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theses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formulable_theses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formulable theses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formulable_theses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Those_about_the_emergence_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Those_about_the_emergence_of_the_Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Those_about_the_emergence_of_the_Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Those_about_the_decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Those_about_the_decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Those_about_the_decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1299–1453)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1299–1453)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1299–1453)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Age_(1453–1566)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Age_(1453–1566)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classical Age (1453–1566)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Age_(1453–1566)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1566–1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1566–1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1566–1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stagnation_and_reform_(1700–1827)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stagnation_and_reform_(1700–1827)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stagnation_and_reform_(1700–1827)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_modernization_(1828–1908)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_modernization_(1828–1908)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Decline and modernization (1828–1908)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decline_and_modernization_(1828–1908)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decline and modernization (1828–1908) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_modernization_(1828–1908)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modernization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Modernization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Railways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Crimean War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Ethnic nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Balkans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congress_of_Berlin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_of_Berlin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.1</span> <span>Congress of Berlin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congress_of_Berlin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Armenians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_I_(1914–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I_(1914–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>World War I (1914–1918)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I_(1914–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkish_War_of_Independence_(1919–1923)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkish_War_of_Independence_(1919–1923)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkish_War_of_Independence_(1919–1923)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_dynasty_after_dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_dynasty_after_dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Ottoman dynasty after dissolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_dynasty_after_dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Fall of the Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>General surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Early_Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Early_Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>The Early Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Early_Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Classical_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Classical_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>The Classical Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Classical_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Ottoman Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الدولة العثمانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الدولة العثمانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_imperiyas%C4%B1n%C4%B1n_tarixi" title="Osmanlı imperiyasının tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Osmanlı imperiyasının tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্যের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্যের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ғосман империяһы тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғосман империяһы тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Османската империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Османската империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Osmanskog_Carstva" title="Historija Osmanskog Carstva – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija Osmanskog Carstva" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%8C_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="오스만 제국의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오스만 제국의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Kesultanan_Utsmaniyah" title="Sejarah Kesultanan Utsmaniyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Kesultanan Utsmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27impero_ottomano" title="Storia dell'impero ottomano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'impero ottomano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA%27%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="היסטוריה של האימפריה העות'מאנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של האימפריה העות'מאנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ოსმალეთის იმპერიის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოსმალეთის იმპერიის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Историја на Отоманското Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Отоманското Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansk_historie" title="Osmansk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Osmansk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د عثماني سترواکۍ تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د عثماني سترواکۍ تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:History of the Ottoman Empire">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> of the<br /><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1882%E2%80%931922).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms of the Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Coat of Arms of the Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/125px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/188px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/250px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1906" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Timeline of the Ottoman Empire">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1299–1453)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylik_of_Osman" class="mw-redirect" title="Beylik of Osman">Beylik of Osman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1402–1413)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1453–1566)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1533–1656)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1566–1703)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Köprülü Era">Köprülü Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656–1703)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Old Regime</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1703–1789)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Era_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire">Tulip Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1718–1730)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline & Modernization</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1789–1908)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam-i Djedid">Nizam-i Djedid</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(late 18th and early 19th)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1839–1876)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">1st Constitutional Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1876–1878)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1908–1922)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1908–1920)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Empire during World War I">World War I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1914–1918)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partitioning</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–1922)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition of the Sultanate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">Abolition of the Caliphate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1924)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Historiography</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline</a>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Turkey" title="Category:History of Turkey">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">History of <span class="fn org label">Turkey</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;padding-bottom:0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921"><img alt="Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/250px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/375px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/500px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4676" data-file-height="3626" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Prehistory of Anatolia</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Paleolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Palaeolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500,000– <br />10,000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Mesolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Mesolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> c. 11,000– <br />9,000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Neolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Neolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> c. 8,000– <br />5,500 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 3000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2500–2000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2400–2150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2300–1400 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1950–1750 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kussara" title="Kussara">Kussara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1780–1680 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaeans_(Homer)" title="Achaeans (Homer)">Achaeans (Homer)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1700–1300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kizzuwatna" title="Kizzuwatna">Kizzuwatna</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1650–1450 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1680–1220 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Arzawa" title="Arzawa">Arzawa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1320 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hayasa-Azzi" title="Hayasa-Azzi">Hayasa-Azzi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1290 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1450–350 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Assuwa" title="Assuwa">Assuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1300–1250 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diauehi" title="Diauehi">Diauehi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Neo-Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1150–547 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tuwanuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–545 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 859–595/585 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diauehi" title="Diauehi">Diauehi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Neo-Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1150–547 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1100–560 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–560 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tuwanuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–545 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 859–595/585 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 678–549 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 685–547 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia" title="Classical Anatolia">Classical Anatolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Thracians#Classical_period" title="Thracians">Classical Thrace</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 559–331 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Kingdom of Alexander the Great</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 334–301 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 322–130 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 306–168 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 305–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 305–30 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 302–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 297–74 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Attalid_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid kingdom">Attalid kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 282–129 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 281–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 190 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 133–27 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 163 BC–72 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 133 BC-27 BC–330 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 224–651 AD (briefly in Anatolia)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Anatolia">Medieval Anatolia</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (330–1453; 1204-1261 in exile as <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (637–656)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1037–1194)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Danishmends" class="mw-redirect" title="Danishmends">Danishmends</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1071–1178)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1077–1307)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1078–1375)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1081–1423)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1098–1150)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1101–1409)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1204–1461)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1204–1261)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Karamanids" title="Karamanids">Karamanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1250–1487)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1256–1335)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1375–1468)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Ak Koyunlu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1378–1501)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Periods of Ottoman Empire</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1299–1453)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1453–1566)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1566–1703)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Old Regime</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1703–1789)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1828%E2%80%931908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908)">Decline and modernization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1789–1908)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Defeat_and_dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1908%E2%80%931922)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922)">Defeat and dissolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1908–1922)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="History of the Republic of Turkey">Periods of Turkey</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">War of Independence</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1919–1922)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">Provisional government</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1920–1923)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">One-party period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1923–1930)<br />(1930–1945)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Multi-party period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1945–present)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Anatolia" title="List of ancient peoples of Anatolia">Ancient peoples of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">History of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thrace">History of Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey#History" title="Islam in Turkey">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in Turkey">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Turkey" title="Economic history of Turkey">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of the Republic of Turkey">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic history of Turkey">Diplomatic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Turkey" title="Constitutional history of Turkey">Constitutional history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Turkey" title="Culture of Turkey">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Turkey">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Turkey">LGBT history</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Anatolian_history" title="Timeline of Anatolian history">Timeline</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/17px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/26px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/34px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Turkey" title="Portal:Turkey">Turkey portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Turkey" title="Template:History of Turkey"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Turkey" title="Template talk:History of Turkey"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Turkey" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Turkey"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was founded c. 1299 by <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> as a small <a href="/wiki/Bey" title="Bey">beylik</a> in northwestern <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> just south of the Byzantine capital <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. In 1326, the Ottomans captured nearby <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a>, cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87impe_Castle" title="Çimpe Castle">Çimpe Castle</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a> in 1354 and moving their capital to <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a> (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">numerous small Turkic states</a> in Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance. </p><p>As Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquered Constantinople</a> (today named <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> under Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>, who assumed the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> in 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered western <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm. </p><p>The empire reached its apex under <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> in the 16th century, when it stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> in the east to <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> in the west, and from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> in the south to <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> in the north. According to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Ottoman decline thesis</a>, Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">From 1699</a> onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">nationalist revolts</a> among its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a> in the mid-19th century. </p><p>The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when its remaining territory was <a href="/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire">partitioned</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>. The sultanate was officially abolished by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara</a> on 1 November 1922 following the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a>. Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>, as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottoman_etiology">Ottoman etiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ottoman etiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a>, questions arose in a geopolitical and historical context about the reasons for the emergence and decline of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottomans</a>, the reasons for the emergence and decline of their empire and how both events were defined. On the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the geographical position and the geopolitical weight of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, the major historical heir to the Ottoman Empire, gave weight to the issues as propaganda. The first item on the agenda of the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehran conference">Tehran conference</a> was the issue of Turkey's participation in World War II by the end of 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formulable_theses">Formulable theses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formulable theses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Those_about_the_emergence_of_the_Ottoman_Empire">Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a></div> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a> — it is formulated first, but it is the most criticized and politicized. The thesis most clearly advocates the ethnic pan-Turkic principle. It was developed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wittek" title="Paul Wittek">Paul Wittek</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Renegade thesis — represented in studies, articles and books by various authors. It is based on numerous eyewitness accounts. It is supplemented by the hypothesis of the geographical and to some extent civilizational succession of the Ottoman Empire (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Rûm">Rûm</a>) by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>;</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socio-economic_thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socio-economic thesis (page does not exist)">Socio-economic thesis</a> — the newest and most modern, sustained in the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist historiography</a>. The thesis is found in various articles and studies. It is based on the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> and the legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine civil war">Byzantine civil wars</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Those_about_the_decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire">Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>Classic thesis — as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a> with the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a>. Previously marked by the beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, the writing of "<a href="/wiki/Istoriya_Slavyanobolgarskaya" title="Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya">Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya</a>" and the death of <a href="/wiki/Koca_Rag%C4%B1p_Pasha" title="Koca Ragıp Pasha">Koca Ragıp Pasha</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Ottoman decline thesis</a> — now-controversial thesis clearly formulated for the first time in 1958 by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aligns with <a href="/wiki/Ko%C3%A7i_Bey" title="Koçi Bey">Koçi Bey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Risale" title="Risale">risalets</a>, but arguably ignores the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü era</a> and its reform of the Ottoman state, economy and navy heading into the 18th century;</li> <li>Neoclassical thesis — to some extent it unites the previous ones about the beginning of the Ottoman decline, which are divided even nearly two centuries in time. The beginning of the end was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">Treaty of Karlowitz</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Edirne_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Edirne event">Edirne event</a> and the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1299–1453)"><span id="Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_.281299.E2.80.931453.29"></span>Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Ottoman Dynasty</a></div> <p>With the demise of the <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuk</a> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a> during 12th to 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Beyliks" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian Beyliks">Anatolian Beyliks</a>. For the next few decades, these Beyliks were under the sovereignty of Mongolians and their Iranian Kingdom Ilkhanids. By 1300, a weakened <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities. One of the beyliks was led by <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> (d. 1323/4), from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of <a href="/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul" title="Ertuğrul">Ertuğrul</a>, around <a href="/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehir" title="Eskişehir">Eskişehir</a> in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the story known as "<a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a>", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky).<sup id="cite_ref-kin24_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kin24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kin24_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kin24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Mountains" title="Balkan Mountains">Balkan</a> ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-kin24_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kin24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg/350px-Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg/525px-Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg/700px-Beylicats_d%25u2019Anatolie_vers_1330-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption>A map of independent Turkic beyliks in Anatolia during the 14th century</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period, a formal <a href="/wiki/Ruling_institution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruling institution of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman government</a> was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. </p><p>In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">Balkans</a>. Osman's son, <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a>, captured the city of <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia. </p><p>After securing their flank in Asia Minor, the Ottomans then crossed into Europe from 1352 onwards; within a decade, almost all of Thrace had been conquered by the Ottomans, cutting off <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> from its Balkan hinterlands. The Ottoman capital was moved to Adrianople <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a> in 1369. The important city of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> was captured from the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> in 1387. The Ottoman victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Kosovo in 1389</a> effectively marked <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Serbian_Empire" title="Fall of the Serbian Empire">the end of Serbian power</a> in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusade</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic <a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Constantinople#Ottoman_Sieges" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieges of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a> became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine lands</a> surrounding the city, but the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantines</a> were temporarily relieved when <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> invaded Anatolia in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a> in 1402. He took Sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> as a prisoner. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a> emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10,_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_(1389).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Kosovo (1389)"><img alt="Battle of Kosovo (1389)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png/69px-Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png" decoding="async" width="69" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png/104px-Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png/138px-Facial_Chronicle_-_b.10%2C_p.299_-_Battle_of_Kosovo_%281389%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="2860" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo (1389)</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Nicopolis (1396)"><img alt="Battle of Nicopolis (1396)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/120px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/180px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/240px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1549" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis (1396)</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sultan Mehmed I. Ottoman miniature, 1413-1421"><img alt="Sultan Mehmed I. Ottoman miniature, 1413-1421" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg/120px-Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg/180px-Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg/240px-Mehmet_I_honoraries_miniature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="552" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a>. Ottoman miniature, 1413-1421</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chelebowski_varna.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Varna (1444)"><img alt="Battle of Varna (1444)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chelebowski_varna.jpg/120px-Chelebowski_varna.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chelebowski_varna.jpg/180px-Chelebowski_varna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chelebowski_varna.jpg/240px-Chelebowski_varna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna (1444)</a></div> </li> </ul> <p>Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by <a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a> between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a> armies under <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland" title="Władysław III of Poland">Władysław III of Poland</a> (also King of Hungary) and <a href="/wiki/John_Hunyadi" title="John Hunyadi">János Hunyadi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a>, which was the final battle of the <a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_Varna" title="Crusade of Varna">Crusade of Varna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo_(1448)" title="Battle of Kosovo (1448)">Second Battle of Kosovo</a> in 1448. </p><p>The son of Murad II, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed the Conqueror</a>, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a> on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Age_(1453–1566)"><span id="Classical_Age_.281453.E2.80.931566.29"></span>Classical Age (1453–1566)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical Age (1453–1566)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg/220px-Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg/330px-Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg/440px-Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> (1453)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg/220px-Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg/330px-Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg/440px-Sekumname1525_Chaldiran_battle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a> (1514)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg/220px-OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg/330px-OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg/440px-OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rhodes_(1522)" title="Siege of Rhodes (1522)">Siege of Rhodes (1522)</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs,_Turkish_miniature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3107" data-file-height="2415" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> (1526)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/220px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/330px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/440px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> (1453)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellini,_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/200px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/300px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/400px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquered Constantinople</a> in 1453 and brought an end to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ottoman conquest of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Loukas_Notaras" title="Loukas Notaras">Loukas Notaras</a>'s famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon making Constantinople (present-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed II assumed the title of <i>Kayser-i Rûm</i> (literally <i>Caesar Romanus</i>, i.e. Roman Emperor.) In order to consolidate this claim, he would launch a campaign to conquer Rome, the western capital of the former <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Albania_Veneta" class="mw-redirect" title="Albania Veneta">Albania Veneta</a>, and then continued with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_Otranto" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of Otranto">Ottoman invasion of Otranto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> on 28 July 1480. The Turks stayed in <a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Otranto</a> and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a> with fresh new reinforcements were given up on and cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg/200px-Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg/300px-Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Yavuz_Sultan_I._Selim_Han.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt</a>, making the Turks the dominant power in the Islamic world.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/200px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/300px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/400px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2117" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's power.</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth of the Ottoman Empire">long period of conquest and expansion</a>, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> seas and the Portuguese in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. </p><p>The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Sultans</a>. Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Shah Ismail</a> I of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid</a> <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, in 1514 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Selim I established <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ottoman_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman rule in Egypt</a>, and created a naval presence on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conquest ended with the execution of <a href="/wiki/Tuman_bay_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuman bay II">Tuman Bay II</a>. </p><p>Selim's successor, <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> (the western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg/200px-Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg/300px-Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg/400px-Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha">Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1538)" title="Holy League (1538)">Holy League</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Battle of Preveza</a> in 1538.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/170px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/255px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/340px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4701" data-file-height="1928" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a> (1558)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg/170px-Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg/255px-Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg/340px-Car_bed_kap_deu2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Walls of Constantinople</a> (Gate of Belgrade)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rumeli_hisari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Rumeli_hisari.jpg/220px-Rumeli_hisari.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Rumeli_hisari.jpg/330px-Rumeli_hisari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Rumeli_hisari.jpg/440px-Rumeli_hisari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rumelihisar%C4%B1" title="Rumelihisarı">Rumelihisarı</a> (Rumelian Castle 1453)</figcaption></figure> <p>After his victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> in 1526, he established <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Hungary" title="Ottoman Hungary">Turkish rule</a> in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western region) and other Central European territories, (See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Hungarian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Hungarian Wars">Ottoman–Hungarian Wars</a>). He then laid <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">siege to Vienna</a> in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1532, he made another <a href="/wiki/Little_War_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Little War in Hungary">attack</a> on Vienna, but was repulsed in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_G%C3%BCns" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Güns">Siege of Güns</a>, 97 kilometres (60 mi) south of the city at the fortress of <a href="/wiki/K%C5%91szeg" title="Kőszeg">Güns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson442_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson442-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ágoston_and_Alan_Masters583_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ágoston_and_Alan_Masters583-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the other version of the story, the city's commander, <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Juri%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Nikola Jurišić">Nikola Jurišić</a>, was offered terms for a nominal surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-Turnbull51_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turnbull51-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Turnbull51_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turnbull51-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vambery298_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vambery298-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand</a> officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and, intermittently, <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and naval access to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinross206_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinross206-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Selim and <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exploits of the Ottoman admiral <a href="/wiki/Barbarossa_Khair_ad_Din_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha">Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha</a>, who commanded the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman Navy</a> during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Important naval victories of the Ottoman Empire in this period include the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Battle of Preveza</a> (1538); <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponza_(1552)" title="Battle of Ponza (1552)">Battle of Ponza (1552)</a>; <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Battle of Djerba</a> (1560); conquest of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Algiers</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Algiers_(1516)" title="Capture of Algiers (1516)">1516</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Algiers_(1529)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Algiers (1529)">1529</a>) and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ottoman-era_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ottoman-era Tunisia">Tunis</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1534)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1534)">1534</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">1574</a>) from Spain; conquest of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rhodes_(1522)" title="Siege of Rhodes (1522)">Rhodes (1522)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripoli_(1551)" title="Siege of Tripoli (1551)">Tripoli (1551)</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_St._John" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights of St. John">Knights of St. John</a>; capture of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nice" title="Siege of Nice">Nice (1543)</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>; capture of <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Corsica_(1553)" title="Invasion of Corsica (1553)">Corsica (1553)</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a>; capture of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a> from Spain; capture of <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Aden_(1548)" title="Capture of Aden (1548)">Aden (1548)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Muscat_(1552)" title="Capture of Muscat (1552)">Muscat (1552)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_expedition_to_Aceh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman expedition to Aceh">Aceh (1565–67)</a> from Portugal during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_naval_expeditions_in_the_Indian_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean expeditions</a>; among others. </p><p>The conquests of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nice" title="Siege of Nice">Nice (1543)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Corsica_(1553)" title="Invasion of Corsica (1553)">Corsica (1553)</a> occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> and the Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman I</a>, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals <a href="/wiki/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha">Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turgut_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgut Reis">Turgut Reis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Esztergom_(1543)" title="Siege of Esztergom (1543)">conquest of Esztergom</a> in 1543. <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern France">France</a> and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> against <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg Spain</a>, Italy and <a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria" title="Archduchy of Austria">Habsburg Austria</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman I</a>'s policy of expansion throughout the Mediterranean basin was however halted in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1565)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Malta (1565)">Siege of Malta</a>, the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_St._John" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights of St. John">Knights of St. John</a> and the Maltese garrison of 6000 men. Stubborn resistance by the Maltese led to the lifting of the siege in September. The unsuccessful siege (the Turks managed to capture the Isle of <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Fort_Saint_Elmo" title="Fort Saint Elmo">Fort Saint Elmo</a> on the main island of Malta, but failed elsewhere and retreated) was the second and last defeat experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent after the likewise inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">first Ottoman siege of Vienna</a> in 1529. Suleiman I died of natural causes in his tent during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Szigetv%C3%A1r" title="Siege of Szigetvár">Siege of Szigetvár</a> in 1566. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> in 1571 (which was triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)" title="Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)">Ottoman capture of Venetian-controlled Cyprus</a> in 1570) was another major setback for Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, despite the fact that an equally large Ottoman fleet was built in a short time and <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunisia was recovered from Spain</a> in 1574. </p><p>As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, Indian Ocean and the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a>. With the Ottoman Turks blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">military campaigns in Austria</a> and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1566–1700)"><span id="Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_.281566.E2.80.931700.29"></span>Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" 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Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22">"History of the Ottoman Empire"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Unreliable_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-unreliable_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">Some of this section's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">listed sources</a> <b>may not be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szigetvar_1566.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Szigetvar_1566.jpg/180px-Szigetvar_1566.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Szigetvar_1566.jpg/270px-Szigetvar_1566.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Szigetvar_1566.jpg/360px-Szigetvar_1566.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1819" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman miniature about the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Szigetv%C3%A1r" title="Siege of Szigetvár">Szigetvár campaign</a> showing Ottoman troops and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Tatars</a> as avantgarde.</figcaption></figure> <p>European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">through new discoveries at sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portuguese</a> discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1488 initiated <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_naval_expeditions_in_the_Indian_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean">a series of Ottoman–Portuguese naval wars</a> in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Economically, the <a href="/wiki/Price_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Price Revolution">Price Revolution</a> caused rampant inflation in both Europe and the Middle East. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. </p><p>The expansion of <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovite Russia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a> (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by <a href="/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha" title="Sokollu Mehmed Pasha">Sokollu Mehmed Pasha</a>, Grand Vizier under <a href="/wiki/Selim_II" title="Selim II">Selim II</a>, in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1571, the Crimean khan <a href="/wiki/Devlet_I_Giray" title="Devlet I Giray">Devlet I Giray</a>, supported by the Ottomans, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_War_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Crimean War (1571)">burned Moscow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Molodi" title="Battle of Molodi">Battle of Molodi</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of <a href="/wiki/Tatar_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar invasions">slave raids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1341" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> in 1571.</figcaption></figure> <p>In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lepanto (1571)">Battle of Lepanto (1571)</a> was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern <a href="/wiki/Galleass" title="Galleass">galleasses</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kinross,_272_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinross,_272-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had been built, with the shipyards of Istanbul turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard".<sup id="cite_ref-Kinross,_272_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinross,_272-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a>), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavids</a> of Persia (see: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Near_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman wars in Near East">Ottoman wars in Near East</a>). </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehmed_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mehmed_III.jpg/200px-Mehmed_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mehmed_III.jpg/300px-Mehmed_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mehmed_III.jpg/400px-Mehmed_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2972" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_III" title="Mehmed III">Mehmed III</a>'s armies defeated the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mez%C5%91keresztes" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mezőkeresztes">Battle of Keresztes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the <a href="/wiki/Military_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Military revolution">military revolution</a> caused the <a href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">Sipahi</a> cavalry to lose military relevance. The <a href="/wiki/Long_War_(Ottoman_wars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Long War (Ottoman wars)">Long War</a> against Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</a> corps numbers. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the <a href="/wiki/Jelali_revolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Jelali revolts">Jelali revolts</a> (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinross281_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinross281-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IV._Murat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/IV._Murat.jpg/200px-IV._Murat.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/IV._Murat.jpg/300px-IV._Murat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/IV._Murat.jpg/400px-IV._Murat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> reconquered <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1623%E2%80%931639)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)">Baghdad</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a> in 1638.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1683.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/OttomanEmpire1683.png/200px-OttomanEmpire1683.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/OttomanEmpire1683.png/300px-OttomanEmpire1683.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/OttomanEmpire1683.png/400px-OttomanEmpire1683.png 2x" data-file-width="3596" data-file-height="2582" /></a><figcaption>The Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent in Europe in 1683, under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a> and the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_family" title="Köprülü family">Köprülü</a> Grand Vizier <a href="/wiki/Merzifonlu_Kara_Mustafa_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha">Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of women">Sultanate of women</a> (1534–1683) was a period in which the political influence of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; <a href="/wiki/Roxelana" title="Roxelana">Hürrem Sultan</a>, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of <a href="/wiki/Hafsa_Sultan" title="Hafsa Sultan">Hafsa</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">valide sultan</a>, was described by the Venetian <a href="/wiki/Bailo_of_Constantinople" title="Bailo of Constantinople">baylo</a> Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the inadequacy of <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire">Ibrahim I</a> (1640–1648) and the minority accession of <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a> in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> filled. The most prominent women of this period were <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a> and her daughter-in-law <a href="/wiki/Turhan_Hatice" class="mw-redirect" title="Turhan Hatice">Turhan Hatice</a>, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny,_1664.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg/220px-A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg/330px-A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg/440px-A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny%2C_1664.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Esztergom_(1543)" title="Siege of Esztergom (1543)">Ottoman city</a> of <a href="/wiki/Esztergom" title="Esztergom">Estergon</a> in 1664.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/220px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/330px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/440px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2783" data-file-height="1842" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Second Siege of Vienna</a> in 1683, painting by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Geffels" title="Frans Geffels">Frans Geffels</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>This period gave way to the highly significant <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Köprülü Era">Köprülü Era</a> (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Vizier" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Vizier">Grand Viziers</a> from the Köprülü family. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Mehmed_Pasha" title="Köprülü Mehmed Pasha">Köprülü Mehmed Pasha</a> accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide <a href="/wiki/Turhan_Hatice" class="mw-redirect" title="Turhan Hatice">Turhan Hatice</a> of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Faz%C4%B1l_Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed">Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed</a> (Grand Vizier 1661–1676).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, with the strongholds of <a href="/wiki/Khotyn" title="Khotyn">Khotyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a> and the territory of <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier <a href="/wiki/Kara_Mustafa_Pasha" title="Kara Mustafa Pasha">Kara Mustafa Pasha</a> in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a> of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king <a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">Jan</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a>. </p><p>The alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1684)" title="Holy League (1684)">Holy League</a> pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">Treaty of Karlowitz</a> (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Hungary" title="Ottoman Hungary">Ottoman Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre. </p><p>Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> (1612–1640) recaptured <a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a> (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the <a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a> and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign. <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_II" title="Mustafa II">Mustafa II</a> (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zenta" title="Battle of Zenta">Zenta</a> (11 September 1697).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stagnation_and_reform_(1700–1827)"><span id="Stagnation_and_reform_.281700.E2.80.931827.29"></span>Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_ancien_r%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman ancien régime">Ottoman ancien régime</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII,_1682-1718,_kung_av_Sverige.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg/170px-Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg/255px-Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg/340px-Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII%2C_1682-1718%2C_kung_av_Sverige.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden" title="Charles XII of Sweden">Charles XII of Sweden</a> fled to the Ottoman Empire following his defeat against the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">Battle of Poltava</a> in 1709.</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. </p><p>However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat.<sup id="cite_ref-LordKinross_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LordKinross-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, King <a href="/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden" title="Charles XII of Sweden">Charles XII of Sweden</a> was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">Battle of Poltava</a> in 1709 (part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> of 1700–1721.)<sup id="cite_ref-LordKinross_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LordKinross-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a> to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the <a href="/wiki/Pruth_River_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruth River Campaign">Pruth River Campaign</a> of 1710–1711.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1716%E2%80%931718)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)">Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)</a>, the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Passarowitz" title="Treaty of Passarowitz">Treaty of Passarowitz</a> signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG/220px-Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG/330px-Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG/440px-Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG 2x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A Turkish hunting party with <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a>. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Baptiste van Mour">Jean-Baptiste van Mour</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Tulip_Era_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire">Tulip Era</a> (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the <a href="/wiki/Tulip" title="Tulip">tulip</a> flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> movements in Europe. A classic example is the <a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Ahmed_III" title="Fountain of Ahmed III">Fountain of Ahmed III</a> in front of the <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a>. The famous <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a>-French painter <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Baptiste van Mour">Jean-Baptiste van Mour</a> visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Belgrade" title="Treaty of Belgrade">Treaty of Belgrade</a> signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in Ottoman recovery of <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> and other territories from Austria, but the loss of the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the latter part of this period there were <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire">educational and technological reforms</a>, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Technical_University" title="Istanbul Technical University">Istanbul Technical University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire">science and technology</a> had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not until 1754 was the artillery school reopened on a semi-secret basis.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier, the <a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">guilds</a> of writers had denounced the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Muteferrika" title="Ibrahim Muteferrika">Ibrahim Muteferrika</a> convinced the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Vizier" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Vizier">Grand Vizier</a> <a href="/wiki/Nev%C5%9Fehirli_Damat_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha">Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a>, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphers</a> and religious leaders.)<sup id="cite_ref-katip_celebi_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katip_celebi-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)<sup id="cite_ref-katip_celebi_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katip_celebi-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-watson_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watson-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg/220px-Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg/330px-Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg/440px-Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2330" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>18th-century <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Turkish guns</a> with <a href="/wiki/Miquelet" class="mw-redirect" title="Miquelet">miquelet</a> locks, c. 1750–1800.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other tentative reforms were also enacted: <a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation in the Ottoman empire">taxes</a> were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred. </p><p>Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered <a href="/wiki/Balta,_Ukraine" title="Balta, Ukraine">Balta</a> an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a>, during which, in January 1769, a 70-thousand Turkish-Tatar army led by the Crimean Khan <a href="/wiki/Q%C4%B1r%C4%B1m_Giray" title="Qırım Giray">Qırım Giray</a> made one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">slave raids</a> in the history, which was repulsed by the 6-thousand garrison of the <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_St._Elizabeth" title="Fortress of St. Elizabeth">Fortress of St. Elizabeth</a>, which prevented Ottoman Empire from further progress. After that, the Ottomans were pushed back to the shores of the Black Sea by the troops of General <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Rumyantsev" title="Pyotr Rumyantsev">Rumyantsev</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a> of 1774 ended the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/220px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/330px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/440px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Cannons and earthworks of the <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_St._Elizabeth" title="Fortress of St. Elizabeth">Fortress of St. Elizabeth</a> in the city of <a href="/wiki/Kropyvnytskyi" title="Kropyvnytskyi">Kropyvnytskyi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A series of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russo-Turkish wars">wars</a> were fought between the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reform_efforts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman military reform efforts">Ottoman military reform efforts</a> begin with <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a <a href="/wiki/Janissary_revolts" title="Janissary revolts">Janissary revolt</a>. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Auspicious_Incident" title="Auspicious Incident">eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_(1789).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/220px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/330px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/440px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Serbian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian revolution">Serbian revolution</a> (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">national awakening</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a>. <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a> of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own <a href="/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91evic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Karađorđevic dynasty">dynasty</a> was acknowledged <i>de jure</i> in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1821, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Greeks</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">declared war</a> on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, which, along with the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Corinth" title="Gulf of Corinth">Gulf of Corinth</a>, became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the <a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Europe" title="Sick man of Europe">"sick man"</a> by Europeans. The <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerain states</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> – moved towards <i>de jure</i> independence during the 1860s and 1870s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_and_modernization_(1828–1908)"><span id="Decline_and_modernization_.281828.E2.80.931908.29"></span>Decline and modernization (1828–1908)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Decline and modernization (1828–1908)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, the Ottomans united with Britain, <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> against <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernization">Modernization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modernization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg/220px-Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg/330px-Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg/440px-Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> started the modernization of Turkey by paving the way for the Edict of <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> in 1839.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> period (from Arabic: تنظيم <i>tanẓīm</i>, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> with modern factories. In 1856, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hatt-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatt-ı Hümayun">Hatt-ı Hümayun</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Reform_Edict_of_1856" title="Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856">promised equality</a> for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 <a href="/wiki/Hatt-i_Sharif" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatt-i Sharif"><i>Hatt-ı Şerif</i> of Gülhane</a>. </p><p>Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a> and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> and of many other former Ottoman states in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included<sup id="cite_ref-NTVtarih_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTVtarih-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper <a href="/wiki/Banknotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Banknotes">banknotes</a> (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganisation of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganisation of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the <i>Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye</i> (1841) which was the prototype of the <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">First Ottoman Parliament</a> (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_imperial_anthem" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman imperial anthem">Ottoman national anthem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman flag">Ottoman national flag</a> (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the <i>Mecidiye</i> identity papers, or informally <i>kafa kağıdı</i> (<i>head paper</i>) documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (<i>Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti</i>, 1847, which later became the <i>Maarif Nezareti</i>, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (<i>darülfünun</i>, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (<i>darülmuallimin</i>, 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (<i>Tıbbiye Nezareti</i>, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (<i>Encümen-i Daniş</i>, 1851); establishment of the <i>Şirket-i Hayriye</i> which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (<i>Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye</i>, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (<i>Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat</i>, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (<i>Şehremaneti</i>, 1854) and the City Planning Council (<i>İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu</i>, 1855); the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">capitation (Jizya) tax</a> on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> networks (1847–1855) and <a href="/wiki/Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway">railways</a> (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the <i>Bank-ı Osmanî</i> in 1856, and later reorganised as the <i>Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane</i> in 1863)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (<i>Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası</i>, established in 1866);<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Land Code (<i>Arazi Kanunnamesi</i>, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the <i>Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi</i> (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (<i>Mekteb-i Mülkiye</i>, 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (<i>Matbuat Nizamnamesi</i>, 1864); among others.<sup id="cite_ref-NTVtarih_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTVtarih-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Sultan_Abd%C3%BClmecid_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2611" data-file-height="3543" /></a><figcaption>The reign of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I" title="Abdülmecid I">Abdülmecid</a> was marked by the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms; the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">first foreign debt</a> of the Ottoman Empire in 1854.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PTT2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first post office was the <i>Postahane-i Amire</i> near the courtyard of the <a href="/wiki/New_Mosque_(Istanbul)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Mosque (Istanbul)">Yeni Mosque</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> received his first ever patent for the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present <a href="/wiki/Beylerbeyi_Palace" title="Beylerbeyi Palace">Beylerbeyi Palace</a> was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I" title="Abdülmecid I">Abdülmecid</a> who personally tested the new invention.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-<a href="/wiki/Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianople">Adrianople</a>–<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eumnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Şumnu">Şumnu</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-NTVtarih2_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTVtarih2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> began on 9 August 1847.<sup id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telekomhistory-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PTT2_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NTVtarih2_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTVtarih2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-PTT2_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTT2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter.<sup id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telekomhistory-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 May 1909, the first manual <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a> with a 50 line capacity entered service in the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Main_Post_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Istanbul Main Post Office">Büyük Postane</a> (Grand Post Office) in <a href="/wiki/Sirkeci" title="Sirkeci">Sirkeci</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telekomhistory-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the <i>Kanûn-u Esâsî</i> (meaning "<a href="/wiki/Basic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Law">Basic Law</a>" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a>, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">First Constitutional era</a>, was short-lived. But the idea of <a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a> proved influential. A group of reformers known as the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a>, primarily educated in <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> universities, believed that a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a <a href="/wiki/Military_coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Military coup">military coup</a> in 1876, they forced Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülaziz">Abdülaziz</a> (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of <a href="/wiki/Murad_V" title="Murad V">Murad V</a>. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülhamid II">Abdülhamid II</a> (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kan%C3%BBn-%C4%B1_Es%C3%A2s%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanûn-ı Esâsî">Kanûn-ı Esâsî</a></i>. </p><p>The Christian <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millets</a> gained privileges, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">Armenian National Constitution</a> of 1863. This <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Porte">Divan</a>-approved form of the <i>Code of Regulations</i> consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Assembly_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)">Armenian National Assembly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railways">Railways</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Railways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Railway</th> <th>Year established</th> <th>Cities serviced </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> line</td> <td>1856</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>–<a href="/wiki/Sel%C3%A7uk" title="Selçuk">Selçuk</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1n" title="Aydın">Aydın</a> line</td> <td>1856</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>–<a href="/wiki/Sel%C3%A7uk" title="Selçuk">Selçuk</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1n" title="Aydın">Aydın</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Constanța">Köstence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83" title="Cernavodă">Boğazköy</a> railway line</td> <td>1860</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Constanța">Köstence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83" title="Cernavodă">Boğazköy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Smyrne_Cassaba_%26_Prolongements" title="Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements">Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements</a></td> <td>1863</td> <td>İzmir, <a href="/wiki/Afyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Afyon">Afyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Band%C4%B1rma" title="Bandırma">Bandırma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria" title="Ruse, Bulgaria">Rusçuk</a>–<a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> railway line</td> <td>1866</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria" title="Ruse, Bulgaria">Rusçuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bükreş</a>–<a href="/wiki/Giurgiu" title="Giurgiu">Yergöğü</a> railway line</td> <td>1869</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bükreş</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giurgiu" title="Giurgiu">Yergöğü</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemins_de_fer_Orientaux" title="Chemins de fer Orientaux">Chemins de fer Orientaux</a></td> <td>1869</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banja_Luka" title="Banja Luka">Banja Luka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Saraybosna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1" title="Niš">Niš</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Filibe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianople">Adrianople</a> and <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> (starting from 1889 between Paris and Istanbul as the <a href="/wiki/Orient_Express" title="Orient Express">Orient Express</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_Fer_Moudania_Brousse" title="Chemin de Fer Moudania Brousse">Chemin de Fer Moudania Brousse</a></td> <td>1871</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mudanya" title="Mudanya">Mudanya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Istanbul-<a href="/wiki/Belovo,_Bulgaria" title="Belovo, Bulgaria">Belovo</a> railway line</td> <td>1873</td> <td>Istanbul, <a href="/wiki/Belovo,_Bulgaria" title="Belovo, Bulgaria">Belovo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Skopje" title="Skopje">Üsküp</a>–<a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Selânik</a> railway line</td> <td>1873</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Skopje" title="Skopje">Üsküp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Selânik</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mersin-Tarsus-Adana_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Mersin-Tarsus-Adana Railway">Mersin-Tarsus-Adana Railway</a></td> <td>1882</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mersin" title="Mersin">Mersin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemins_de_Fer_Ottomans_d%27Anatolie" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie">Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie</a></td> <td>1888</td> <td>Istanbul, <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmit" title="İzmit">İzmit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adapazar%C4%B1" title="Adapazarı">Adapazarı</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilecik" title="Bilecik">Bilecik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehir" title="Eskişehir">Eskişehir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCtahya" title="Kütahya">Kütahya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konya" title="Konya">Konya</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jaffa%E2%80%93Jerusalem_railway" title="Jaffa–Jerusalem railway">Jaffa–Jerusalem railway</a></td> <td>1892</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Lebanon" title="Rail transport in Lebanon">Beirut-Damascus railway</a></td> <td>1895</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Railway">Baghdad Railway</a></td> <td>1904</td> <td>Istanbul, Konya, <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jezreel_Valley_railway" title="Jezreel Valley railway">Jezreel Valley railway</a></td> <td>1905</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yagur" title="Yagur">Yagur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daraa" title="Daraa">Daraa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samakh,_Tiberias" title="Samakh, Tiberias">Samakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Beit She'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silat_ad-Dhahr" title="Silat ad-Dhahr">Silat ad-Dhahr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hejaz_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hejaz Railway">Hejaz Railway</a></td> <td>1908</td> <td>Istanbul, Konya, Adana, Aleppo, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabuk,_Saudi_Arabia" title="Tabuk, Saudi Arabia">Tabuk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Railway_(Israel)" title="Eastern Railway (Israel)">Eastern Railway</a></td> <td>1915</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tulkarm" title="Tulkarm">Tulkarm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lod" title="Lod">Lod</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Railway_to_Beersheba" title="Railway to Beersheba">Beersheba Railway</a></td> <td>1915</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nahal_Sorek" title="Nahal Sorek">Nahal Sorek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beit_Hanoun" title="Beit Hanoun">Beit Hanoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beersheba" title="Beersheba">Beersheba</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimean_War">Crimean War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Crimean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Ottoman Empire">declining Ottoman Empire</a>. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, the Pacific Ocean and the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a>. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-royle1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royle1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">Treaty of Paris (1856)</a> secured Ottoman control over the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkan Peninsula</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> basin. That lasted until defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a>. </p><p>The Ottoman Empire took its <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">first foreign loans</a> on 4 August 1854,<sup id="cite_ref-Ottomandebthistory_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottomandebthistory-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/220px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/330px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/440px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png 2x" data-file-width="2194" data-file-height="1570" /></a><figcaption>Turkish refugees from Bulgaria, 1877.</figcaption></figure> <p>The war caused an exodus of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a>. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the <a href="/wiki/Tauride_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauride Province">Tauride Province</a>, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toward the end of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Wars">Caucasian Wars</a>, 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> were exiled from their homelands in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and settled in the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called <i><a href="/wiki/Muhajir_(Turkey)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhajir (Turkey)">Muhacir</a></i> under a general definition.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ethnic nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire">Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene,_Belgrade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg/220px-The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg/330px-The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg/440px-The_ruined_gateway_of_Prince_Eugene%2C_Belgrade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a>, 19th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire">rise of nationalism</a> swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">national consciousness</a>, together with a growing sense of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a>, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary <a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_in_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of parties in Ottoman Empire">political parties</a> rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a> were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/225px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png" decoding="async" width="225" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/338px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/450px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png 2x" data-file-width="2917" data-file-height="3993" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> cartoon from 17 June 1876. Russian Empire preparing to let slip the Balkan "Dogs of War" to attack the Ottoman Empire, while policeman <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a> (UK) warns Russia to take care.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1804 the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian Revolution</a> against Ottoman rule erupted in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, running in parallel with the <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian provinces">Napoleonic invasion</a>. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">self-governing monarchy</a> under nominal Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1821 the <a href="/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic" title="First Hellenic Republic">First Hellenic Republic</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/Balkan" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan">Balkan</a> country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognised by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Porte">Porte</a> in 1829, after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkans">Balkans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Balkans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">History of the Balkans</a></div> <p>The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a>, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="United Principalities">United Principalities</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_of_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878">Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a>, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> also achieved independence<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (as the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Principality of Bulgaria</a>); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Congress_of_Berlin">Congress of Berlin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Congress of Berlin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg/220px-Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg/330px-Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg/440px-Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2647" data-file-height="1660" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the names of the Ottoman provinces between 1878 and 1908.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a> that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan Peninsula</a>, the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers. </p><p>As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rumelia" title="Eastern Rumelia">Eastern Rumelia</a>, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> to Russia. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. </p><p>In 1878, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia Vilayet">Bosnia-Herzegovina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Sanjak of Novi Pazar">Novi Pazar</a>, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnian crisis">annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina</a>, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks. </p><p>In return for British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>'s advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in 1878<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later sent troops to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the <a href="/wiki/Urabi_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Urabi Revolt">Urabi Revolt</a>; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>.) France, on its part, occupied <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> in 1881. </p><p>The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world war</a> in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Principality of Bulgaria</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a>, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> remained Muslim land.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></div> <p>After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> to support the <a href="/wiki/Khedive" title="Khedive">khedive</a> and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported <a href="/wiki/Tewfik_Pasha" title="Tewfik Pasha">Khedive Tewfiq</a> and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Muhammad_Ali_Dynasty#Khedivate_(1867–1914)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty">Egypt and Sudan</a> remained as Ottoman provinces <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> (occupied by France in 1830), <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (occupied by France in 1881) and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> (occupied by Italy in 1912). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenians">Armenians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Armenians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>Although granted their own <a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Assembly_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)">national assembly</a> with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were formed mostly of irregular <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> units of recruited <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Istanbul in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)"><span id="Defeat_and_dissolution_.281908.E2.80.931922.29"></span>Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/220px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/330px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/440px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Declaration of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> by the leaders of the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millets</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ottoman Empire had long been the "<a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Europe" title="Sick man of Europe">sick man of Europe</a>" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">Second Constitutional Era</a> began after the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/tr:Kanun-u_Esasi" class="extiw" title="s:tr:Kanun-u Esasi">1876 constitution</a> and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a>. This era is dominated by the politics of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress" title="Committee of Union and Progress">Committee of Union and Progress</a> (CUP), and the movement that would become known as the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a>. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered in 1911 with the founding of the opposition <a href="/wiki/Freedom_and_Accord_Party" title="Freedom and Accord Party">Freedom and Accord Party</a> (Liberal Union or Entente), which poached many of the more liberal <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Deputies</a> from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a>, dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals, which ultimately led to the CUP (specifically its leadership, the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Pashas" title="Three Pashas">Three Pashas</a>") seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the <a href="/wiki/1913_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1913 Ottoman coup d'état">1913 Ottoman coup d'état</a> and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I. </p><p>Profiting from the civil strife, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> officially annexed <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Sanjak of Novi Pazar">Sanjak of Novi Pazar</a>, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a> declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> (1912–13). It lost its <a href="/wiki/Balkan_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan peninsula">Balkan</a> territories except <a href="/wiki/East_Thrace" title="East Thrace">East Thrace</a> and the historic Ottoman capital city of <a href="/wiki/Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianople">Adrianople</a> during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Railway">Baghdad Railway</a> under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play a role in the origins of World War I. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_(1914–1918)"><span id="World_War_I_.281914.E2.80.931918.29"></span>World War I (1914–1918)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: World War I (1914–1918)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern theatre of World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg/220px-Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg/330px-Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg/440px-Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1598" data-file-height="2135" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)</a> at the trenches of <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli Campaign</a> in 1915.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93German_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–German Alliance">Ottoman–German Alliance</a> in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the <a href="/wiki/Pursuit_of_Goeben_and_Breslau" title="Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau"><i>Goeben</i> and <i>Breslau</i> incident</a>, in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman Navy</a>, but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a>, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>, in which it took part in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern theatre</a>. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a>, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus Campaign">Caucasus Campaign</a> against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg/220px-Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg/330px-Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg/440px-Peace-conference-memoranda-respecting-syria-arabia-palestine5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1334" /></a><figcaption>January 1919 <a href="/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign and Commonwealth Office">British Foreign Office</a> memorandum summarizing the wartime agreements between Britain, France, Italy and Russia regarding Ottoman territory.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabia_1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Arabia_1914.png/220px-Arabia_1914.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Arabia_1914.png/330px-Arabia_1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Arabia_1914.png/440px-Arabia_1914.png 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="821" /></a><figcaption>The Arabian peninsula in 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1915, as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Caucasus_Army_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Caucasus Army (World War I)">Russian Caucasus Army</a> continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of <a href="/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units" title="Armenian volunteer units">Armenian volunteer units</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ArmenianMassacresBritannica_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArmenianMassacresBritannica-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and aided by some <a href="/wiki/Armenian_militia" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian militia">Ottoman Armenians</a>, the Ottoman government decided to issue the <a href="/wiki/Tehcir_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehcir Law">Tehcir Law</a>, which started the <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a> of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman–Russian front, resulting in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through forced marches and gang skirmishes, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished, but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers)<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a> was signed on 30 October 1918, the only parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> that were still under Ottoman control were <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asir" title="Asir">Asir</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, portions of northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and portions of northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also forced to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, Armenia and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution (1917)">Russian Revolution</a> in 1917. </p><p>Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire">partitioning of the Ottoman Empire</a> was solidified. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Empire_dominated_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Empire dominated territories">new countries created</a> from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkish_War_of_Independence_(1919–1923)"><span id="Turkish_War_of_Independence_.281919.E2.80.931923.29"></span>Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/220px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/330px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/440px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Departure of <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a>, last Sultan of the Ottoman State, 1922.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Constantinople">occupation of Constantinople</a> along with the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_%C4%B0zmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of İzmir">occupation of İzmir</a> mobilized the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_of_the_Turkish_national_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Establishment of the Turkish national movement">establishment of the Turkish national movement</a>, which won the 1919–1923 <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustafa Kemal Pasha">Mustafa Kemal Pasha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Sultanate was abolished</a> on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI Vahdettin</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1918–1922</span>), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Grand National Assembly of Turkey</a> (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey#Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> on 29 October 1923. The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared <a href="/wiki/150_personae_non_gratae_of_Turkey" title="150 personae non gratae of Turkey">personae non gratae of Turkey</a> and exiled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottoman_dynasty_after_dissolution">Ottoman dynasty after dissolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ottoman dynasty after dissolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Line_of_succession_to_the_Ottoman_throne" class="mw-redirect" title="Line of succession to the Ottoman throne">Line of succession to the Ottoman throne</a></div> <p>In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Grand National Assembly</a>, and were notified that they could apply. <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_Orhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed Orhan">Mehmed Orhan</a>, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülhamid II">Abdülhamid II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul_Osman" class="mw-redirect" title="Ertuğrul Osman">Ertuğrul Osman</a>, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harun_Osman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harun Osman">Harun Osmano</a>ğlu, the 3rd generation grandson of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a>, is the eldest living member of the former ruling dynasty. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_mosque2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Blue Mosque Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1616)"><img alt="The Blue Mosque Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1616)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blue_mosque2.jpg/120px-Blue_mosque2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blue_mosque2.jpg/180px-Blue_mosque2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blue_mosque2.jpg/240px-Blue_mosque2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="1060" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Blue Mosque <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Ahmed Mosque">Sultan Ahmed Mosque</a> (1616)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Süleymaniye Mosque (Ottoman imperial mosque-1556)"><img alt="Süleymaniye Mosque (Ottoman imperial mosque-1556)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/120px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/180px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg/240px-20111225_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_Panoramic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4701" data-file-height="1928" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a> (Ottoman imperial mosque-1556)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Topkapı Palace (1453)"><img alt="Topkapı Palace (1453)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg/120px-Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg/180px-Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg/240px-Istanbul.Topkapi036.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a> (1453)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Piri Reis map (1513)"><img alt="Piri Reis map (1513)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/90px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/135px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/180px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1964" data-file-height="2619" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a> (1513)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fall_of_the_Empire">Fall of the Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fall of the Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall were a result of tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The introduction of increased <a href="/wiki/Cultural_rights" title="Cultural rights">cultural rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> proved too late to reverse the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire">nationalistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secessionist</a> trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="History of the Republic of Turkey">History of the Republic of Turkey</a> (1923–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire">Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Timeline of the Ottoman Empire">Timeline of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikilala" title="Wikilala">Wikilala</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeill, <i> American, Britain and Russia </i> (1953). p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWittek1938" class="citation book cs1">Wittek, Paul (1938). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofottomanemp0000witt"><i>The Rise of the Ottoman Empire</i></a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Wittek&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofottomanemp0000witt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> It was Wittek's formulation which became generally (though not unanimously) accepted among Western historians of the Ottoman Empire for much of the twentieth century. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=41&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Lewis, "Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire," <i>Studia Islamica</i> 1 (1958) 111–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kin24-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kin24_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kin24_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kin24_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i> (Morrow Quill Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bodnar, Edward W. <i>Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive</i>. <i>Il Veltro</i> 27, nos. 1–2 (1983): 235–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halecki, Oscar, <i>The Crusade of Varna</i>. New York, 1943</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from <i>Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy</i> edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKarpat,_Kemal_H.1974" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal H. (1974). <i>The Ottoman state and its place in world history</i>. Leiden: Brill. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03945-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03945-7"><bdi>90-04-03945-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+state+and+its+place+in+world+history&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=90-04-03945-7&rft.au=Karpat%2C+Kemal+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>. A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> to fund <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g. K. D. Madan, <i>Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama</i> (1998), 9; I. Stavans, <i>Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage</i> (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, <i>Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877</i> (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", <i>English Historical Review</i>, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, <i>The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)</i> (1978), 335).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavory1960" class="citation journal cs1">Savory, R. M. (1960). "The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907-30/1501-24)". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">91–</span>105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00149006">10.1017/S0041977X00149006</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/609888">609888</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154467531">154467531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.atitle=The+Principal+Offices+of+the+%E1%B9%A2afawid+State+during+the+Reign+of+Ism%C4%81%27%C4%ABl+I+%28907-30%2F1501-24%29&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154467531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F609888%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00149006&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHess1973" class="citation journal cs1">Hess, Andrew C. (January 1973). "The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027276">10.1017/S0020743800027276</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162225">162225</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162219690">162219690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Conquest+of+Egypt+%281517%29+and+the+Beginning+of+the+Sixteenth-Century+World+War&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=1973-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162219690%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162225%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027276&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=Andrew+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary/214181/History#ref=ref411152">"Encyclopædia Britannica"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F276730%2FHungary%2F214181%2FHistory%23ref%3Dref411152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426084941/http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif">"Encyclopædia Britannica"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif">the original</a> on 26 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcache-media.britannica.com%2Feb-media%2F47%2F20547-004-D655EA04.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Imber, 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson442-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson442_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson (1996), p. 442</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ágoston_and_Alan_Masters583-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ágoston_and_Alan_Masters583_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ágoston and Alan Masters (2009), p. 583</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turnbull51-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turnbull51_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turnbull51_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Turnbull (2003), p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vambery298-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vambery298_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vambery, p. 298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinross206-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kinross206_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire</i>, p.206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansel, 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Imber, 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, Norman. <i>Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition</i>, University of Chicago Press, 1980) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-38806-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-38806-9">0-226-38806-9</a>, pp. 64–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies (2007). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16">Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.</a></i>. p.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subtelny, Orest (1988). "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&pg=PA106">Ukraine: a history.</a></i>". p 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf">The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501041101/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-05-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, <i>Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinross,_272-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kinross,_272_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kinross,_272_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kinross, 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kunt & Woodhead (Ed.) <i>Suleyman The Magnificent and his Age, The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World</i> (Longman 1995) p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, p. 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Inalcik, Halil. <i>An Economic And Social History Of The Ottoman Empire, Vol 1 1300–1600</i>. Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57455-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57455-2">0-521-57455-2</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinross281-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kinross281_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p.281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leslie P. Peirce, <i>The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire</i> and <i>Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, pp. 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, pp. 77–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, pp. 80–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Itzkowitz, pp. 73, 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LordKinross-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LordKinross_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LordKinross_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge History of Turkey: The later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839</i>, Ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Istanbul+Technical+University&rft.pub=Itu.edu.tr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.edu.tr%2Fen%2F%3Fabout%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from <i>Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy</i> edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-katip_celebi-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katip_celebi_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-katip_celebi_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/wwwroot/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm">Presentation of Katip Çelebi, <i>Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi</i></a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_University" title="Utrecht University">Utrecht University</a> Library <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090505024753/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/wwwroot/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm">Archived</a> May 5, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watson-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watson_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William J. Watson, "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula", in <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, Vol. 88, No. 3 (1968), p. 435.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lord Kinross, <i>The Ottoman Centuries</i>, p. 405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm">"Liberation, Independence and Union"</a>. Njegos.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Berend</a>, <i>History derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the long nineteenth century</i>, (<a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a> Ltd, 2003), 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf">http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NTVtarih-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NTVtarih_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NTVtarih_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/">NTV Tarih</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130212143841/http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/">Archived</a> 2013-02-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> history magazine, issue of July 2011. <i>"Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı"</i>, pages 46–50. (Turkish)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120614105241/http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html">"Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank"</a>. Obarsiv.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html">the original</a> on 14 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm">the original</a> on 25 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Istanbul+Stock+Exchange%3A+History+of+the+Istanbul+Stock+Exchange&rft.pub=Imkb.gov.tr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imkb.gov.tr%2Fgenel%2Ftarih.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PTT-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PTT_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT_56-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html">PTT Chronology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913233443/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html">Archived</a> September 13, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PTT2-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PTT2_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT2_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PTT2_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130401082752/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1">"History of the Turkish Postal Service"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Turkish+Postal+Service&rft.pub=Ptt.gov.tr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ptt.gov.tr%2Findex.snet%3Fwapp%3Dhistor_en%26open%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istanbulcityguide.com/history/body_mansions_palaces.htm">Istanbul City Guide: Beylerbeyi Palace</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071010112702/http://www.istanbulcityguide.com/history/body_mansions_palaces.htm">Archived</a> October 10, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NTVtarih2-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NTVtarih2_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NTVtarih2_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/">NTV Tarih</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130212143841/http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/">Archived</a> 2013-02-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> history magazine, issue of July 2011. <i>"Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı"</i>, page 49. (Turkish)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-telekomhistory-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-telekomhistory_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928164731/http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/webtech/eng_default.asp?sayfa_id=30">"Türk Telekom: History"</a>. 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New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 198. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6">0-312-10168-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_62-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from <i>Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy</i> edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orlando Figes, <i>The Crimean War: A History</i> (2012)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-royle1-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-royle1_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Royle. Preface.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ottomandebthistory-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ottomandebthistory_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101125180142/http://gberis.e-monsite.com/categorie%2Cosmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history%2C3219214.html">"History of the Ottoman public debt"</a>. Gberis.e-monsite.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gberis.e-monsite.com/categorie,osmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history,3219214.html">the original</a> on 25 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ottoman+public+debt&rft.pub=Gberis.e-monsite.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgberis.e-monsite.com%2Fcategorie%2Cosmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history%2C3219214.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monderusse.revues.org/docannexe1800.html">"<i>Hijra</i> and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire"</a>, by Bryan Glynn Williams, <i>Cahiers du Monde russe</i>, 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611035541/http://monderusse.revues.org/docannexe1800.html">Archived</a> June 11, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. <u>The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present and Future</u>. Routledge. 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justin McCarthy, <i>Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–2000</i>, Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-San-Stefano">"Treaty of San Stefano | Russia-Turkey [1878]"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Treaty+of+San+Stefano+%7C+Russia-Turkey+%5B1878%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FTreaty-of-San-Stefano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mapsof.net/uploads/static-maps/europe_map_1900.jpg">"Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Map+of+Europe+and+the+Ottoman+Empire+in+the+year+1900&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmapsof.net%2Fuploads%2Fstatic-maps%2Feurope_map_1900.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. P. Taylor, <i>The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918</i> (1954) pp 228–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerome L. Blum, et al. <i>The European World: A History</i> (1970) p 841</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mann, Michael (2005), <i>The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Todorova, Maria (2009), <i>Imagining the Balkans</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">editors: Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p.437 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2c6ifbjx2wMC">Read</a> quote: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, only Anatolia, eastern Thrace and a section of the south-eastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHovannisian" class="citation journal cs1">Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914". <i>The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times</i>. <b>II</b>: 218.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Armenian+People+from+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.atitle=The+Armenian+Question+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1876%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=218&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hovannisian, 217,222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question", p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Taner_Akcam" class="mw-redirect" title="Taner Akcam">Akcam, Taner</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Shameful_Act:_The_Armenian_Genocide_and_the_Question_of_Turkish_Responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility">A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Books">Metropolitan Books</a>, 2006, p. 42. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7932-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7932-7">0-8050-7932-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Şevket Pamuk, "The Ottoman Economy in World War I" in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) pp 112–36, esp. p 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf">"Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. NL: <a href="/wiki/Universiteit_Leiden" class="mw-redirect" title="Universiteit Leiden">Universiteit Leiden</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Turkish+refugees+and+deportees+1912%E2%80%931924&rft.place=NL&rft.pub=Universiteit+Leiden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftulp.leidenuniv.nl%2Fcontent_docs%2Fwap%2Fejz18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spencer Tucker, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of World War I</i> (2005) p 1080</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArmenianMassacresBritannica-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ArmenianMassacresBritannica_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35323/Armenian-massacres">"<i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>: Armenian massacres (Turkish-Armenian history)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Britannica.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+Armenian+massacres+%28Turkish-Armenian+history%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Britannica.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F35323%2FArmenian-massacres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Balakian" title="Peter Balakian">Balakian, Peter</a>. <i>The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response</i>. New York: Perennial, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-019840-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-019840-0">0-06-019840-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalker" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_J._Walker" title="Christopher J. Walker">Walker, Christopher J</a>. "World War I and the Armenian Genocide". <i>The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times</i>. <b>II</b>: <span class="nowrap">239–</span>273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Armenian+People+from+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.atitle=World+War+I+and+the+Armenian+Genocide&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E273&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Taner_Akcam" class="mw-redirect" title="Taner Akcam">Akcam</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Shameful_Act" title="A Shameful Act">A Shameful Act</a></i>, pp. 109–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Toynbee, Arnold J</a>., <i>The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16: Documents presented to Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs By Viscount Bryce</i>. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, for His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1916, p. 650.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Israel_Charny" title="Israel Charny">Charny, Israel</a> et al. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Letter_from_The_International_Association_of_Genocide_Scholars" class="extiw" title="s:A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars">A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars</a>. International Association of Genocide Scholars. 13 June 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Marashlian, Levon. <i>Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Zoryan Institute, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) <i>Dictionary of Genocide</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-34642-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-34642-9">0-313-34642-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noël, Lise. <i>Intolerance: A General Survey</i>. Arnold Bennett, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-1187-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-1187-3">0-7735-1187-3</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schaefer, T (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society</i>. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2008, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The criminal law of genocide: international, comparative and contextual aspects, by Ralph J. Henham, Paul Behrens, 2007, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bilefsky, Dan. "Weary of Modern Fictions, Turks Glory in Splendor of Ottoman Past", <i>New York Times.</i> 5 December 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html">"Political Obituaries: Ertugrul Osman"</a></span>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. London. 27 September 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Political+Obituaries%3A+Ertugrul+Osman&rft.date=2009-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fobituaries%2Fpolitics-obituaries%2F6237121%2FErtugrul-Osman.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHardy2009" class="citation news cs1">Hardy, Roger (24 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8273396.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Last Ottoman' dies in Istanbul"</a>. BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Last+Ottoman%27+dies+in+Istanbul&rft.date=2009-09-24&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F8273396.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of the Ottoman Empire">History of the Ottoman Empire</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_surveys">General surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: General surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><i>The Cambridge History of Turkey</i></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFleet2009" class="citation book cs1">Fleet, Kate, ed. (2009). <i>Byzantium to Turkey, 1071-1453</i>. Vol. 1. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62093-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62093-2"><bdi>978-0-521-62093-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+to+Turkey%2C+1071-1453&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62093-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhiFleet2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suraiya_Faroqhi" title="Suraiya Faroqhi">Faroqhi, Suraiya</a>; Fleet, Kate (2011). <i>The Ottoman Empire as a world power, 1453-1603</i>. Vol. 2. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62094-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62094-9"><bdi>978-0-521-62094-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire+as+a+world+power%2C+1453-1603&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62094-9&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft.au=Fleet%2C+Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFleetFaroqhiKasaba2006" class="citation book cs1">Fleet, Kate; <a href="/wiki/Suraiya_Faroqhi" title="Suraiya Faroqhi">Faroqhi, Suraiya</a>; Kasaba, Reşat, eds. (2006). <i>The later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839</i>. Vol. 3. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62093-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62093-2"><bdi>978-0-521-62093-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+later+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1603-1839&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62093-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKasaba2008" class="citation book cs1">Kasaba, Reşat, ed. (2008). <i>Turkey in the modern world</i>. Vol. 4. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62096-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62096-3"><bdi>978-0-521-62096-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkey+in+the+modern+world&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62096-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Finkel" title="Caroline Finkel">Finkel, Caroline F.</a> (2005). <i>Osman's dream: the story of the Ottoman empire 1300-1923</i>. London: John Murray. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-5513-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-5513-8"><bdi>978-0-7195-5513-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+dream%3A+the+story+of+the+Ottoman+empire+1300-1923&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7195-5513-8&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHathaway2008" class="citation book cs1">Hathaway, Jane (2008). <i>The Arab lands under Ottoman rule, 1516-1800</i>. A history of the Near East. Harlow; New York: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Longman" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson Longman">Pearson Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8"><bdi>978-0-582-41899-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+lands+under+Ottoman+rule%2C+1516-1800&rft.place=Harlow%3B+New+York&rft.series=A+history+of+the+Near+East&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-582-41899-8&rft.aulast=Hathaway&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Imber" title="Colin Imber">Imber, Colin</a> (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: the structure of power</i> (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57450-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57450-2"><bdi>978-0-230-57450-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+the+structure+of+power&rft.place=Basingstoke%3B+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-57450-2&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFİnalcıkQuataert1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k" title="Halil İnalcık">İnalcık, Halil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a>, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MWUlNdskNfIC"><i>An economic and social history of the Ottoman empire: 1300-1914</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34315-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34315-2"><bdi>978-0-521-34315-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+economic+and+social+history+of+the+Ottoman+empire%3A+1300-1914&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34315-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMWUlNdskNfIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKia2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mehrdad_Kia" title="Mehrdad Kia">Kia, Mehrdad</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eafOEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Ottoman Empire: a historical encyclopedia</i></a>. Empires of the world. Santa Barbara (Calif.): <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-388-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-388-2"><bdi>978-1-61069-388-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara+%28Calif.%29&rft.series=Empires+of+the+world&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-388-2&rft.aulast=Kia&rft.aufirst=Mehrdad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeafOEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Justin_McCarthy_(American_historian)" title="Justin McCarthy (American historian)">McCarthy, Justin</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aHXJAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Ottoman Turks: an introductory history to 1923</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-25655-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-25655-2"><bdi>978-0-582-25655-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Turks%3A+an+introductory+history+to+1923&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-582-25655-2&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaHXJAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze" title="Alexander Mikaberidze">Mikaberidze, Alexander</a>, ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6fOEAAAQBAJ"><i>Conflict and conquest in the Islamic world: a historical encyclopedia</i></a>. Santa Barbara, Calif: <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-336-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-336-1"><bdi>978-1-59884-336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+conquest+in+the+Islamic+world%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+Calif&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-336-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY6fOEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFQuataert2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OX3lsOrXJGcC"><i>The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922</i></a>. New approaches to European history (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83910-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83910-5"><bdi>978-0-521-83910-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/875094027">875094027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1700-1922&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.series=New+approaches+to+European+history&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F875094027&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83910-5&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOX3lsOrXJGcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Early_Ottomans">The Early Ottomans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The Early Ottomans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cemal_Kafadar" title="Cemal Kafadar">Kafadar, Cemal</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pa8wDwAAQBAJ"><i>Between two worlds: the construction of the Ottoman state</i></a>. Berkeley, Calif.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7"><bdi>978-0-520-20600-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+two+worlds%3A+the+construction+of+the+Ottoman+state&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20600-7&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPa8wDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic series. Bloomington: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933070-12-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933070-12-7"><bdi>978-0-933070-12-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+medieval+Anatolia&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.series=Indiana+University+Uralic+and+Altaic+series&rft.pub=Research+Institute+for+Inner+Asian+Studies%2C+Indiana+University&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-933070-12-7&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath W. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC"><i>The nature of the early Ottoman state</i></a>. SUNY series in the social and economic history of the Middle East. Albany: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5635-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5635-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-5635-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+the+early+Ottoman+state&rft.place=Albany&rft.series=SUNY+series+in+the+social+and+economic+history+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5635-4&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfAppWuoFv3QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Classical_Age">The Classical Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The Classical Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFİnalcıkKafadar1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k" title="Halil İnalcık">İnalcık, Halil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cemal_Kafadar" title="Cemal Kafadar">Kafadar, Cemal</a> (1993). <i>Süleymân the Second [i.e. the First] and his time</i>. Istanbul: The Isis Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-052-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-428-052-4"><bdi>978-975-428-052-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%BCleym%C3%A2n+the+Second+%5Bi.e.+the+First%5D+and+his+time&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pub=The+Isis+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-975-428-052-4&rft.aulast=%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k&rft.aufirst=Halil&rft.au=Kafadar%2C+Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFŞahin2013" class="citation book cs1">Şahin, Kaya (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FxkYVnznGXAC"><i>Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World</i></a>. Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03442-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03442-6"><bdi>978-1-107-03442-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+and+Power+in+the+Reign+of+S%C3%BCleyman%3A+narrating+the+Sixteenth-Century+Ottoman+World&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+studies+in+Islamic+civilization&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03442-6&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eahin&rft.aufirst=Kaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFxkYVnznGXAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFŞahi̇N2017" class="citation journal cs1">Şahi̇N, Kaya (2017). "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century". <i><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Quarterly">Renaissance Quarterly</a></i>. <b>70</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">220–</span>234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F691834">10.1086/691834</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-4338">0034-4338</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26560197">26560197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renaissance+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Empire+in+the+Long+Sixteenth+Century&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E220-%3C%2Fspan%3E234&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0034-4338&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26560197%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F691834&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eahi%CC%87N&rft.aufirst=Kaya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2005" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dNqzjfWABSAC"><i>Guns for the sultan: military power and the weapons industry in the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84313-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84313-3"><bdi>978-0-521-84313-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns+for+the+sultan%3A+military+power+and+the+weapons+industry+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+studies+in+Islamic+civilization&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84313-3&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdNqzjfWABSAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAksan2007" class="citation book cs1">Aksan, Virginia H. (2007). <i>Ottoman wars, 1700-1870: an empire besieged</i>. Modern wars in perspective. Harlow, England: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pearson_plc" title="Pearson plc">Pearson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7"><bdi>978-0-582-30807-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/260120241">260120241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+wars%2C+1700-1870%3A+an+empire+besieged&rft.place=Harlow%2C+England&rft.series=Modern+wars+in+perspective&rft.pub=Longman%2FPearson&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F260120241&rft.isbn=978-0-582-30807-7&rft.aulast=Aksan&rft.aufirst=Virginia+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHall2014" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Richard C., ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XBXHEAAAQBAJ"><i>War in the Balkans: an encyclopedic history from the fall of the Ottoman Empire to the breakup of Yugoslavia</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-030-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-030-0"><bdi>978-1-61069-030-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+Balkans%3A+an+encyclopedic+history+from+the+fall+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+to+the+breakup+of+Yugoslavia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-030-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXBXHEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurphey1999" class="citation book cs1">Murphey, Rhoads (1999). <i>Ottoman warfare, 1500-1700</i>. Warfare and history. London: <a href="/wiki/UCL_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="UCL Press">UCL Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-388-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-388-4"><bdi>978-1-85728-388-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/500039490">500039490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+warfare%2C+1500-1700&rft.place=London&rft.series=Warfare+and+history&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F500039490&rft.isbn=978-1-85728-388-4&rft.aulast=Murphey&rft.aufirst=Rhoads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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