu.de/fileadmin/redaktion/Oeffentliche_Medien/Fakultaeten/Philosophische_Fakultaet/Sprache_und_Information/Van_Valin_From_NLP_to_NLU.pdf">"From NLP to NLU"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+NLP+to+NLU&rft.aulast=Van+Valin%2C+Jr&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isi.hhu.de%2Ffileadmin%2Fredaktion%2FOeffentliche_Medien%2FFakultaeten%2FPhilosophische_Fakultaet%2FSprache_und_Information%2FVan_Valin_From_NLP_to_NLU.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+language+understanding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall" class="citation web cs1">Ball, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pat.ai/">"multi-lingual NLU by Pat Inc"</a>. <i>Pat.ai</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pat.ai&rft.atitle=multi-lingual+NLU+by+Pat+Inc&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpat.ai%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+language+understanding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Deep_linguistic_processing" title="Deep linguistic processing">Deep linguistic processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distant_reading" title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">Information extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Named-entity_recognition" title="Named-entity recognition">Named-entity recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_learning" title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">Parsing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_parsing_(computational_linguistics)" title="Syntactic parsing (computational linguistics)">Syntactic parsing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Part-of-speech_tagging" title="Part-of-speech tagging">Part-of-speech tagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)" title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_role_labeling" title="Semantic role labeling">Semantic role labeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing)" title="Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)">Semantic decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">Semantic similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_extraction" title="Terminology extraction">Terminology extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_entailment" title="Textual entailment">Textual entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truecasing" title="Truecasing">Truecasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_induction" title="Word-sense induction">Word-sense induction</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Text_segmentation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Text_segmentation" title="Text segmentation">Text segmentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compound-term_processing" title="Compound-term processing">Compound-term processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemmatisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemmatisation">Lemmatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">Lexical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_parsing" title="Shallow parsing">Text chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stemming" title="Stemming">Stemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_boundary_disambiguation" title="Sentence boundary disambiguation">Sentence segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word#Word_boundaries" title="Word">Word segmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_summarization" title="Automatic summarization">Automatic summarization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-document_summarization" title="Multi-document summarization">Multi-document summarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_extraction" title="Sentence extraction">Sentence extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_simplification" title="Text simplification">Text simplification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation" title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a> models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BERT_(language_model)" title="BERT (language model)">BERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document-term_matrix" title="Document-term matrix">Document-term matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_semantic_analysis" title="Explicit semantic analysis">Explicit semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FastText" title="FastText">fastText</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GloVe" title="GloVe">GloVe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_model" title="Language model">Language model</a> (<a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis" title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seq2seq" title="Seq2seq">Seq2seq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_embedding" title="Word embedding">Word embedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word2vec" title="Word2vec">Word2vec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_resource" title="Language resource">Language resources</a>,<br />datasets and corpora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and<br />standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_resource" title="Lexical resource">Lexical resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Linked_Open_Data" title="Linguistic Linked Open Data">Linguistic Linked Open Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary" title="Machine-readable dictionary">Machine-readable dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_text" title="Parallel text">Parallel text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PropBank" title="PropBank">PropBank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">Simple Knowledge Organization System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_corpus" title="Speech corpus">Speech corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">Text corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval)" title="Thesaurus (information retrieval)">Thesaurus (information retrieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treebank" title="Treebank">Treebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Dependencies" title="Universal Dependencies">Universal Dependencies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BabelNet" title="BabelNet">BabelNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_English" title="Bank of English">Bank of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DBpedia" title="DBpedia">DBpedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FrameNet" title="FrameNet">FrameNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Ngram_Viewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Ngram Viewer">Google Ngram Viewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UBY" title="UBY">UBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture" title="Automatic identification and data capture">Automatic identification<br />and data capture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_segmentation" title="Speech segmentation">Speech segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_generation" title="Natural language generation">Natural language generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">Optical character recognition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Topic_model" title="Topic model">Topic model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Document_classification" title="Document classification">Document classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_Dirichlet_allocation" title="Latent Dirichlet allocation">Latent Dirichlet allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachinko_allocation" title="Pachinko allocation">Pachinko allocation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_reviewing" title="Computer-assisted reviewing">Computer-assisted<br />reviewing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring" title="Automated essay scoring">Automated essay scoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordancer" title="Concordancer">Concordancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammar_checker" title="Grammar checker">Grammar checker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_text" title="Predictive text">Predictive text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_assessment" title="Pronunciation assessment">Pronunciation assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spell_checker" title="Spell checker">Spell checker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_user_interface" title="Natural-language user interface">Natural language<br />user interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chatbot" title="Chatbot">Chatbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_fiction" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a> (c.f. <a href="/wiki/Syntax_guessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax guessing">Syntax guessing</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_answering" title="Question answering">Question answering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_Toolkit" title="Natural Language Toolkit">Natural Language Toolkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaCy" title="SpaCy">spaCy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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