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<li id="toc-Magnetos_in_early_automobiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetos_in_early_automobiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Magnetos in early automobiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetos_in_early_automobiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_over_dynamos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_over_dynamos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Advantages over dynamos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_over_dynamos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Operation</span> 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<span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid_vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid_vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Hybrid vehicles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid_vehicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altern%C3%A1tor_(automobil)" title="Alternátor (automobil) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alternátor (automobil)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtmaschine" title="Lichtmaschine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lichtmaschine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternador_del_motor" title="Alternador del motor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alternador del motor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88" title="دینام خودرو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دینام خودرو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Alternator" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Автомобильный генератор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Автомобильный генератор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altern%C3%A1tor_(automobily)" title="Alternátor (automobily) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alternátor (automobily)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator_(avto)" title="Alternator (avto) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alternator (avto)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Алтернатор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алтернатор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latausgeneraattori" title="Latausgeneraattori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Latausgeneraattori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generator_(bildel)" title="Generator (bildel) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Generator (bildel)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A_(%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C)" title="เครื่องกำเนิดไฟฟ้ากระแสสลับ (ยานยนต์) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องกำเนิดไฟฟ้ากระแสสลับ (ยานยนต์)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternat%C3%B6r_(otomotiv)" title="Alternatör (otomotiv) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Alternatör (otomotiv)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Автомобільний генератор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Автомобільний генератор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Devices in automobiles to charge the battery and power the electrical system</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg/220px-1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg/330px-1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg/440px-1966_AMC_Ambassador_990_4-sp_convertible_AACA_Iowa_k.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>Alternator (silver) mounted on a <a href="/wiki/V8_engine" title="V8 engine">V8 engine</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg/220px-Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg/330px-Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg/440px-Alternator_voltage_regulator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="2328" /></a><figcaption>Alternator voltage regulator (brushes are worn out)</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>alternator</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generator</a> used in modern <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a> to charge the <a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">battery</a> and to power the electrical system when its <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">engine</a> is running. </p><p>Until the 1960s, automobiles used DC <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamo</a> generators with <a href="/wiki/Commutator_(electric)" title="Commutator (electric)">commutators</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">silicon-diode</a> rectifiers became widely available and affordable, the <a href="/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator">alternator</a> gradually replaced the dynamo. This was encouraged by the increasing electrical power required for cars in this period, with increasing loads from larger headlamps, electric wipers, <a href="/wiki/Defogger" title="Defogger">heated rear windows</a>, and other accessories. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern type of vehicle alternators were first used in military applications during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, to power radio equipment on specialist vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war, other vehicles with high electrical demands — such as ambulances and radio taxis — could also be fitted with optional alternators.<sup id="cite_ref-Allpar_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allpar-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternators were first introduced as standard equipment on a production car by the <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler Corporation">Chrysler Corporation</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Valiant" title="Plymouth Valiant">Valiant</a> in 1960, several years ahead of <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allpar_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allpar-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetos_in_early_automobiles">Magnetos in early automobiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Magnetos in early automobiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">Dynamo</a></div> <p>Some early automobiles, like the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a>, used a different sort of charging system: an engine-driven <a href="/wiki/Magneto" title="Magneto">magneto</a> which generated low-voltage alternating current that was supplied to <a href="/wiki/Trembler_coil" title="Trembler coil">trembler coils</a>, which provided the high voltage needed to generate ignition sparks. (This was different from a true <a href="/wiki/Ignition_magneto" title="Ignition magneto">ignition magneto</a>, which generates high voltage directly.) Since such a magneto system only depended on the engine's motion to generate current, it could even be used when starting a manually cranked engine, provided the crank was pulled sharply, so that the magneto would produce enough current for the coils to make good sparks. </p><p>The Model T incorporated its magneto into the engine flywheel. The first Model Ts used the magneto solely for the trembler coil ignition. Beginning with the 1915 model year, Ford added electric headlights, also powered by the magneto.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magneto circuit was strictly AC, with no battery included. (There was a switch on the ignition coils to use a battery instead, which could be helpful when starting in cold weather, but Ford neither provided a battery nor did it encourage the use of one before it introduced an electric starter in 1919. The owner would have to install the battery themselves and charge it externally.) </p><p>Starting in the 1919 model year, Ford upgraded the Model T to include an electric starter, which was standard for some models and optional for others. This starter installation also included a battery, charged by a conventional dynamo, and the lights were now powered by the battery. However, the flywheel magneto still powered the ignition, and since models without the starter had no battery, they continued to use magneto-powered lights.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_over_dynamos">Advantages over dynamos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Advantages over dynamos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator">Alternators</a> have several advantages over direct-current generators (<a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamos</a>). Alternators are: </p> <ul><li>Lighter, cheaper, more rugged, faster to replace (under one hour)</li> <li>Can provide useful charge at idle speed</li> <li>Use <a href="/wiki/Slip_ring" title="Slip ring">slip rings</a>, having greatly extended <a href="/wiki/Brush_(electric)" title="Brush (electric)">brush</a> life over a <a href="/wiki/Commutator_(electric)" title="Commutator (electric)">commutator</a> (Or completely brushless designs)</li> <li>The brushes in an alternator carry only <a href="/wiki/Direct_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Current">DC</a> excitation current, which is a small fraction of the current carried by the brushes of a DC generator, which carry the generator's entire output</li></ul> <p>A set of <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectifiers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Diode_bridge#Polyphase_diode_bridges" title="Diode bridge">diode bridge</a>) is required to convert <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a> to <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a>. To provide direct current with low <a href="/wiki/Ripple_(electrical)" title="Ripple (electrical)">ripple</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Polyphase_system" title="Polyphase system">polyphase</a> winding is used and the pole-pieces of the rotor are shaped (claw-pole). Automotive alternators are usually <a href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)" title="Belt (mechanical)">belt</a>-driven at 2–3 times crankshaft speed, speeds that could cause a commutator to fly apart in a generator. The alternator runs at various RPM (which varies the frequency) since it is driven by the engine. This is not a problem because the alternating current is <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectified</a> to <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a>. </p><p>Alternator regulators are also simpler than those for generators. Generator regulators require a cutout relay to isolate the output coils (the armature) from the battery at low speed; that isolation is provided by the alternator rectifier diodes. Also, most generator regulators include a current limiter; alternators are inherently current-limited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dynamo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dynamo.JPG/220px-Dynamo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dynamo.JPG/330px-Dynamo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dynamo.JPG/440px-Dynamo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Cut-away of an alternator, showing the claw-pole construction; two of the wedge-shaped field poles, alternating N and S, are visible in the centre and the stationary armature winding is visible at the top and bottom of the opening. The belt and pulley at the right-hand end drives the alternator.</figcaption></figure><p> The claw pole design produces an AC waveform that is more efficiently rectified than a sine wave. </p><p>Despite their names, both 'DC generators' (or 'dynamos') and 'alternators' initially produce alternating current. In a so-called 'DC generator', this AC current is generated in the rotating armature, and then converted to DC by the commutator and brushes. In an 'alternator', the AC current is generated in the stationary stator, and then is converted to DC by the rectifiers (diodes). </p><p>Typical passenger vehicle and light truck alternators use Lundahl or 'claw-pole' field construction. This uses a shaped iron core on the rotor to produce a multi-pole field from a single coil winding. The poles of the rotor look like fingers of two hands interlocked with each other. The coil is mounted axially inside this and <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> is supplied by slip rings and carbon brushes. These alternators have their field and stator windings cooled by axial airflow, produced by an external fan attached to the drive belt pulley.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Automotive_alternator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Automotive_alternator.jpg/326px-Automotive_alternator.jpg" decoding="async" width="326" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Automotive_alternator.jpg/489px-Automotive_alternator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Automotive_alternator.jpg/652px-Automotive_alternator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption>Automotive alternator</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg/170px-Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg/255px-Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg/340px-Jeep_2.5_liter_4-cylinder_engine_chromed_e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Compact alternator</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern vehicles now use the compact alternator layout. This is electrically and magnetically similar, but has improved air cooling. Better cooling permits more power from a smaller machine. The casing has distinctive radial vent slots at each end and now encloses the fan. Two fans are used, one at each end, and the airflow is semi-radial, entering axially and leaving radially outwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Bosch,_Compact_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosch,_Compact-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stator windings now consist of a dense central band where the iron core and copper windings are tightly packed, and end bands where the windings are more exposed for better heat transfer. The closer core spacing from the rotor improves magnetic efficiency. The smaller, enclosed fans produce less noise, particularly at higher machine speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-Bosch,_Compact_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosch,_Compact-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternators can also be water-cooled in cars. </p><p>Larger vehicles may have <a href="/wiki/Field_coil" title="Field coil">field coil</a> alternators similar to larger machines.<sup id="cite_ref-Bosch,_Salient_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosch,_Salient-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The windings of a 3 phase alternator may be connected using either the <i>delta</i> or <i>star</i> (<i>wye</i>) connection regime set-up.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brushless versions of these type alternators are also common in larger machinery such as highway trucks and earthmoving machinery. With two oversized shaft bearings as the only wearing parts, these can provide extremely long and reliable service, even exceeding the engine overhaul intervals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Field_regulation">Field regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Field regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Automotive alternators require a <a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">voltage regulator</a> which operates by modulating the small <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> to produce a constant voltage at the battery terminals. Early designs (c.1960s–1970s) used a discrete device mounted elsewhere in the vehicle. Intermediate designs (c.1970s–1990s) incorporated the voltage regulator into the alternator housing. Modern designs do away with the voltage regulator altogether; voltage regulation is now a function of the <a href="/wiki/Engine_control_unit" title="Engine control unit">engine control unit</a> (ECU). The <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> is much smaller than the output current of the alternator; for example, a 70 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">A</a> alternator may need only 2-3 A of <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> is supplied to the rotor windings by slip rings. The low current and relatively smooth slip rings ensure greater reliability and longer life than that obtained by a DC generator with its commutator and higher current being passed through its brushes. </p><p>The field windings are supplied with power from the battery via the ignition switch and regulator. A <a href="/wiki/Parallel_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel circuit">parallel circuit</a> supplies the "charge" warning indicator and is earthed via the regulator (which is why the indicator is on when the ignition is on but the engine is not running). Once the engine is running and the alternator is generating power, a <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a> feeds the <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> from the alternator main output equalizing the voltage across the warning indicator which goes off. The wire supplying the <a href="/wiki/Field_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Field current">field current</a> is often referred to as the "exciter" wire. The drawback of this arrangement is that if the warning lamp burns out or the "exciter" wire is disconnected, no current reaches the field windings and the alternator will not generate power. Some warning indicator circuits are equipped with a resistor in parallel with the lamp that permit excitation current to flow if the warning lamp burns out. The driver should check that the warning indicator is on when the engine is stopped; otherwise, there might not be any indication of a failure of the belt which may also drive the cooling <a href="/wiki/Water_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pump">water pump</a>. Some alternators will self-excite when the engine reaches a certain speed. </p><p>In recent years,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2018)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> alternator regulators are linked to the vehicle's computer system and various factors including air temperature obtained from the intake air temperature sensor, battery temperature sensor and engine load are evaluated in adjusting the voltage supplied by the alternator. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Output_current">Output current</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Output current"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older automobiles with minimal lighting may have had an alternator capable of producing only 30 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>. Typical passenger car and light truck alternators are rated around 50–70 A,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> though higher ratings are becoming more common, especially as there is more load on the vehicle's electrical system with <a href="/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_steering" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric power steering">electric power steering</a> and other electrical systems. Very large alternators used on buses, heavy equipment or emergency vehicles may produce 300 A. Semi-trucks usually have alternators which output 140 A. Very large alternators may be water-cooled or oil-cooled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Efficiency of automotive alternators is limited by fan cooling loss, bearing loss, iron loss, copper loss, and the voltage drop in the diode bridges. Efficiency reduces dramatically at high speeds mainly due to fan resistance. At medium speeds efficiency of today's alternators is 70–80%.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This betters very small high-performance permanent magnet alternators, such as those used for <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lighting" title="Bicycle lighting">bicycle lighting</a> systems, which achieve an efficiency around 60%. Larger permanent magnet electric machines (that can operate as motors or alternators) can achieve today much higher efficiencies. Pellegrino et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for instance, propose not particularly expensive designs that show ample regions in which efficiency is above 96%. Large AC generators used in power stations run at carefully controlled speeds and have no constraints on size or weight. They have very high efficiencies as high as 98%. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hybrid_vehicles">Hybrid vehicles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hybrid vehicles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Alternator_(automotive)" title="Special:EditPage/Alternator (automotive)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicles</a> replace the separate alternator and starter motor with one or more combined motor/generator(s) that start the internal combustion engine, provide some or all of the mechanical power to the wheels, and charge a large storage battery.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When more than one motor/generator is present, as in the <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_Synergy_Drive" title="Hybrid Synergy Drive">Hybrid Synergy Drive</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Prius" title="Toyota Prius">Toyota Prius</a> and others, one may operate as a generator and feed the other as a motor, providing an electromechanical path for some of the engine power to flow to the wheels. These motor/generators have considerably more powerful electronic devices for their control than the automotive alternator described above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Fitted_For_Wireless" title="Fitted For Wireless">Fitted For Wireless</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternator_(automotive)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Automobile_alternators" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Automobile alternators">Automobile alternators</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Allpar-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allpar_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allpar_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allpar.com/eek/alternators.html">"Alternators and Generators"</a>. <i>Allpar</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Allpar&rft.atitle=Alternators+and+Generators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allpar.com%2Feek%2Falternators.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uniquecarsandparts.com/gallery/pdf/Chrysler_Valiant_S_Series.pdf">"Valiant by Chrysler"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Valiant promotional brochure</i>. Chrysler Corporation (Australia). 1962. <q>Another Chrysler "first" ... the amazing new alternator</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Valiant+promotional+brochure&rft.atitle=Valiant+by+Chrysler&rft.date=1962&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funiquecarsandparts.com%2Fgallery%2Fpdf%2FChrysler_Valiant_S_Series.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtfca.com/encyclo/1915.htm">"Encyclopedia: 1915"</a>. <i>Model T Ford Club of America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Model+T+Ford+Club+of+America&rft.atitle=Encyclopedia%3A+1915&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtfca.com%2Fencyclo%2F1915.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtfca.com/encyclo/1915-16H.htm">"Encyclopedia: 1915 and 1916 [comprehensive description]"</a>. <i>Model T Ford Club of America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Model+T+Ford+Club+of+America&rft.atitle=Encyclopedia%3A+1915+and+1916+%5Bcomprehensive+description%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtfca.com%2Fencyclo%2F1915-16H.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._McCalley2007" class="citation web cs1">W. McCalley, Bruce (January 28, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtfca.com/encyclo/1919.htm">"Encyclopedia: 1919"</a>. <i>Model T Ford Club of America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Model+T+Ford+Club+of+America&rft.atitle=Encyclopedia%3A+1919&rft.date=2007-01-28&rft.aulast=W.+McCalley&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtfca.com%2Fencyclo%2F1919.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._McCalley2000" class="citation web cs1">W. McCalley, Bruce (July 1, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtfca.com/encyclo/1917-20H.htm">"Encyclopedia: 1917 to 1920 [comprehensive description]"</a>. <i>Model T Ford Club of America</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Model+T+Ford+Club+of+America&rft.atitle=Encyclopedia%3A+1917+to+1920+%5Bcomprehensive+description%5D&rft.date=2000-07-01&rft.aulast=W.+McCalley&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtfca.com%2Fencyclo%2F1917-20H.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosch3rd" class="citation book cs1">"Electrical System and Power Supply". <i>Automotive Handbook</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bosch GmbH">Bosch</a>. 1993. pp. <span class="nowrap">770–</span>1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8376-0330-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8376-0330-7"><bdi>0-8376-0330-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electrical+System+and+Power+Supply&rft.btitle=Automotive+Handbook&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E770-%3C%2Fspan%3E1&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bosch&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8376-0330-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bosch,_Compact-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch,_Compact_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch,_Compact_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosch3rd">Bosch & 3rd</a>, p. 771</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bosch,_Salient-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bosch,_Salient_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosch3rd">Bosch & 3rd</a>, pp. 771–772</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.windstuffnow.com/main/3_phase_basics">"Understanding 3 phase alternators..."</a> windstuffnow.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+3+phase+alternators....&rft.pub=windstuffnow.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.windstuffnow.com%2Fmain%2F3_phase_basics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horst Bauer (ed.) <i>Automotive Handbook 8th Edition</i>, Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8376-1686-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8376-1686-5">978-0-8376-1686-5</a>, page 993</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellegrinoVagatiGuglielmiBoazzo2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pellegrino, Gianmario; Vagati, Alfredo; Guglielmi, Paolo; Boazzo, Barbara (February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5764534/">"Performance Comparison Between Surface-Mounted and Interior PM Motor Drives for Electric Vehicle Application"</a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics</i>. <b>59</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">803–</span>811. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTIE.2011.2151825">10.1109/TIE.2011.2151825</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0278-0046">0278-0046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Industrial+Electronics&rft.atitle=Performance+Comparison+Between+Surface-Mounted+and+Interior+PM+Motor+Drives+for+Electric+Vehicle+Application&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E803-%3C%2Fspan%3E811&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTIE.2011.2151825&rft.issn=0278-0046&rft.aulast=Pellegrino&rft.aufirst=Gianmario&rft.au=Vagati%2C+Alfredo&rft.au=Guglielmi%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Boazzo%2C+Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F5764534%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFaftermarketonline2022" class="citation web cs1">aftermarketonline (2022-08-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aftermarketonline.net/alternators-and-starters-in-hybrid-vehicles/">"Alternators and starters in hybrid vehicles - Aftermarketonline"</a>. <i>Aftermarketonline - The voice of the independent garage sector</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aftermarketonline+-+The+voice+of+the+independent+garage+sector&rft.atitle=Alternators+and+starters+in+hybrid+vehicles+-+Aftermarketonline&rft.date=2022-08-29&rft.au=aftermarketonline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faftermarketonline.net%2Falternators-and-starters-in-hybrid-vehicles%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternator+%28automotive%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_shaft" title="Balance shaft">Balance shaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_heater" title="Block heater">Block heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bore_(engine)" title="Bore (engine)">Bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecting_rod" title="Connecting rod">Connecting rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankcase" title="Crankcase">Crankcase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankcase_ventilation_system" title="Crankcase ventilation system">Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankpin" title="Crankpin">Crankpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">Crankshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_plug" title="Core plug">Core plug (freeze plug)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_(engine)" title="Cylinder (engine)">Cylinder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cylinder_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder bank">bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engine_configuration" title="Engine configuration">layout</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine_displacement" title="Engine displacement">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">Flywheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firing_order" title="Firing order">Firing order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_(engine)" title="Stroke (engine)">Stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_bearing" title="Main bearing">Main bearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">Piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston_ring" title="Piston ring">Piston ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starter_ring_gear" title="Starter ring gear">Starter ring gear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Valvetrain" title="Valvetrain">Valvetrain</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_head" title="Cylinder head">Cylinder head</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flathead_engine" title="Flathead engine">Flathead layout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_camshaft_engine" title="Overhead camshaft engine">Overhead camshaft layout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_valve_engine" title="Overhead valve engine">Overhead valve (pushrod) layout</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tappet" title="Tappet">Tappet / lifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camshaft" title="Camshaft">Camshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_(mechanical_engineering)" title="Chest (mechanical engineering)">Chest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">Combustion chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_ratio" title="Compression ratio">Compression ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_gasket" title="Head gasket">Head gasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_arm" title="Rocker arm">Rocker arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timing_belt_(camshaft)" title="Timing belt (camshaft)">Timing belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppet_valve" title="Poppet valve">Valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forced_induction" title="Forced induction">Forced induction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowoff_valve" title="Blowoff valve">Blowoff valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_controller" title="Boost controller">Boost controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercooler" title="Intercooler">Intercooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercharger" title="Supercharger">Supercharger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">Turbocharger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fuel system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrol_engine" title="Petrol engine">Petrol engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburetor" title="Carburetor">Carburetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_filter" title="Fuel filter">Fuel filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">Fuel injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_pump" title="Fuel pump">Fuel pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tank" title="Fuel tank">Fuel tank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ignition_system" title="Ignition system">Ignition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ignition_magneto" title="Ignition magneto">Magneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_ignition" class="mw-redirect" title="Compression ignition">Compression ignition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coil-on-plug_ignition" class="mw-redirect" title="Coil-on-plug ignition">Coil-on-plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributor" title="Distributor">Distributor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glow_plug_(diesel_engine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glow plug (diesel engine)">Glow plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignition_coil" title="Ignition coil">Ignition coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">Spark plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_plug_wires" title="Spark plug wires">Spark plug wires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Engine management</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engine_control_unit" title="Engine control unit">Engine control unit (ECU)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Electrical system</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alternator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">Dynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starter_(engine)" title="Starter (engine)">Starter motor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intake system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbox" title="Airbox">Airbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter#Internal_combustion_engine_air_filters" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idle_air_control_actuator" title="Idle air control actuator">Idle air control actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet_manifold" title="Inlet manifold">Inlet manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAP_sensor" title="MAP sensor">MAP sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_flow_sensor" title="Mass flow sensor">MAF sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">Throttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle_position_sensor" title="Throttle position sensor">Throttle position sensor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_system" title="Exhaust system">Exhaust system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">Catalytic converter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filter" title="Diesel particulate filter">Diesel particulate filter</a></li> <li><a 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