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href="#Cooling_air_to_its_dew_point"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Cooling air to its dew point</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_air_to_its_dew_point-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adding_moisture_to_the_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adding_moisture_to_the_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Adding moisture to the air</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adding_moisture_to_the_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Forms of precipitation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms_of_precipitation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms of precipitation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Raindrops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raindrops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Raindrops</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raindrops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_pellets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_pellets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ice pellets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_pellets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Hail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Snowflakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snowflakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Snowflakes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snowflakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diamond_dust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diamond_dust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Diamond dust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diamond_dust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occult_deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occult_deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Occult deposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occult_deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frontal_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frontal_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Frontal activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frontal_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Convection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Convection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orographic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orographic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Orographic effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orographic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Snow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Snow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Within_the_tropics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Within_the_tropics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Within the tropics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Within_the_tropics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large-scale_geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large-scale_geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Large-scale geographical distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large-scale_geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Measurement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Measurement_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrometeor_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrometeor_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Hydrometeor definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrometeor_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Satellite estimates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_data_sets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_data_sets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Satellite data sets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_data_sets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Return period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uneven_pattern_of_precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uneven_pattern_of_precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Uneven pattern of precipitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uneven_pattern_of_precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_Köppen_climate_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_Köppen_climate_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Role in Köppen climate classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_Köppen_climate_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Effect on agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_due_to_global_warming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_due_to_global_warming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Changes due to global warming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_due_to_global_warming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_due_to_urban_heat_island" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_due_to_urban_heat_island"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Changes due to urban heat island</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_due_to_urban_heat_island-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forecasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forecasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Forecasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forecasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 102 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-102" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">102 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neerslag" title="Neerslag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neerslag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%84" title="هطول – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هطول" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitaci%C3%B3n_(meteorolox%C3%ADa)" title="Precipitación (meteoroloxía) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Precipitación (meteoroloxía)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_yv%C3%A1gagui_ho%27%C3%A1va" title="Y yvágagui ho'áva – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Y yvágagui ho'áva" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer_ya%C4%9F%C4%B1nt%C4%B1lar%C4%B1" title="Atmosfer yağıntıları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atmosfer yağıntıları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="বারিপাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বারিপাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Атмасферныя ападкі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атмасферныя ападкі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%84%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Атмасфэрныя ападкі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Атмасфэрныя ападкі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presipitasyon" title="Presipitasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Presipitasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6" title="Валеж – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Валеж" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padavina" title="Padavina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Padavina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitaci%C3%B3_atmosf%C3%A8rica" title="Precipitació atmosfèrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Precipitació atmosfèrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%C3%A7%C4%83%D0%B2%C4%83%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Атмосфера çăвăмĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атмосфера çăвăмĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sr%C3%A1%C5%BEky" title="Srážky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Srážky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyodiad" title="Dyodiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dyodiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedb%C3%B8r" title="Nedbør – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nedbør" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niederschlag" title="Niederschlag – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Niederschlag" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sademed" title="Sademed – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sademed" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Υετός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υετός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Вердень прыть – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Вердень прыть" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitaci%C3%B3n_(meteorolog%C3%ADa)" title="Precipitación (meteorología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Precipitación (meteorología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipita%C4%B5o" title="Precipitaĵo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Precipitaĵo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prezipitazio_(meteorologia)" title="Prezipitazio (meteorologia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Prezipitazio (meteorologia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="بارش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بارش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9cipitations" title="Précipitations – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Précipitations" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delslach" title="Delslach – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Delslach" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frasa%C3%ADocht" title="Frasaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Frasaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frassaghey" title="Frassaghey – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Frassaghey" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sileadh" title="Sileadh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sileadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitaci%C3%B3n_(meteorolox%C3%ADa)" title="Precipitación (meteoroloxía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Precipitación (meteoroloxía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E6%B0%B4" title="降水 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="降水" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%95%EC%88%98" title="강수 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="강수" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Մթնոլորտային տեղումներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մթնոլորտային տեղումներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="वर्षण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वर्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oborina" title="Oborina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oborina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluvo-quanto" title="Pluvo-quanto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pluvo-quanto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmiri_ozuzo" title="Mmiri ozuzo – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mmiri ozuzo" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presipitasi_(meteorologi)" title="Presipitasi (meteorologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Presipitasi (meteorologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukuna" title="Ukuna – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukuna" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Arkoma" title="Úrkoma – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Úrkoma" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitazione_(meteorologia)" title="Precipitazione (meteorologia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Precipitazione (meteorologia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="משקעים אטמוספיריים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משקעים אטמוספיריים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ატმოსფერული ნალექები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატმოსფერული ნალექები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Атмосфералық жауын-шашын – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атмосфералық жауын-шашын" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodhans" title="Kodhans – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kodhans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usimbishaji" title="Usimbishaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Usimbishaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixte" title="Nixte – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nixte" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Жаан-чачын – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жаан-чачын" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krytuli" title="Krytuli – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Krytuli" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latgaļu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praecipitatio" title="Praecipitatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Praecipitatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokri%C5%A1%C5%86i" title="Nokrišņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nokrišņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krituliai" title="Krituliai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Krituliai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presipita" title="Presipita – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Presipita" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitazion" title="Precipitazion – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Precipitazion" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csapad%C3%A9k" title="Csapadék – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csapadék" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8" title="Врнежи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Врнежи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0)" title="वर्षाव (वायुचक्रशास्त्र) – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वर्षाव (वायुचक्रशास्त्र)" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ატმოსფერული ნოლექეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ატმოსფერული ნოლექეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerpasan" title="Kerpasan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerpasan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Атмосфернай осадкатне – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Атмосфернай осадкатне" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%80_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Хур тунадас – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хур тунадас" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ရွာကျခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရွာကျခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neerslag_(atmosfeer)" title="Neerslag (atmosfeer) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neerslag (atmosfeer)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neerslag" title="Neerslag – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Neerslag" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E6%B0%B4" title="降水 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="降水" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedb%C3%B8r" title="Nedbør – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nedbør" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedb%C3%B8r" title="Nedbør – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nedbør" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitacion_(meteorologia)" title="Precipitacion (meteorologia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Precipitacion (meteorologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%B2%D3%B1%D0%B4" title="Южвӱд – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Южвӱд" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%A3" title="ବର୍ଷଣ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବର୍ଷଣ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfera_yog%CA%BBinlari" title="Atmosfera yogʻinlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atmosfera yogʻinlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%EA%A9%BB" title="လော့လင်ꩻ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="လော့လင်ꩻ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%9A%D8%AA" title="اورښت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اورښت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedderslag" title="Nedderslag – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Nedderslag" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opad_atmosferyczny" title="Opad atmosferyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Opad atmosferyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipita%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(meteorologia)" title="Precipitação (meteorologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Precipitação (meteorologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipita%C8%9Bie_(meteorologie)" title="Precipitație (meteorologie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Precipitație (meteorologie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urmamuq_yakukuna" title="Urmamuq yakukuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Urmamuq yakukuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Воздушны опады – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Воздушны опады" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Атмосферные осадки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атмосферные осадки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%B2%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱡᱟᱹᱲᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱟᱹᱲᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reshja" title="Reshja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Reshja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Precipitation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zr%C3%A1%C5%BEky" title="Zrážky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zrážky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padavine" title="Padavine – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Padavine" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بارین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بارین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Падавине – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Падавине" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padavine" title="Padavine – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Padavine" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadanta" title="Sadanta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sadanta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederb%C3%B6rd" title="Nederbörd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nederbörd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_(%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="பொழிவு (வானிலையியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொழிவு (வானிலையியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeqziq" title="Azeqziq – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Azeqziq" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="หยาดน้ำฟ้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หยาดน้ำฟ้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Бориш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бориш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya%C4%9F%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Yağış – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yağış" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Атмосферні опади – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атмосферні опади" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="بارندگی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بارندگی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A1ng_th%E1%BB%A7y" title="Giáng thủy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giáng thủy" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E6%B0%B4" title="降水 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="降水" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E6%B0%B4" title="降水 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="降水" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%97tol%C4%93" title="Krėtolē – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Krėtolē" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E6%B0%B4" title="降水 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="降水" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q25257#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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Some parts of a country can be much wetter than others, so it is not an accurate depiction of the wettest and driest places on earth.]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Countries by average annual precipitation.png|thumb|325px|Countries by average annual precipitation. Some parts of a country can be much wetter than others, so it is not an accurate depiction of the wettest and driest places on earth.]]</div></td> </tr>  </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 01:28, 23 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Precipitation (disambiguation)">Precipitation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png/325px-Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png" decoding="async" width="325" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png/488px-Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png/650px-Countries_by_average_annual_precipitation.png 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1430" /></a><figcaption>Countries by average annual precipitation. Some parts of a country can be much wetter than others, so it is not an accurate depiction of the wettest and driest places on earth.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <b>precipitation</b> is any product of the <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a> of atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main forms of precipitation include <a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">drizzle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">sleet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">ice pellets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">graupel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor (reaching 100% <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a>), so that the water condenses and "precipitates" or falls. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">mist</a> are not precipitation; their water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate, so fog and mist do not fall. (Such a non-precipitating combination is a <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloid</a>.) Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated with water vapor: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called <a href="/wiki/Shower_(precipitation)" title="Shower (precipitation)">showers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">Moisture</a> that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed by the low temperature into clouds and rain. This process is typically active when freezing rain occurs. A <a href="/wiki/Stationary_front" title="Stationary front">stationary front</a> is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the focus for forcing moist air to rise. Provided there is necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely <a href="/wiki/Nimbostratus_cloud" title="Nimbostratus cloud">nimbostratus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</a> if significant precipitation is involved. Eventually, the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes, <a href="/wiki/Lake-effect_snow" title="Lake-effect snow">lake-effect snowfall</a> becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclonic</a> flow around the backside of <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">extratropical cyclones</a>. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy. <a href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</a> is possible within a cyclone's <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone#Surface_pressure_and_wind_distribution" title="Extratropical cyclone">comma head</a> and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within <a href="/wiki/Windward" class="mw-redirect" title="Windward">windward</a> sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. Most precipitation occurs within the tropics<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is caused by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>. The movement of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough" title="Monsoon trough">monsoon trough</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>, brings <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">rainy seasons</a> to <a href="/wiki/Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a> regions. </p><p>Precipitation is a major component of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, and is responsible for depositing <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year: 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) over oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land.<sup id="cite_ref-chow_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chow-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres (28.1 in). Climate classification systems such as the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a> is already causing changes to weather, increasing precipitation in some geographies, and reducing it in others, resulting in additional <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies. Saturn's largest <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">satellite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>, hosts <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> precipitation as a slow-falling <a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">drizzle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has been observed as <a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Rain puddles</a> at its equator<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Weather" title="Category:Weather">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">Temperate and polar seasons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">Autumn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropical seasons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">Dry season</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmattan" title="Harmattan">Harmattan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">Wet season</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">Cumulonimbus cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_cloud" title="Arcus cloud">Arcus cloud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">Downburst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microburst" class="mw-redirect" title="Microburst">Microburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_burst" title="Heat burst">Heat burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_lightning" title="Volcanic lightning">Volcanic lightning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">Air-mass thunderstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_thunderstorm" title="Dry thunderstorm">Dry thunderstorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">Mesocyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_tornado" title="Anticyclonic tornado">Anticyclonic tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">Anticyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">Polar low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nor%27easter" title="Nor'easter">Nor'easter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">Subtropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic hurricane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">Dust storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simoom" title="Simoom">Simoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haboob" title="Haboob">Haboob</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amihan" title="Amihan">Amihan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirocco" title="Sirocco">Sirocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_blizzard" title="Ground blizzard">Ground blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Precipitation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">Drizzle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_drizzle" title="Freezing drizzle">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">Graupel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megacryometeor" title="Megacryometeor">Megacryometeor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudburst" title="Cloudburst">Cloudburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">Rain and snow mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_grains" title="Snow grains">Snow grains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_roller" title="Snow roller">Snow roller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_meteorology_articles" title="Index of meteorology articles">Topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">Physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_season" title="Fog season">Season</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a 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class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Glossaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tornado_terms" title="Glossary of tornado terms">Tornado terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tropical_cyclone_terms" title="Glossary of tropical cyclone terms">Tropical cyclone terms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/16px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/24px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/220px-FoggDam-NT.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/330px-FoggDam-NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/440px-FoggDam-NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation</figcaption></figure> <p>Precipitation is a major component of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km<sup>3</sup> (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km<sup>3</sup> (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-chow_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chow-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). </p><p>Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, <a href="/wiki/Stratus_cloud" title="Stratus cloud">stratiform</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Orographic_lift" title="Orographic lift">orographic</a> rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation,<sup id="cite_ref-convection_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-convection-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing <a href="/wiki/Air_mass" title="Air mass">air mass</a> is called "freezing rain" or "freezing drizzle". Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, <a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">ice needles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_pellet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice pellet">ice pellets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">graupel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurement">Measurement</h3></div> <dl><dt>Liquid precipitation</dt> <dd>Rainfall (including drizzle and rain) is usually measured using a <a href="/wiki/Rain_gauge" title="Rain gauge">rain gauge</a> and expressed in <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_measurement" title="Unit of measurement">units</a> of <a href="/wiki/Millimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter">millimeters</a> (mm) of <a href="/wiki/Height" title="Height">height</a> or <a href="/wiki/Depth_(coordinate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Depth (coordinate)">depth</a>. Equivalently, it can be expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Physical_quantity" title="Physical quantity">physical quantity</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dimension_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimension (physics)">dimension</a> of volume of water per collection area, in units of <a href="/wiki/Liter" class="mw-redirect" title="Liter">liters</a> per <a href="/wiki/Square_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Square meter">square meter</a> (L/m<sup>2</sup>); as 1L=1dm<sup>3</sup>=1mm·m<sup>2</sup>, the units of area (m<sup>2</sup>) <a href="/wiki/Fraction#Simplification" title="Fraction">cancel out</a>, resulting in simply "mm". This also corresponds to an <a href="/wiki/Area_density" title="Area density">area density</a> expressed in kg/m<sup>2</sup>, if assuming that 1 liter of water has a mass of 1 <a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Water_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Water density">water density</a>), which is acceptable for most practical purposes. The corresponding English unit used is usually <a href="/wiki/Inch" title="Inch">inches</a>. In Australia before metrication, rainfall was also measured in "points", each of which was defined as one-hundredth of an inch.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Solid precipitation</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Snow_gauge" title="Snow gauge">snow gauge</a> is usually used to measure the amount of solid precipitation. Snowfall is usually measured in centimeters by letting snow fall into a container and then measure the height. The snow can then optionally be melted to obtain a <a href="/wiki/Snow_water_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Snow water equivalent">water equivalent</a> measurement in millimeters like for liquid precipitation. The relationship between snow height and water equivalent depends on the water content of the snow; the water equivalent can thus only provide a rough estimate of snow depth. Other forms of solid precipitation, such as snow pellets and hail or even sleet (rain and snow mixed), can also be melted and measured as their respective water equivalents, usually expressed in millimeters as for liquid precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_becomes_saturated">Air becomes saturated</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling_air_to_its_dew_point">Cooling air to its dew point</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regnbyge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Regnbyge.jpg/220px-Regnbyge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Regnbyge.jpg/330px-Regnbyge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Regnbyge.jpg/440px-Regnbyge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="859" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/54/Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg/220px-Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/54/Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg/330px-Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/54/Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg/440px-Lenticular_Cloud_in_Wyoming_0034b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</a> is the temperature to which a parcel of air must be cooled in order to become saturated, and (unless super-saturation occurs) condenses to water.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water vapor normally begins to condense on <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">condensation nuclei</a> such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. The cloud condensation nuclei concentration will determine the cloud microphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form cloud decks such as <a href="/wiki/Altostratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Altostratus">altostratus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cirrostratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cirrostratus">cirrostratus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stratus_cloud" title="Stratus cloud">Stratus</a> is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of <a href="/wiki/Fog#Types" title="Fog">advection fog</a> during breezy conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, <a href="/wiki/Radiative_cooling" title="Radiative cooling">radiational cooling</a>, and evaporative cooling. <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_lapse_rate#Dry_adiabatic_lapse_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic lapse rate">Adiabatic cooling</a> occurs when air rises and expands.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The air can rise due to <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (<a href="/wiki/Orographic_lift" title="Orographic lift">orographic lift</a>). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">infrared radiation</a>, either by the air or by the surface underneath.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">wet-bulb temperature</a>, or until it reaches saturation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adding_moisture_to_the_air">Adding moisture to the air</h3></div> <p>The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,<sup id="cite_ref-convection_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-convection-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> precipitation or virga falling from above,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> transpiration from plants,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cool or dry air moving over warmer water,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lifting air over mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-MT_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_precipitation">Forms of precipitation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Water cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_cycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Water_cycle.png/300px-Water_cycle.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Water_cycle.png/450px-Water_cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Water_cycle.png/600px-Water_cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raindrops">Raindrops</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Here_comes_rain_again.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Here_comes_rain_again.jpg/220px-Here_comes_rain_again.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Here_comes_rain_again.jpg/330px-Here_comes_rain_again.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Here_comes_rain_again.jpg/440px-Here_comes_rain_again.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Puddle in the rain</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Coalescence_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalescence (meteorology)">Coalescence</a> occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Bergeron_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergeron process">Bergeron process</a>. The fall rate of very small droplets is negligible, hence clouds do not fall out of the sky; precipitation will only occur when these coalesce into larger drops. droplets with different size will have different terminal velocity that cause droplets collision and producing larger droplets, Turbulence will enhance the collision process.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Raindrops have sizes ranging from 5.1 to 20 millimetres (0.20 to 0.79 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more <a href="/wiki/Spheroid#Oblate_spheroids" title="Spheroid">oblate</a>, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-houze_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-houze-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.<sup id="cite_ref-METAR_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METAR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_pellets">Ice pellets</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/220px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/330px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/440px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>An accumulation of ice pellets</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a> or sleet are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller than hailstones.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with <a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">freezing rain</a>. The <a href="/wiki/METAR" title="METAR">METAR</a> code for ice pellets is <b>PL</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-METAR_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METAR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air exists with sub-freezing air both above and below. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a <a href="/wiki/Warm_front" title="Warm front">warm front</a> during the cold season,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but can occasionally be found behind a passing <a href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold front</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hail">Hail</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granizo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/220px-Granizo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/330px-Granizo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/440px-Granizo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1192" /></a><figcaption>A large hailstone, about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in diameter</figcaption></figure> <p>Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when <a href="/wiki/Supercooled" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercooled">supercooled</a> water droplets freeze on contact with <a href="/wiki/Condensation_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation nuclei">condensation nuclei</a>, such as dust or dirt. The storm's <a href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</a> blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.<sup id="cite_ref-gloss_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gloss-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil.<sup id="cite_ref-METAR_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METAR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stones just larger than golf ball-sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 500 grams (1 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In large hailstones, <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snowflakes">Snowflakes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">Snowflake</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg/170px-Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg/255px-Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg/340px-Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2004" data-file-height="1854" /></a><figcaption>Snowflake viewed in an optical microscope</figcaption></figure> <p>Snow crystals form when tiny <a href="/wiki/Supercool" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercool">supercooled</a> cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> environment. Because water droplets are more numerous than the ice crystals the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the <a href="/wiki/Wegener%E2%80%93Bergeron%E2%80%93Findeisen_process" title="Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process">Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process</a>. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-natgeojan07_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natgeojan07-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Guinness World Records list the world's largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Keogh" title="Fort Keogh">Fort Keogh</a>, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 in) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain a subject of research.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffuse reflection</a> of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.<sup id="cite_ref-natgeojan07_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natgeojan07-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere through which they fall on their way to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.<sup id="cite_ref-METAR_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METAR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diamond_dust">Diamond dust</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</a></div> <p>Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air.<sup id="cite_ref-glossdia_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glossdia-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are made of simple ice crystals, hexagonal in shape.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.<sup id="cite_ref-METAR_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METAR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occult_deposition">Occult deposition</h3></div> <p>Occult deposition occurs when mist or air that is highly saturated with water vapour interacts with the leaves of trees or shrubs it passes over.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frontal_activity">Frontal activity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weather_fronts" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather fronts">Weather fronts</a></div> <p>Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology" title="Synoptic scale meteorology">synoptic systems</a> (on the order of cm/s), such as over surface <a href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold fronts</a>, and over and ahead of <a href="/wiki/Warm_front" title="Warm front">warm fronts</a>. Similar ascent is seen around <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a> outside of the <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eyewall</a>, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around <a href="/wiki/Mid-latitude_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-latitude cyclone">mid-latitude cyclones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Geerts_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geerts-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.<sup id="cite_ref-DR_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DR-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than Earth. When it gets cold, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convection">Convection</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konvektionsregen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Konvektionsregen.jpg/220px-Konvektionsregen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Konvektionsregen.jpg/330px-Konvektionsregen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Konvektionsregen.jpg/440px-Konvektionsregen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Convective precipitation</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Convection_rain" class="mw-redirect" title="Convection rain">Convective rain</a>, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cumulus_congestus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulus congestus">cumulus congestus</a>. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-houze_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-houze-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geerts_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geerts-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graupel and hail indicate convection.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as <a href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold fronts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squall_line" title="Squall line">squall lines</a>, and warm fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convective precipitation mostly consist of mesoscale convective systems and they produce torrential rainfalls with thunderstorms, wind damages, and other forms of severe weather events.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orographic_effects">Orographic effects</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Orographic_lift" title="Orographic lift">Orographic lift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_types" title="Precipitation types">Precipitation types</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steigungsregen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Steigungsregen.jpg/220px-Steigungsregen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Steigungsregen.jpg/330px-Steigungsregen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Steigungsregen.jpg/440px-Steigungsregen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>Orographic precipitation</figcaption></figure> <p>Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward (upwind) side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_lapse_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic lapse rate">adiabatic</a> cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a>), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind" title="Katabatic wind">katabatic wind</a>) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> is observed.<sup id="cite_ref-MT_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wai%CA%BBale%CA%BBale" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Waiʻaleʻale">Mount Waiʻaleʻale</a>, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second-highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 millimetres (460 in).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (<i>Koʻolau</i>) and leeward (<i>Kona</i>) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Nevada (U.S.)">Sierra Nevada</a> range creates the same effect in North America forming the <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin" title="Great Basin">Great Basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave Deserts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in Asia, the Himalaya mountains create an obstacle to monsoons which leads to extremely high precipitation on the southern side and lower precipitation levels on the northern side.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snow">Snow</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg/220px-Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg/330px-Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg/440px-Snow_Clouds_in_Korea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption>Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula in early December 2008</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclones</a> can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph),<sup id="cite_ref-MarinersWeatherLog_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MarinersWeatherLog-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">windstorms</a> in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with their <a href="/wiki/Warm_front" title="Warm front">warm front</a> is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an elongated band,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is wide and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_types_(meteorology)#Stratiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation types (meteorology)">stratiform</a>, meaning falling out of <a href="/wiki/Nimbostratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimbostratus">nimbostratus</a> clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated <a href="/wiki/Rainband" title="Rainband">precipitation band</a>. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow <a href="/wiki/Lake-effect_snow" title="Lake-effect snow">lake-effect snow</a> bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water surface and the air above.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Within_the_tropics">Within the tropics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">Wet season</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairns_climate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cairns_climate.svg/220px-Cairns_climate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cairns_climate.svg/330px-Cairns_climate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cairns_climate.svg/440px-Cairns_climate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Rainfall distribution by month in <a href="/wiki/Cairns" title="Cairns">Cairns</a> showing the extent of the wet season at that location</figcaption></figure> <p>The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>green season</i> is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">Savanna</a> climates and areas with <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyde_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyde-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough" title="Monsoon trough">monsoon trough</a> move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> freshwater quality improves,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and vegetation grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.<sup id="cite_ref-Marti_J._Van_Liere,_Eric-Alain_D._Ategbo,_Jan_Hoorweg,_Adel_P._Den_Hartog,_and_Joseph_G._A._J._Hautvast_1994_479–488_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marti_J._Van_Liere,_Eric-Alain_D._Ategbo,_Jan_Hoorweg,_Adel_P._Den_Hartog,_and_Joseph_G._A._J._Hautvast_1994_479–488-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclones</a> can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.<sup id="cite_ref-2005_EPac_outlook_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2005_EPac_outlook-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large-scale_geographical_distribution">Large-scale geographical distribution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Earth_rainfall_climatology" title="Earth rainfall climatology">Earth rainfall climatology</a></div> <p>On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>, itself the ascending branch of the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_cell" title="Hadley cell">Hadley cell</a>. Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-NCDCxrain_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCDCxrain-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North and south of this are regions of descending air that form <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridges</a> where precipitation is low;<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the land surface underneath these ridges is usually arid, and these regions make up most of the Earth's deserts.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a> lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otherwise, the flow of the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">Westerlies</a> into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> locations within North America. In Asia during the wet season, the flow of moist air into the Himalayas leads to some of the greatest rainfall amounts measured on Earth in northeast India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_2">Measurement</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rain_gauge" title="Rain gauge">Rain gauge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disdrometer" title="Disdrometer">Disdrometer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Snow_gauge" title="Snow gauge">Snow gauge</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg/130px-250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg/195px-250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg/260px-250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption>Standard rain gauge</figcaption></figure> <p>The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 10 cm (3.9 in) plastic and 20 cm (7.9 in) metal varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inner cylinder is filled by 2.5 cm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as 30 cm (12 in) is approached, one can either bring it inside to melt, or use lukewarm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other types of gauges include the popular <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wedge_gauge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wedge gauge (page does not exist)">wedge gauge</a> (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the <a href="/wiki/Tipping_bucket_rain_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipping bucket rain gauge">tipping bucket rain gauge</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Weighing_rain_gage" class="mw-redirect" title="Weighing rain gage">weighing rain gauge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wedge and tipping bucket gauges have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wikihow.com">know-how</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as <a href="/wiki/Community_Collaborative_Rain,_Hail_and_Snow_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow network">CoCoRAHS</a> or <a href="/wiki/GLOBE" title="GLOBE">GLOBE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrometeor_definition">Hydrometeor definition</h3></div> <p>A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds, <a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">haze</a>, fog, and mist, are composed of hydrometeors. All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including <a href="/wiki/Virga" title="Virga">virga</a>, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles blown from the Earth's surface by wind, such as blowing snow and blowing sea spray, are also <a href="/wiki/Hydrometeorology" title="Hydrometeorology">hydrometeors</a>, as are <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_estimates">Satellite estimates</h3></div> <p>Although surface precipitation gauges are considered the standard for measuring precipitation, there are many areas in which their use is not feasible. This includes the vast expanses of ocean and remote land areas. In other cases, social, technical or administrative issues prevent the dissemination of gauge observations. As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Satellite sensors work by remotely sensing precipitation—recording various parts of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> that theory and practice show are related to the occurrence and intensity of precipitation. The sensors are almost exclusively passive, recording what they see, similar to a camera, in contrast to active sensors (<a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">lidar</a>) that send out a signal and detect its impact on the area being observed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Satellite sensors now in practical use for precipitation fall into two categories. Thermal <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> (IR) sensors record a channel around 11 micron wavelength and primarily give information about cloud tops. Due to the typical structure of the atmosphere, cloud-top temperatures are approximately inversely related to cloud-top heights, meaning colder clouds almost always occur at higher altitudes. Further, cloud tops with a lot of small-scale variation are likely to be more vigorous than smooth-topped clouds. Various mathematical schemes, or algorithms, use these and other properties to estimate precipitation from the IR data.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second category of sensor channels is in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies in use range from about 10 gigahertz to a few hundred GHz. Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher amounts of microwave <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a>. Channels above 37 GHz display emission signals, but are dominated by the action of solid hydrometeors (snow, graupel, etc.) to scatter microwave radiant energy. Satellites such as the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Rainfall_Measuring_Mission" title="Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission">Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission</a> (TRMM) and the <a href="/wiki/Global_Precipitation_Measurement" title="Global Precipitation Measurement">Global Precipitation Measurement</a> (GPM) mission employ microwave sensors to form precipitation estimates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Additional sensor channels and products have been demonstrated to provide additional useful information including visible channels, additional IR channels, water vapor channels and atmospheric sounding retrievals. However, most precipitation data sets in current use do not employ these data sources.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_data_sets">Satellite data sets</h3></div> <p>The IR estimates have rather low skill at short time and space scales, but are available very frequently (15 minutes or more often) from satellites in <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosynchronous">geosynchronous</a> Earth orbit. IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection—such as the tropics—and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid- and high-latitude regions. The more-direct physical connection between hydrometeors and microwave channels gives the microwave estimates greater skill on short time and space scales than is true for IR. However, microwave sensors fly only on low Earth orbit satellites, and there are few enough of them that the average time between observations exceeds three hours. This several-hour interval is insufficient to adequately document precipitation because of the transient nature of most precipitation systems as well as the inability of a single satellite to appropriately capture the typical daily cycle of precipitation at a given location.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since the late 1990s, several algorithms have been developed to combine precipitation data from multiple satellites' sensors, seeking to emphasize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of the individual input data sets. The goal is to provide "best" estimates of precipitation on a uniform time/space grid, usually for as much of the globe as possible. In some cases the long-term homogeneity of the dataset is emphasized, which is the <a href="/wiki/Climate_Data_Record" title="Climate Data Record">Climate Data Record</a> standard.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Alternatively, the High Resolution Precipitation Product aims to produce the best instantaneous satellite estimate. In either case, the less-emphasized goal is also considered desirable. One key aspect of multi-satellite studies is the ability to include even a small amount of surface gauge data, which can be very useful for controlling the biases that are endemic to satellite estimates. The difficulties in using gauge data are that 1) their availability is limited, as noted above, and 2) the best analyses of gauge data take two months or more after the observation time to undergo the necessary transmission, assembly, processing and quality control. Thus, precipitation estimates that include gauge data tend to be produced further after the observation time than the no-gauge estimates. As a result, while estimates that include gauge data may provide a more accurate depiction of the "true" precipitation, they are generally not suited for real- or near-real-time applications.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The work described has resulted in a variety of datasets possessing different formats, time/space grids, periods of record and regions of coverage, input datasets, and analysis procedures, as well as many different forms of dataset version designators.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, one of the modern multi-satellite data sets is the best choice for general use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Return_period">Return period</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a></div> <p>The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the <a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">return period</a> or frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historical data for the location.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>1 in 10 year storm</i> describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term <i>1 in 100 year storm</i> describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible though unlikely to have two "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uneven_pattern_of_precipitation">Uneven pattern of precipitation</h2></div> <p>A significant portion of the annual precipitation in any particular place (no weather station in Africa or South America were considered) falls on only a few days, typically about 50% during the 12 days with the most precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-GRL101918_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRL101918-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_Köppen_climate_classification"><span id="Role_in_K.C3.B6ppen_climate_classification"></span>Role in Köppen climate classification</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg/330px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg/495px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg/660px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_World_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <table> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000FE; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Equatorial climate">Af</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0077FF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_monsoon_climate" title="Tropical monsoon climate">Am</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#46A9FA; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">Aw/As</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FE0000; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">BWh</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FE9695; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">BWk</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#F5A301; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">BSh</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFDB63; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">BSk</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFF00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Csa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C6C700; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Csb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#969600; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Csc</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#96FF96; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">Cwa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#63C764; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Cwb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#329633; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Cwc</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C6FF4E; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">Cfa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66FF33; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Cfb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#33C701; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Cfc</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF00FE; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dsa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C600C7; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dsb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#963295; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dsc</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#966495; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dsd</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ABB1FF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dwa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#5A77DB; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dwb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4C51B5; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dwc</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#320087; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dwd</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00FFFF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dfa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#38C7FF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Dfb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#007E7D; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dfc</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00455E; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Dfd</a></div> </td> <td width="5"> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#B2B2B2; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">ET</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#686868; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap_climate" title="Ice cap climate">EF</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </figcaption></figure> <p>The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as <a href="/wiki/Rain_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rain forest">rain forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical savanna">tropical savanna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humid_subtropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Humid subtropical">humid subtropical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental" class="mw-redirect" title="Humid continental">humid continental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">oceanic climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar ice cap</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tropical savanna is a grassland <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-SAVWOOD_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAVWOOD-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees from the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of western and southern Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A steppe is a dry grassland.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subarctic climates are cold with continuous <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> and little precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-subritter_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-subritter-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_on_agriculture">Effect on agriculture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heavy_Rains_in_Southern_Japan.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Heavy_Rains_in_Southern_Japan.gif/220px-Heavy_Rains_in_Southern_Japan.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Heavy_Rains_in_Southern_Japan.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from <span class="nowrap">July 20</span> to 27, 2009.</figcaption></figure> <p>Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a> require small amounts of water,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive. </p><p>In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.<sup id="cite_ref-Marti_J._Van_Liere,_Eric-Alain_D._Ategbo,_Jan_Hoorweg,_Adel_P._Den_Hartog,_and_Joseph_G._A._J._Hautvast_1994_479–488_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marti_J._Van_Liere,_Eric-Alain_D._Ategbo,_Jan_Hoorweg,_Adel_P._Den_Hartog,_and_Joseph_G._A._J._Hautvast_1994_479–488-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_due_to_global_warming">Changes due to global warming</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Effects of climate change on the water cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg/300px-1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg/450px-1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg/600px-1910-_Portion_of_U.S._experiencing_extreme_precipitation_events_-_chart_-_EPA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption> Extreme precipitation events have become more common in the U.S. over recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA_USprecipitation_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA_USprecipitation-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 to 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. In 2018, a study assessing changes in precipitation across spatial scales using a high-resolution global precipitation dataset of over 33+ years, concluded that "While there are regional trends, there is no evidence of increase in precipitation at the global scale in response to the observed global warming."<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each region of the world is going to have changes in precipitation due to their unique conditions. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation, more evaporation, or both). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1% per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6% per century) and the South (11.1%). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25%).<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_due_to_urban_heat_island">Changes due to urban heat island</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_thermal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Atlanta_thermal.jpg/220px-Atlanta_thermal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Atlanta_thermal.jpg/330px-Atlanta_thermal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Atlanta_thermal.jpg/440px-Atlanta_thermal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Image of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta, Georgia</a>, showing temperature distribution, with hot areas appearing white</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorm</a> activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 and 64 kilometres (20 and 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forecasting">Forecasting</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Probability_of_precipitation" title="Probability of precipitation">Probability of precipitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_precipitation_forecast" title="Quantitative precipitation forecast">Quantitative precipitation forecast</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rita5dayqpf.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rita5dayqpf.png/220px-Rita5dayqpf.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rita5dayqpf.png/330px-Rita5dayqpf.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rita5dayqpf.png/440px-Rita5dayqpf.png 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the <a href="/wiki/Hydrometeorological_Prediction_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrometeorological Prediction Center">Hydrometeorological Prediction Center</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time over a specified area.<sup id="cite_ref-SERFC_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SERFC-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 <a href="/wiki/GMT" class="mw-redirect" title="GMT">GMT</a>. The terrain is considered in QPFs using topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction" title="Numerical weather prediction">Forecast models</a> show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer" title="Planetary boundary layer">planetary boundary layer</a>, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the <a href="/wiki/Probability_of_precipitation" title="Probability of precipitation">probability of a specific amount</a>, basis.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher <a href="/wiki/Forecast_skill" title="Forecast skill">skill</a> than model forecasts within six to seven hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through the use of <a href="/wiki/Rain_gauge" title="Rain gauge">rain gauge</a> measurements, <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_meteorology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of meteorology topics">List of meteorology topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic precipitation">Basic precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprecipitation" title="Bioprecipitation">Bioprecipitation</a>, the concept of rain-making bacteria.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_showers" title="Mango showers">Mango showers</a>, pre-<a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> showers in the Indian states of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> that help in the ripening of mangoes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunshower" title="Sunshower">Sunshower</a>, an unusual meteorological phenomenon in which rain falls while the sun is shining.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintry_showers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wintry showers">Wintry showers</a>, an informal meteorological term for various mixtures of rain, freezing rain, sleet and snow.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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.side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/precipitation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:precipitation">precipitation</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">Surface solar radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_weather_analysis" title="Surface weather analysis">Surface weather analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visibility" title="Visibility">Visibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">Vorticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_condensation_level" title="Convective condensation level">Convective condensation level (CCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_condensation_level" title="Lifting condensation level">Lifting condensation level (LCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitable_water" title="Precipitable water">Precipitable water</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Water vapor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">Convective available potential energy (CAPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_inhibition" title="Convective inhibition">Convective inhibition (CIN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_instability" title="Convective instability">Convective instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_momentum_transport" title="Convective momentum transport">Convective momentum transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_symmetric_instability" title="Conditional symmetric instability">Conditional symmetric instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_temperature" title="Convective temperature">Convective temperature (<i>T</i><sub>c</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_level" title="Equilibrium level">Equilibrium level (EL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_convective_layer" title="Free convective layer">Free convective layer (FCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamical_helicity#Meteorology" title="Hydrodynamical helicity">Helicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index_(meteorology)" title="K-index (meteorology)">K Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_free_convection" title="Level of free convection">Level of free convection (LFC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifted_index" title="Lifted index">Lifted index (LI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parcel_level" title="Maximum parcel level">Maximum parcel level (MPL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_Richardson_number" title="Bulk Richardson number">Bulk Richardson number (BRN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">Dew point (<i>T</i><sub>d</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point_depression" title="Dew point depression">Dew point depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">Dry-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_temperature" title="Equivalent temperature">Equivalent temperature (<i>T</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fire_weather_index" title="Forest fire weather index">Forest fire weather index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haines_Index" title="Haines Index">Haines Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_index" title="Heat index">Heat index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidex" title="Humidex">Humidex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">Relative humidity (RH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_ratio" title="Mixing ratio">Mixing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_temperature" title="Potential temperature">Potential temperature (<i>θ</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_potential_temperature" title="Equivalent potential temperature">Equivalent potential temperature (<i>θ</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature (SST)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_anomaly" title="Temperature anomaly">Temperature anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_temperature" title="Virtual temperature">Virtual temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">Wet-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_globe_temperature" title="Wet-bulb globe temperature">Wet-bulb globe temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_potential_temperature" title="Wet-bulb potential temperature">Wet-bulb potential temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">Wind chill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">Barotropicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">Pressure gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure-gradient_force" title="Pressure-gradient force">Pressure-gradient force (PGF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">Velocity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_potential_intensity" title="Maximum potential intensity">Maximum potential intensity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25257#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4132260-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85106217">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Précipitations (météorologie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119329860">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Précipitations (météorologie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119329860">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533808805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10641227">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" 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Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.164","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":11432351,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA.J._DoreM._Mousavi-BaygiR.I._SmithJ._Hall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdam_Ganson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlaska_Air_Flight_Service_Station2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngeline_G._PendergrassReto_Knutti2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFB._Geerts1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFB._Geerts2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBart_van_den_HurkEleanor_Blyth2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenmoshePinskyPokrovskyKhain2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoulder_Area_Sustainability_Information_Network2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrynn_SchaffnerKenneth_Robinson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBureau_of_Meteorology2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._D._HaynesM._G._RidpathM._A._J._Williams1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._KiddG.J._Huffman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_Lin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowdhury\u0026#039;s_Guide_to_Planet_Earth2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChris_Landsea2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChris_Lehmann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian_KeilAndreas_RöpnackGeorge_C._CraigUlrich_Schumann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClimate_Change_Division2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClimate_Prediction_Center2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCosta_Rica_Guide2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDale_Fuchs2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_Weygand2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Roth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiana_Leone2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiscovery_School2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElisabeth_M._Benders-Hyde2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmmanouil_N._Anagnostou2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF.J._Tapiador2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFMI2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlossary_of_Meteorology2000\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFGlossary_of_Meteorology2009\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFGoddard_Space_Flight_Center2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGravesMcKayGriffithFerri2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreg_Byrd1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._Edward_ReileyCarroll_L._Shry2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch112021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Precipitation_Working_Group\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack_S._Bushong1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack_Williams2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacque_Marshall2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_D._Mauseth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_Jackson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJennifer_E._Lawson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJim_Lochner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoan_Von_AhnJoe_SienkiewiczGreggory_McFadden2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Roach2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulian_C._BrimelowGerhard_W._ReuterEugene_R._Poolman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_W._BirkelandCary_J._Mock1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_G._Libbrecht2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_G._Libbrecht2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_Libbrecht2004–2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhainBenMoshePokrovsky2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauren_Springer_Ogden2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Klesius2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargery_Daw1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMei_Zheng2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_A._Mares1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Pidwirny2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Ritter2008\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Climatic_Data_Center2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Severe_Storms_Laboratory2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Weather_Service2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Weather_Service_JetStream2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Weather_Service_Office,_Northern_Indiana2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Weather_Service_Office,_Spokane,_Washington2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Weather_Service_Office_Binghamton,_New_York2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyenThorstensenSorooshianHsu2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoreen_O._Schwein2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman_W._Junker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOguntoyinboAkintola1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen_Hertzman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._ReggianiA._H._Weerts2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_E._Lydolph1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Sirvatka2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeelFinlaysonMcMahon2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_A._Houze_Jr.1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_A._Houze_Jr1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Burns2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Fovell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Penrose_Pearce2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan_JewellJulian_Brimelow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._I._EfeF._E._OgbanM._J._HorsfallE._E._Akporhonor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott_Sistek2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSusan_Woodward1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSusan_Woodward2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTE_Technology,_Inc2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Globe_Program2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToby_N._Carlson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnsworthWilshaw1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_LiereAtegboHoorwegDen_Hartog1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeatherquestions.com\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestern_Regional_Climate_Center2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_J._Broad2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuh-Lang_Lin2007\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 77,\n [\"Cn\"] = 10,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 29,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 30,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Meteorological variables\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Okina\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Update section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Weather\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","22.0"],["?","180","15.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","8.5"],["dataWrapper 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