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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RESTful_APIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>RESTful APIs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RESTful_APIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-User_interface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#User_interface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>User interface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-User_interface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_(CRUD)" title="عمليات إدارة البيانات (CRUD) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمليات إدارة البيانات (CRUD)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crear,_llegir,_actualitzar_i_esborrar" title="Crear, llegir, actualitzar i esborrar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crear, llegir, actualitzar i esborrar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%8C_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D8%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%AD%D8%B0%D9%81" title="ایجاد، خواندن، روزآمدی و حذف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایجاد، خواندن، روزآمدی و حذف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opprett,_les,_oppdater_og_slett" title="Opprett, les, oppdater og slett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Opprett, les, oppdater og slett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81,_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF,_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81,_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81" title="உருவாக்கு, படி, இற்றைப்படுத்து, நீக்கு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உருவாக்கு, படி, இற்றைப்படுத்து, நீக்கு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD" title="CRUD – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="CRUD" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A2%9E%E6%9F%A5%E6%94%B9%E5%88%AA" title="增查改刪 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="增查改刪" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Basic operations of a computer database</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"CRUD" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crud_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Crud (disambiguation)">Crud</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a>, <b>create, read, update, and delete</b> (<b>CRUD</b>) are the four basic operations of <a href="/wiki/Persistent_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent storage">persistent storage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-james-martin_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james-martin-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CRUD is also sometimes used to describe <a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">user interface</a> conventions that facilitate viewing, searching, and changing information using computer-based <a href="/wiki/Form_(document)" title="Form (document)">forms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Report" title="Report">reports</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term was likely first popularized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by <a href="/wiki/James_Martin_(author)" title="James Martin (author)">James Martin</a> in his 1983 book <i>Managing the data-base environment</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptual">Conceptual</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conceptual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data can be put in a <i>location/area</i> of a storage mechanism. </p> <ul><li>The fundamental feature of a storage location is that its <i>content</i> is both <i>readable</i> and <i>updatable</i>.</li> <li>Before a storage location can be read or updated it needs to be <i>created</i>; that is allocated and initialized with content.</li> <li>At some later point, the storage location may need to be <i>destructed</i>; that is finalized and deallocated.</li></ul> <p>Together these four operations make up the basic operations of storage management known as CRUD: <i>Create</i>, <i>Read</i>, <i>Update</i> and <i>Delete</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_cases">Use cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Use cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Databases">Databases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Databases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The acronym CRUD refers to the major operations which are implemented by <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a>. Each letter in the acronym can be mapped to a standard <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">Structured Query Language (SQL)</a> statement.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>CRUD </th> <th>SQL </th></tr> <tr> <td>Create </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insert_(SQL)" title="Insert (SQL)">INSERT</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Read </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Select_(SQL)" title="Select (SQL)">SELECT</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Update </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Update_(SQL)" title="Update (SQL)">UPDATE</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Delete </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Delete_(SQL)" title="Delete (SQL)">DELETE</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational databases</a> are a common <a href="/wiki/Persistence_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistence layer">persistence layer</a> in software applications, numerous other persistence layers exist. CRUD functionality can for example be implemented with <a href="/wiki/Document_database" class="mw-redirect" title="Document database">document databases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_database" title="Object database">object databases</a>, <a href="/wiki/XML_database" title="XML database">XML databases</a>, text files, or binary files. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a> systems do not implement UPDATE, but have only a timestamped INSERT (journaling), storing a completely new version of the object each time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RESTful_APIs">RESTful APIs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: RESTful APIs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The acronym CRUD also appears in the discussion of <a href="/wiki/Representational_state_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Representational state transfer">RESTful APIs</a>. Each letter in the acronym may be mapped to a <a href="/wiki/HTTP_method" class="mw-redirect" title="HTTP method">Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) method</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>CRUD </th> <th>HTTP </th></tr> <tr> <td>Create </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">POST, PUT</a> if we have `id` or `uuid` </td></tr> <tr> <td>Read </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">GET</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Update </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">PUT</a> to replace, <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">PATCH</a> to modify </td></tr> <tr> <td>Delete </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">DELETE</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In HTTP, the GET (read), PUT (create and update), POST (create - if we don't have `id` or `uuid`), and DELETE (delete) methods are CRUD operations as they have storage management semantics, meaning that they let <a href="/wiki/User_agent" title="User agent">user agents</a> directly manipulate the states of target <a href="/wiki/Web_resource" title="Web resource">resources</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol#Request_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">POST</a> method, on the other hand, is a process operation that has target-resource-specific semantics which typically exceed the scope of CRUD operations.<sup id="cite_ref-it-is-okay-to-use-post_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-it-is-okay-to-use-post-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User_interface">User interface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: User interface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>CRUD is also relevant at the user interface level of most applications. For example, in address book software, the basic storage unit is an individual <i>contact entry</i>. As a bare minimum, the software must allow the user to: <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Create</i>, or add new entries</li> <li><i>Read</i>, retrieve, search, or view existing entries</li> <li><i>Update</i>, or edit existing entries</li> <li><i>Delete</i>, deactivate, or remove existing entries</li></ul> <p>Because these operations are so fundamental, they are often <a href="/wiki/Software_documentation" title="Software documentation">documented</a> and described under one comprehensive heading such as "contact management" or "document management" in general.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_variations">Other variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other variations of CRUD include: </p> <ul><li>ABCD (add, browse, change, delete)</li> <li>CRUDL (create, read, update, delete, list)</li> <li>BREAD (browse, read, edit, add, delete)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>DAVE (delete, add, view, edit)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>CRAP (create, replicate, append, process)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Representational_state_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Representational state transfer">Representational state transfer</a> (REST)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_record_pattern" title="Active record pattern">Active record pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_manipulation_language" title="Data manipulation language">Data manipulation language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACID" title="ACID">ACID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_by_Example" title="Query by Example">Query by Example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command%E2%80%93query_separation" title="Command–query separation">Command–query separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaffold_(programming)" title="Scaffold (programming)">Scaffold (programming)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Create,_read,_update_and_delete&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-james-martin-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-james-martin_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartin1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Martin_(author)" title="James Martin (author)">Martin, James</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/managingdatabase00mart/page/381"><i>Managing the Data-base Environment</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 381. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-135-50582-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-135-50582-8"><bdi>0-135-50582-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+the+Data-base+Environment&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=381&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-135-50582-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanagingdatabase00mart%2Fpage%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaryam_Sulemani2021" class="citation web cs1">Maryam Sulemani (7 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.educative.io/blog/crud-operations">"CRUD operations explained: Create, read, update, delete"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CRUD+operations+explained%3A+Create%2C+read%2C+update%2C+delete&rft.date=2021-04-07&rft.au=Maryam+Sulemani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.educative.io%2Fblog%2Fcrud-operations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFielding2014" class="citation web cs1">Fielding, Roy (June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231#section-4">"Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Semantics and Content, Section 4"</a>. <i>IETF</i>. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). <a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231">7231</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IETF&rft.atitle=Hypertext+Transfer+Protocol+%28HTTP%2F1.1%29%3A+Semantics+and+Content%2C+Section+4&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fhtml%2Frfc7231%23id-name%3DRFC&rft.aulast=Fielding&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fhtml%2Frfc7231%23section-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-it-is-okay-to-use-post-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-it-is-okay-to-use-post_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy_T._Fielding2009" class="citation web cs1">Roy T. Fielding (2009-03-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://roy.gbiv.com/untangled/2009/it-is-okay-to-use-post">"It is okay to use POST"</a>. roy.gbiv.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-14</span></span>. <q>POST only becomes an issue when it is used in a situation for which some other method is ideally suited: e.g., retrieval of information that should be a representation of some resource (GET), complete replacement of a representation (PUT), or any of the other standardized methods that tell intermediaries something more valuable than "this may change something." The other methods are more valuable to intermediaries because they say something about how failures can be automatically handled and how intermediate caches can optimize their behavior. POST does not have those characteristics, but that doesn't mean we can live without it. POST serves many useful purposes in HTTP, including the general purpose of "this action isn't worth standardizing."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=It+is+okay+to+use+POST&rft.pub=roy.gbiv.com&rft.date=2009-03-20&rft.au=Roy+T.+Fielding&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froy.gbiv.com%2Funtangled%2F2009%2Fit-is-okay-to-use-post&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKann" class="citation book cs1">Kann, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/27566"><i>Programming for the Web - From Soup to Nuts - Implementing a Complete GIS Web Page</i></a>. Gettysburg College. pp. 6.1 CRUD Interface.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+for+the+Web+-+From+Soup+to+Nuts+-+Implementing+a+Complete+GIS+Web+Page&rft.pages=6.1+CRUD+Interface&rft.pub=Gettysburg+College&rft.aulast=Kann&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feng.libretexts.org%2F%40go%2Fpage%2F27566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_M._Jones2008" class="citation web cs1">Paul M. Jones (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paul-m-jones.com/archives/291">"BREAD, not CRUD"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BREAD%2C+not+CRUD&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Paul+M.+Jones&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaul-m-jones.com%2Farchives%2F291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGaw2010" class="citation book cs1">McGaw, James (21 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LwO1GzMN_QsC&q=DAVE&pg=PA41"><i>Beginning Django E-Commerce</i></a>. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781430225362" title="Special:BookSources/9781430225362"><bdi>9781430225362</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginning+Django+E-Commerce&rft.pages=41&rft.date=2010-06-21&rft.isbn=9781430225362&rft.aulast=McGaw&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLwO1GzMN_QsC%26q%3DDAVE%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.dellemc.com/en-us/crap-and-crud-from-database-to-datacloud/">"CRAP and CRUD: From Database to Datacloud - Direct2DellEMC"</a>. <i>Direct2DellEMC</i>. 2012-11-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Direct2DellEMC&rft.atitle=CRAP+and+CRUD%3A+From+Database+to+Datacloud+-+Direct2DellEMC&rft.date=2012-11-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.dellemc.com%2Fen-us%2Fcrap-and-crud-from-database-to-datacloud%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreate%2C+read%2C+update+and+delete" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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systems">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of relational database management systems">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key%E2%80%93value_database" title="Key–value database">Key–value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column-oriented_DBMS" class="mw-redirect" title="Column-oriented DBMS">Column-oriented</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_column-oriented_DBMSes" title="List of column-oriented DBMSes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document-oriented_database" title="Document-oriented database">Document-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-column_store" title="Wide-column store">Wide-column store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_database" title="Graph database">Graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewSQL" title="NewSQL">NewSQL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-memory_database" title="In-memory database">In-memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_in-memory_databases" title="List of in-memory databases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-model_database" title="Multi-model database">Multi-model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_multi-model_databases" title="Comparison of multi-model databases">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_database" title="Cloud database">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockchain-based_database" title="Blockchain-based database">Blockchain-based database</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACID" title="ACID">ACID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armstrong%27s_axioms" title="Armstrong's axioms">Armstrong's axioms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codd%27s_12_rules" title="Codd's 12 rules">Codd's 12 rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP_theorem" title="CAP theorem">CAP theorem</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">CRUD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_(SQL)" title="Null (SQL)">Null</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candidate_key" title="Candidate key">Candidate key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_key" title="Foreign key">Foreign key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PACELC_theorem" title="PACELC theorem">PACELC theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superkey" title="Superkey">Superkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogate_key" title="Surrogate key">Surrogate key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unique_key" title="Unique key">Unique key</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relation_(database)" title="Relation (database)">Relation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_(database)" title="Table (database)">table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(database)" title="Column (database)">column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Row_(database)" title="Row (database)">row</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_(SQL)" title="View (SQL)">View</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_transaction" title="Database transaction">Transaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction_log" title="Transaction log">Transaction log</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_trigger" title="Database trigger">Trigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_index" title="Database index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stored_procedure" title="Stored procedure">Stored procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursor_(databases)" title="Cursor (databases)">Cursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_(database)" title="Partition (database)">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_control" title="Concurrency control">Concurrency control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_dictionary" title="Data dictionary">Data dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java_Database_Connectivity" title="Java Database Connectivity">JDBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XQuery_API_for_Java" title="XQuery API for Java">XQJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Database_Connectivity" title="Open Database Connectivity">ODBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_language" title="Query language">Query language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_optimization" title="Query optimization">Query optimizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_Rewriting" class="mw-redirect" title="Query Rewriting">Query rewriting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_plan" title="Query plan">Query plan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database_administration" title="Database administration">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_optimization" title="Query optimization">Query optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(computing)#DATABASE" title="Replication (computing)">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shard_(database_architecture)" title="Shard (database architecture)">Sharding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database_model" title="Database model">Database models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_normalization" title="Database normalization">Database normalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_storage_structures" title="Database storage structures">Database storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">Distributed database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federated_database_system" title="Federated database system">Federated database system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Referential_integrity" title="Referential integrity">Referential integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_algebra" title="Relational algebra">Relational algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_calculus" title="Relational calculus">Relational calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_model" title="Relational model">Relational model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_database" title="Object–relational database">Object–relational database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction_processing" title="Transaction processing">Transaction processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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