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<span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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searchaux" style="display:none">Subsequence of video frames</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Group_of_pictures" title="Special:EditPage/Group of pictures">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Group+of+pictures%22">"Group of pictures"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Group+of+pictures%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Group+of+pictures%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Group+of+pictures%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Group+of+pictures%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Group+of+pictures%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Video_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Video coding">video coding</a>, a <b>group of pictures</b>, or <b>GOP structure</b>, specifies the order in which <a href="/wiki/Intra-frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-frame">intra-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inter-frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-frame">inter-frames</a> are arranged. The GOP is a collection of successive pictures within a coded video stream. Each coded video stream consists of successive GOPs, from which the visible frames are generated. Encountering a new GOP in a compressed video stream means that the decoder doesn't need any previous frames in order to decode the next ones, and allows fast seeking through the video. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elements">Elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_of_pictures&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Video_compression_picture_types" title="Video compression picture types">Video compression picture types</a></div> <p>A GOP can contain the following picture types: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_compression_picture_types" title="Video compression picture types">I frame</a> (intra coded picture, also sometimes incorrectly called keyframe<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Source says keyframe is synonym of i-frame and does not say either term is incorrect. (September 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup>) – a picture that is coded independently of all other pictures. Each GOP begins (in decoding order) with this type of frame. <ul><li>IDR frame (Instantaneous Decoder Refresh): I frame with a marking indicating that no subsequent P frames have references reaching further back than this I frame. Through the use of these IDR frames, closed GOPs are formed that can’t refer to frames outside the GOP.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IDR are the true keyframes together with clean random access frames (recovery points).</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_compression_picture_types" title="Video compression picture types">P frame</a> (predictive coded picture) – contains <a href="/wiki/Motion_compensation" title="Motion compensation">motion-compensated</a> difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. In older designs such as <a href="/wiki/MPEG-1" title="MPEG-1">MPEG-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/H.262" class="mw-redirect" title="H.262">H.262</a>/<a href="/wiki/MPEG-2" title="MPEG-2">MPEG-2</a> and <a href="/wiki/H.263" title="H.263">H.263</a>, each P frame can only reference one picture, and that picture must precede the P frame in display order as well as in decoding order, and the reference must be an I or P frame. These constraints do not apply in the newer standards <a href="/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC" class="mw-redirect" title="H.264/MPEG-4 AVC">H.264/MPEG-4 AVC</a> and <a href="/wiki/HEVC" class="mw-redirect" title="HEVC">HEVC</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_compression_picture_types" title="Video compression picture types">B frame</a> (bipredictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. In older designs such as MPEG-1 and H.262/MPEG-2, each B frame can only reference two frames, the one which precedes the B frame in display order and the one which follows, and all referenced pictures must be I or P frames. These constraints do not apply in newer standards <a href="/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC" class="mw-redirect" title="H.264/MPEG-4 AVC">H.264/MPEG-4 AVC</a> and <a href="/wiki/HEVC" class="mw-redirect" title="HEVC">HEVC</a>. Sometimes, a codec will use unidirectional B-frames. This is a P-frame that, while it does not use data from a future frame, no other frames depend on it. A fundamental property of B-frames is that they can be dropped without affecting the correct decoding of other frames.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_frame" class="mw-redirect" title="D frame">D frame</a> (DC direct coded picture) – serves as a fast-access representation of a frame for loss robustness or fast-forward. D frames are only used in <a href="/wiki/MPEG-1" title="MPEG-1">MPEG-1</a> video.</li></ul> <p>An I frame indicates the beginning of a GOP. Afterwards, several P and B frames follow. In older designs, the allowed ordering and referencing structure is relatively constrained.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The I frames contain the full image and do not require any additional information to reconstruct them. Typically, encoders use GOP structures that cause each I frame to be a "clean random access point," such that decoding can start cleanly on an I frame and any errors within the GOP structure are corrected after processing a correct I frame. </p><p>In the newer designs found in <a href="/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC" class="mw-redirect" title="H.264/MPEG-4 AVC">H.264/MPEG-4 AVC</a> and <a href="/wiki/HEVC" class="mw-redirect" title="HEVC">HEVC</a>, encoders have much more flexibility about referencing structures. They can use the same referencing structures as were previously used in older designs, or they can use more pictures as references and they can use more flexible ordering of the coding order relative to the display order. They are also allowed to use B frames as references when coding other (B or P) frames. This extra flexibility can improve compression efficiency, but it can cause propagation of errors if some data becomes lost or corrupted. One popular structure for use with the newer designs is the use of a hierarchy of B frames. Hierarchical B frames can provide very good compression efficiency and can also limit the propagation of errors, since the hierarchy can ensure that the number of pictures affected by any data corruption problem is strictly limited.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, the more I frames the video stream has, the more editable it is. However, having more I frames substantially increases bit rate needed to code the video. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_of_pictures&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The GOP structure is often referred by two numbers, for example, <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i>=3, <i>N</i>=12</span>. The first number tells the distance between two anchor frames (I or P), also known as the length of a "mini-GOP".<sup id="cite_ref-ott_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ott-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second one tells the distance between two full images (I-frames): it is the GOP size.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of the M parameter, the maximal count of B-frames between two consecutive anchor frames can be used; this is the approach used by <a href="/wiki/Ffmpeg" class="mw-redirect" title="Ffmpeg">ffmpeg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples: </p> <ul><li>For <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i>=3, <i>N</i>=12</span>, the GOP structure is <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">IBBPBBPBBPBB</span>. There are 2 B-frames between two consecutive anchor frames.</li> <li>For the sequence <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">IBBBBPBBBBPBBBB</span>, GOP size <span class="texhtml"><i>N</i>=15</span>, anchor-distance <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i>=5</span>. There are 4 B-frames between two consecutive anchor frames.</li></ul> <p>The GOP structure does not need to stay fixed throughout encoding. Varying <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">N</span> to insert an I-frame on scene change is a well-known technique.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newer techniques also vary <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">M</span> based on the amount of motion in the video.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_concepts">Additional concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_of_pictures&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Additional concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With H.264 and later designs which allow highly flexible reference structures, a B frame in one GOP is able to reference a frame in a different GOP, in particular even before the I frame, which makes I frame non-IDR (not a keyframe).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A GOP that contains any such outward-referencing frame is known as an "open GOP". The opposite is a self-contained GOP, known as a "closed GOP".<sup id="cite_ref-ott_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ott-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In coding order GOP can begin with a B-frame, but it cannot end with one. Open GOP starts with a B-frame and it is a little more efficient because starting with an I-frame means that an extra P-frame must be added to the end (a GOP cannot end with a B-frame).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_of_pictures&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_compression_picture_types" title="Video compression picture types">Video compression picture types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_frame" title="Key frame">Key frame</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_of_pictures&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.video.ibm.com/streaming-video-tips/keyframes-interframe-video-compression/#keyframe">"Keyframes, InterFrame & Video Compression"</a>. 13 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Keyframes%2C+InterFrame+%26+Video+Compression&rft.date=2021-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.video.ibm.com%2Fstreaming-video-tips%2Fkeyframes-interframe-video-compression%2F%23keyframe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroup+of+pictures" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarrel2022" class="citation web cs1">McCarrel, Jarrod (2022-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.veneratech.com/understanding-gop-what-is-group-of-pictures-and-why-is-it-important/">"What is "Group Of Pictures" and Why is it Important?"</a>. <i>Venera Technologies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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