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1931–1950: childhood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1931–1950:_childhood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950–1955:_university" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950–1955:_university"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 1950–1955: university </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950–1955:_university-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_CPSU_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_CPSU_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Early CPSU career </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_CPSU_career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early CPSU career subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_CPSU_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1955–1969:_Stavropol_Komsomol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1955–1969:_Stavropol_Komsomol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 1955–1969: Stavropol Komsomol </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1955–1969:_Stavropol_Komsomol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970–1977:_heading_the_Stavropol_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970–1977:_heading_the_Stavropol_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 1970–1977: heading the Stavropol region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970–1977:_heading_the_Stavropol_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_CPSU" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_CPSU"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Secretary of the Central Committee of CPSU </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_CPSU-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Leader of the Soviet Union (1985-1991) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Leader of the Soviet Union (1985-1991) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1985–1986:_early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1985–1986:_early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 1985–1986: early years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1985–1986:_early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Domestic policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Foreign policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1987–1989:_further_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1987–1989:_further_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 1987–1989: further reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1987–1989:_further_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Domestic reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forming_the_Congress_of_People's_Deputies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forming_the_Congress_of_People's_Deputies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Forming the Congress of People's Deputies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forming_the_Congress_of_People's_Deputies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_China_and_Western_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_China_and_Western_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Relations with China and Western states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_China_and_Western_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationality_question_and_the_Eastern_Bloc" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationality_question_and_the_Eastern_Bloc"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Nationality question and the Eastern Bloc </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationality_question_and_the_Eastern_Bloc-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unraveling_of_the_USSR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unraveling_of_the_USSR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Unraveling of the USSR </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unraveling_of_the_USSR-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Unraveling of the USSR subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Unraveling_of_the_USSR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1990–1991:_presidency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990–1991:_presidency_of_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 1990–1991: presidency of the Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990–1991:_presidency_of_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_reunification_and_the_Gulf_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_reunification_and_the_Gulf_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 German reunification and the Gulf War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_reunification_and_the_Gulf_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-August_coup_and_government_crises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#August_coup_and_government_crises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 August coup and government crises </div> </a> <ul id="toc-August_coup_and_government_crises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_days_and_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_days_and_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Final days and collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_days_and_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-USSR_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-USSR_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Post-USSR life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-USSR_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Post-USSR life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Post-USSR_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1991–1999:_initial_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1991–1999:_initial_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 1991–1999: initial years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1991–1999:_initial_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1996_presidential_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1996_presidential_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 1996 presidential campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1996_presidential_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1999–2008:_promoting_social_democracy_in_Putin's_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1999–2008:_promoting_social_democracy_in_Putin's_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 1999–2008: promoting social democracy in Putin's Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1999–2008:_promoting_social_democracy_in_Putin's_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2008–2022:_growing_criticism_of_Putin_and_foreign_policy_remarks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2008–2022:_growing_criticism_of_Putin_and_foreign_policy_remarks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 2008–2022: growing criticism of Putin and foreign policy remarks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2008–2022:_growing_criticism_of_Putin_and_foreign_policy_remarks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_ideology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_ideology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Political ideology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_ideology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Personality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Death </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Death subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preceding_deterioration_of_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preceding_deterioration_of_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Preceding deterioration of health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preceding_deterioration_of_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funeral_and_burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funeral_and_burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Funeral and burial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funeral_and_burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Reactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Reception and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Awards and honors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mikhail Gorbachev</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 154 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-154" aria-hidden="true" > 154 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Michail Gorbatsjof" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatschow" title="Michail Gorbatschow – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Michail Gorbatschow" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%BB%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%8D_%E1%8C%8E%E1%88%AD%E1%89%A3%E1%89%BE%E1%89%AD" title="ምኻይል ጎርባቾቭ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ምኻይል ጎርባቾቭ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B8-%D0%B8%D4%A5%D0%B0" title="Горбачиов, Михаил Сергеи-иԥа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Горбачиов, Михаил Сергеи-иԥа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%BA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%81" title="ميخائيل غورباتشوف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ميخائيل غورباتشوف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatchev" title="Mikhail Gorbatchev – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatchev" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AD" title="মিখাইল গৰ্বাচেভ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মিখাইল গৰ্বাচেভ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%C3%ADl_Gorbachov" title="Mikhaíl Gorbachov – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mikhaíl Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachov" title="Mikhail Gorbachov – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixail_Qorba%C3%A7ov" title="Mixail Qorbaçov – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mixail Qorbaçov" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%88%D9%81" title="میخائیل قورباچوف – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میخائیل قورباچوف" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AD" title="মিখাইল গর্বাচেভ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিখাইল গর্বাচেভ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachyov" title="Mikhail Gorbachyov – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachyov" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D1%9E" title="Міхаіл Сяргеевіч Гарбачоў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Міхаіл Сяргеевіч Гарбачоў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D1%9E" title="Міхаіл Гарбачоў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Міхаіл Гарбачоў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5" title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोव – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोव" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачов – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Михаил Горбачов" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Mihail Gorbačov – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mihail Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatchev" title="Mikhail Gorbatchev – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatchev" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%C3%AFl_Gorbatxov" title="Mikhaïl Gorbatxov – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mikhaïl Gorbatxov" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Michail Gorbačov – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Michail Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatjov" title="Mikhail Gorbatjov – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatjov" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%84_%DA%AD%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%DA%A4" title="ميخايل ڭورباتشوڤ – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ميخايل ڭورباتشوڤ" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Sergejewitsch_Gorbatschow" title="Michail Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Michail Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihhail_Gorbat%C5%A1ov" title="Mihhail Gorbatšov – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mihhail Gorbatšov" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AE%CE%BB_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%83%CF%8C%CF%86" title="Μιχαήλ Γκορμπατσόφ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μιχαήλ Γκορμπατσόφ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mija%C3%ADl_Gorbachov" title="Mijaíl Gorbachov – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mijaíl Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C4%A5ail_Gorba%C4%89ov" title="Miĥail Gorbaĉov – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Miĥail Gorbaĉov" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatxov" title="Mikhail Gorbatxov – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatxov" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%81" title="میخائیل گورباچف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میخائیل گورباچف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatjov" title="Mikhail Gorbatjov – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatjov" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%C3%AFl_Gorbatchev" title="Mikhaïl Gorbatchev – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mikhaïl Gorbatchev" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micha%C3%AFl_Gorbatsjov" title="Michaïl Gorbatsjov – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Michaïl Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADchail_Gorbaitseov" title="Míchail Gorbaitseov – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Míchail Gorbaitseov" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Mihail Gorbačëv – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mihail Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%88%BE%E5%B7%B4%E5%96%AC%E5%A4%AB" title="戈爾巴喬夫 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="戈爾巴喬夫" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%ED%95%98%EC%9D%BC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A5%B4%EB%B0%94%EC%B4%88%ED%94%84" title="미하일 고르바초프 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미하일 고르바초프" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%AC_%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B9%D5%B8%D5%BE" title="Միխայիլ Գորբաչով – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միխայիլ Գորբաչով" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5" title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचेव – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचेव" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Sergejewi%C4%8D_Gorba%C4%8Dow" title="Michail Sergejewič Gorbačow – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Michail Sergejewič Gorbačow" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Mihail Gorbačov – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mihail Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachyov" title="Mihail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mihail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachov" title="Mikhail Gorbachov – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%8B_%D1%84%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%82" title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергейы фырт – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергейы фырт" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADkha%C3%ADl_Gorbatsjov" title="Míkhaíl Gorbatsjov – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Míkhaíl Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michail Gorbačëv – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Michail Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9C_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%A6%27%D7%95%D7%91" title="מיכאיל גורבצ'וב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיכאיל גורבצ'וב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%C3%AFl_Gorbatchev" title="Mikhaïl Gorbatchev – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Mikhaïl Gorbatchev" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮಿಖಾಯಿಲ್ ಗೊರ್ಬಚೆವ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಿಖಾಯಿಲ್ ಗೊರ್ಬಚೆವ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A9%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="მიხეილ გორბაჩოვი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მიხეილ გორბაჩოვი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2" title="Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachov" title="Mikhail Gorbachov – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AExa%C3%AEl_Gorba%C3%A7ov" title="Mîxaîl Gorbaçov – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mîxaîl Gorbaçov" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачёв – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Михаил Горбачёв" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michael Gorbačëv – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Michael Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihails_Gorba%C4%8Dovs" title="Mihails Gorbačovs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mihails Gorbačovs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Sergejewitsch_Gorbatschow" title="Michail Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Michail Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michailas_Gorba%C4%8Diovas" title="Michailas Gorbačiovas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Michailas Gorbačiovas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjov" title="Michail Gorbatsjov – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Michail Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorbatxov" title="Mihail Gorbatxov – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mihail Gorbatxov" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Sergeevi%C4%8D_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michail Sergeevič Gorbačëv – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Michail Sergeevič Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Szergejevics_Gorbacsov" title="Mihail Szergejevics Gorbacsov – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mihail Szergejevics Gorbacsov" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачов – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Михаил Горбачов" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D" title="മിഖായേൽ ഗോർബച്ചേവ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മിഖായേൽ ഗോർബച്ചേവ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5" title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचेव – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचेव" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A9%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="მიხეილ გორბაჩოვი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მიხეილ გორბაჩოვი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%81" title="ميخائيل جورباتشوف – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ميخائيل جورباتشوف" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%81" title="میخائیل گورباچف – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="میخائیل گورباچف" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2" title="Михайила Горбачев – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Михайила Горбачев" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2" title="Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%BA%E1%80%97%E1%80%AC%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%97%E1%80%BA" title="မစ်ဟေး ဂေါ်ဗာချော့ဗ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မစ်ဟေး ဂေါ်ဗာချော့ဗ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjov" title="Michail Gorbatsjov – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Michail Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD" title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोभ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोभ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD" title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोभ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मिखाइल गोर्बाचोभ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%8F%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%90%E3%83%81%E3%83%A7%E3%83%95" title="ミハイル・ゴルバチョフ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミハイル・ゴルバチョフ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatschow" title="Michail Gorbatschow – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Michail Gorbatschow" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatsjov" title="Mikhail Gorbatsjov – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatsjov" title="Mikhail Gorbatsjov – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatsjov" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%C3%AFl_Gorbachov" title="Mikhaïl Gorbachov – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mikhaïl Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%96%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%B2_%E0%AC%97%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9A%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AD" title="ମିଖାଇଲ ଗୋର୍ବାଚୋଭ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମିଖାଇଲ ଗୋର୍ବାଚୋଭ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixail_Gorbachyov" title="Mixail Gorbachyov – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mixail Gorbachyov" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B5" title="ਮਿਖਾਇਲ ਗੋਰਬਾਚੇਵ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿਖਾਇਲ ਗੋਰਬਾਚੇਵ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%88%D9%81" title="میخائل گورباچوف – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میخائل گورباچوف" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%81" title="میخایل ګورباچف – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="میخایل ګورباچف" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9B_%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%86%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9C" title="មីខាអ៊ីល ហ្គ័របាឆូវ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="មីខាអ៊ីល ហ្គ័របាឆូវ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michail Gorbačëv – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Michail Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michai%C5%82_Gorbaczow" title="Michaił Gorbaczow – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Michaił Gorbaczow" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbatchov" title="Mikhail Gorbatchov – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mikhail Gorbatchov" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C3%A7ov" title="Mihail Gorbaçov – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Mihail Gorbaçov" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorbaciov" title="Mihail Gorbaciov – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mihail Gorbaciov" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachov" title="Mikhail Gorbachov – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachov" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачов – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Михаил Горбачов" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Горбачёв, Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi-ha-yi-e._Ke-pa-ci-hu" title="Mi-ha-yi-e. Ke-pa-ci-hu – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Mi-ha-yi-e. Ke-pa-ci-hu" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D" title="मिखाइल् गोर्बचोफ् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मिखाइल् गोर्बचोफ्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%88%D9%81" title="میخائل گورپاچوف – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="میخائل گورپاچوف" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michail Gorbačëv – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Michail Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C3%A7ovi" title="Mihail Gorbaçovi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mihail Gorbaçovi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbaciov" title="Michail Gorbaciov – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Michail Gorbaciov" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A" title="මිහායිල් ගොර්බචොෆ් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිහායිල් ගොර්බචොෆ්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%88%D9%81" title="ميخائيل گورباچوف – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ميخائيل گورباچوف" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Sergejevi%C4%8D_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Michail Sergejevič Gorbačov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Michail Sergejevič Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Mihail Gorbačov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mihail Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michai%C5%82_Gorbaczow" title="Michaił Gorbaczow – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Michaił Gorbaczow" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AF%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%DB%86%DA%A4" title="میخائیل گۆرباچۆڤ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میخائیل گۆرباچۆڤ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачов – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Михаил Горбачов" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C4%8Dov" title="Mihail Gorbačov – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mihail Gorbačov" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorbat%C5%A1ov" title="Mihail Gorbatšov – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mihail Gorbatšov" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorbatjov" title="Michail Gorbatjov – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Michail Gorbatjov" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8D" title="மிக்கைல் கொர்பச்சோவ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மிக்கைல் கொர்பச்சோவ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачёв – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Михаил Горбачёв" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%96%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D" title="మిఖాయిల్ గోర్బచేవ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మిఖాయిల్ గోర్బచేవ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9F" title="มีฮาอิล กอร์บาชอฟ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มีฮาอิล กอร์บาชอฟ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2" title="Михаил Горбачёв – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Михаил Горбачёв" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Gorba%C3%A7ov" title="Mihail Gorbaçov – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mihail Gorbaçov" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Горбачов Михайло Сергійович – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Горбачов Михайло Сергійович" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%88%D9%81" title="میخائل گورباچوف – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="میخائل گورباچوف" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michail_Gorba%C4%8D%C3%ABv" title="Michail Gorbačëv – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Michail Gorbačëv" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachyov" title="Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorbat%C5%A1ovi_Mihhail" title="Gorbatšovi Mihhail – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Gorbatšovi Mihhail" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixhail_Sergeyevitch_Gorbatchyov" title="Mixhail Sergeyevitch Gorbatchyov – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Mixhail Sergeyevitch Gorbatchyov" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%88%BE%E5%B7%B4%E5%96%AC%E5%A4%AB" title="戈爾巴喬夫 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="戈爾巴喬夫" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mikhail Gorbachev" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%93%88%E4%BC%8A%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%88%88%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E4%B9%94%E5%A4%AB" title="米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9C_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95" title="מיכאיל גארבאטשאוו – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מיכאיל גארבאטשאוו" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mika%E1%BA%B9li_G%E1%BB%8Drbats%E1%BA%B9f" title="Mikaẹli Gọrbatsẹf – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Mikaẹli Gọrbatsẹf" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E5%B7%B4%E5%8D%93%E5%A4%AB" title="戈巴卓夫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="戈巴卓夫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%97chails_Guorba%C4%8Diovs" title="Mėchails Guorbačiovs – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Mėchails Guorbačiovs" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%93%88%E4%BC%8A%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%88%88%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E4%B9%94%E5%A4%AB" title="米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixail_Gorbacov" title="Mixail Gorbacov – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" 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(March 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Mikhail Gorbachev</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><div class="nickname" lang="ru"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>Михаил Горбачёв</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_(crop).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_%28crop%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Gorbachev in 1987</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 11 March 1985 – 24 August 1991<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Premier</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ryzhkov" title="Nikolai Ryzhkov">Nikolai Ryzhkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Pavlov" title="Valentin Pavlov">Valentin Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Silayev" title="Ivan Silayev">Ivan Silayev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Deputy</th><td class="infobox-data">Vladimir Ivashko</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a> (acting)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 15 March 1990 – 25 December 1991<a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of the Soviet Union">Vice President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Yanayev" title="Gennady Yanayev">Gennady Yanayev</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[c]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself as <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Supreme Soviet">Chairman of the Supreme Soviet</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Office abolished</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[d]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 25 May 1989 – 15 March 1990</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Deputy</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lukyanov" title="Anatoly Lukyanov">Anatoly Lukyanov</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-indent: -1.6em; margin-left: 1.6em;">Himself as <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Anatoly Lukyanov</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1 October 1988 – 25 May 1989</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-indent: -1.6em; margin-left: 1.6em;">Himself as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet</div> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin-bottom:-.65em; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; border:1px dashed lightgrey;;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Additional positions </div></th> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Co-Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Social_Democrats" title="Union of Social Democrats">Union of Social Democrats</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 11 March 2000<a href="#cite_note-5">[e]</a> – 15 November 2017</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Party established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Party disestablished</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Acting <a href="/wiki/Second_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Second Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 9 February 1984 – 10 March 1985</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Konstantin Chernenko</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yegor_Ligachyov" title="Yegor Ligachyov">Yegor Ligachyov</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1931-03-02)2 March 1931 <a href="/wiki/Privolnoye,_Stavropol_Krai" title="Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai">Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai</a>, Soviet Union</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">30 August 2022(2022-08-30) (aged 91) Moscow, Russia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Novodevichy_Cemetery" title="Novodevichy Cemetery">Novodevichy Cemetery</a>, Moscow</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">CPSU</a> (1952–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">Independent</a> (1991–2000; from 2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_United_Social_Democratic_Party" title="Russian United Social Democratic Party">ROSDP</a> (2000–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)" title="Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001)">SDPR</a> (2001–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Social_Democrats" title="Union of Social Democrats">USD</a> (2007–2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raisa_Gorbacheva" title="Raisa Gorbacheva">Raisa Titarenko</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1953; died 1999)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">LLB</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> (1990)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mikhail Gorbachev's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gorbachev_Signature.svg/128px-Gorbachev_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gorbachev_Signature.svg/192px-Gorbachev_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gorbachev_Signature.svg/256px-Gorbachev_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="223" data-file-height="50" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gorby.ru/en">Official website</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-embedded listen-noimage listen-center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Mihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga" title="File:Mihail Gorbachev voice.oga">Mikhail Gorbachev's voice</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="37" data-mwtitle="Mihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/Mihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga/Mihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Mihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMihail_Gorbachev_voice.oga&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Recorded November 2012</div></div></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; background-color:#FCF;text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Central institution membership</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1980–1991: Member, <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th</a> Politburo </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1979–1980: Candidate, <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a> Politburo </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1978–1991: Member, <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th</a> Secretariat </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1971–1991: Member, <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th</a> Central Committee </li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; background-color:#FCF;text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Other offices held</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 2001–2004: Chairman, <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)" title="Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001)">Social Democratic Party of Russia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1985–1991: Chairman, <a href="/wiki/Defense_Council_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Council (Soviet Union)">Defense Council</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> 1970–1978: First Secretary, Stavropol Regional Committee </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the Soviet Union">Leader of the Soviet Union</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#D70000;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png/75px-Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png/113px-Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png/150px-Gorbachev_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="894" data-file-height="1160" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#D70000;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> Former <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the CPSU</a> Former <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life_and_education">Early life</a></li></ul> <hr /> Secretariate (1985–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Soviet leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> – <a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a> – <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union#Gorbachev's_anti-alcohol_campaign" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Anti-alcohol campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_on_Cooperatives" title="Law on Cooperatives">Law on Cooperatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Armenian_earthquake" title="1988 Armenian earthquake">Spitak earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1989 Soviet Union legislative election">1989 elections</a></li></ul> <hr /> Presidency (1990–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Head of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_October_Revolution_Parade#Attempted_assassination_of_Gorbachev" title="1990 October Revolution Parade">Assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_reform_in_the_Soviet_Union,_1991" title="Monetary reform in the Soviet Union, 1991">Pavlov reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">New Union Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> <hr /> Foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murmansk_Initiative" title="Murmansk Initiative">Murmansk Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_trips_made_by_Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="List of international trips made by Mikhail Gorbachev">International trips</a></li> <li>Summits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">Geneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Summit_(1987)" title="Washington Summit (1987)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Summit_(1988)" title="Moscow Summit (1988)">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governors_Island_Summit" title="Governors Island Summit">Governors Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeini%27s_letter_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Khomeini's letter to Mikhail Gorbachev">Letter from Khomeini</a></li></ul> <hr /> Post-leadership <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign">1996 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gorbachev_Foundation" title="The Gorbachev Foundation">The Gorbachev Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Cross_International" title="Green Cross International">Green Cross International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Pizza_Hut_commercial" title="Mikhail Gorbachev Pizza Hut commercial">Pizza Hut commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)" title="Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001)">Social Democratic Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_funeral_of_Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Death and funeral of Mikhail Gorbachev">Death and funeral</a></li></ul> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mikhail Gorbachev">Media gallery</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mikhail_Gorbachev_series" title="Template:Mikhail Gorbachev series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mikhail_Gorbachev_series" title="Template talk:Mikhail Gorbachev series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mikhail_Gorbachev_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mikhail Gorbachev series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev<a href="#cite_note-6">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[g]</a> (2 March 1931 – 30 August 2022) was a Soviet and Russian politician and statesman who served as the last <a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the Soviet Union">leader of the Soviet Union</a> from 1985 to <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">the country's dissolution</a> in 1991. He served as <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> from 1985 and additionally as <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> beginning in 1988, as Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a> from 1988 to 1989, Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet" title="Supreme Soviet">Supreme Soviet</a> from 1989 to 1990 and the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">president of the Soviet Union</a> from 1990 to 1991. Ideologically, Gorbachev initially adhered to <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> but moved towards <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> by the early 1990s. He was the only Soviet leader born after the country's foundation. Gorbachev was born in <a href="/wiki/Privolnoye,_Stavropol_Krai" title="Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai">Privolnoye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>, to a poor peasant family of Russian and Ukrainian heritage. Growing up under the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of Joseph Stalin">rule of Joseph Stalin</a> in his youth, he operated <a href="/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combine harvesters</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collective farm</a> before joining the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>, which then governed the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a>. Studying at <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a>, he married fellow student <a href="/wiki/Raisa_Gorbacheva" title="Raisa Gorbacheva">Raisa Titarenko</a> in 1953 and received his law degree in 1955. Moving to <a href="/wiki/Stavropol" title="Stavropol">Stavropol</a>, he worked for the <a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">Komsomol</a> youth organization and, after Stalin's death, became a keen proponent of the <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> reforms of Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>. He was appointed the First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee in 1970, overseeing the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Stavropol_Canal" title="Great Stavropol Canal">Great Stavropol Canal</a>. In 1978, he returned to Moscow to become a Secretary of the party's <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>; he joined the governing <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th term</a>) as a non-voting member in 1979 and a voting member in 1980. Three years after the death of Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>—following the brief tenures of <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a>—in 1985, the Politburo elected Gorbachev as general secretary, the de facto leader. Although committed to preserving the Soviet state and its Marxist–Leninist ideals, Gorbachev believed significant reform was necessary for its survival. He <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">withdrew troops</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a> and embarked on summits with United States president <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> to limit <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and end the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Domestically, his policy of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> ("openness") allowed for enhanced <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">press</a>, while his <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> ("restructuring") sought to decentralize economic decision-making to improve its efficiency. Ultimately, Gorbachev's <a href="/wiki/Democratization_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratization (Soviet Union)">democratization</a> measures and formation of the elected <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> undermined the one-party state. When various <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> countries <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">abandoned Marxist–Leninist governance in 1989</a>, he declined to intervene militarily. Growing <a href="/wiki/Nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist">nationalist</a> sentiment within <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">constituent republics</a> threatened to break up the Soviet Union, leading the hardliners within the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> to launch <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">an unsuccessful coup</a> against Gorbachev in August 1991. In the coup's wake, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_dissolved" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Union dissolved">Soviet Union dissolved</a> against Gorbachev's wishes. After resigning from the presidency, he launched the <a href="/wiki/The_Gorbachev_Foundation" title="The Gorbachev Foundation">Gorbachev Foundation</a>, became a vocal critic of Russian presidents <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>, and campaigned for Russia's social-democratic movement. Gorbachev is considered one of the most significant figures of the second half of the 20th century. The recipient of a wide range of awards, including the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>, in the West he is praised for his role in ending the Cold War, introducing new political and economic freedoms in the Soviet Union, and tolerating both the fall of Marxist–Leninist administrations in eastern and central Europe and the <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>. Gorbachev has a complicated legacy in Russia. While in power, he had net positive approval ratings, being viewed as a reformer and changemaker. However, as the Soviet Union collapsed as a result of these reforms, so did his approval rating; contemporary Russians often deride him for weakening Russia's global influence and precipitating an <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Economic history of the Russian Federation">economic collapse in the country</a>. Mikhail Gorbachev also ran unsuccessfully in 1996 which, despite neoliberal reforms in Russia at the time, showed mass unpopularity with the results of his administration and possibly regret in the collapse of the USSR. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1931–1950:_childhood">1931–1950: childhood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1931–1950: childhood">edit</a>]</div> Gorbachev was born on 2 March 1931 in the village of <a href="/wiki/Privolnoye,_Stavropol_Krai" title="Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai">Privolnoye</a>, then in the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus_Krai" title="North Caucasus Krai">North Caucasus Krai</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198622DoderBranson19901McCauley199815Taubman20177-11">[4]</a> At the time, Privolnoye was divided almost evenly between ethnic Russians and ethnic Ukrainians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201710-12">[5]</a> Gorbachev's paternal family were ethnic <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> and had moved to the region from <a href="/wiki/Voronezh" title="Voronezh">Voronezh</a> several generations before; his maternal family were of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</a> heritage and had migrated from <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv" title="Chernihiv">Chernihiv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199815Taubman201710-13">[6]</a> His parents named him Viktor at birth, but at the insistence of his mother—a devout <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christian</a>—he had a secret <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>, where his grandfather christened him Mikhail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19904McCauley199815Taubman20177-14">[7]</a> His relationship with his father, Sergey Andreyevich Gorbachev, was close; his mother, Maria Panteleyevna Gorbacheva (née Gopkalo), was colder and punitive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20178–9-15">[8]</a> His parents were poor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20179-16">[9]</a> and lived as peasants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198622-17">[10]</a> They had married as teenagers in 1928,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201716-18">[11]</a> and in keeping with local tradition had initially resided in Sergey's father's house, an <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">adobe</a>-walled hut, before a hut of their own could be built.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201716,_17-19">[12]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg/150px-%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg/225px-%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg/300px-%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%91%D0%B2_%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev and his <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Russia" title="Ukrainians in Russia">Ukrainian</a> maternal grandparents, late 1930s</figcaption></figure></div></div> The Soviet Union was a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> governed by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>, and during Gorbachev's childhood was under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. Stalin had initiated a project of <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">mass rural collectivization</a> which, in keeping with his <a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist–Leninist">Marxist–Leninist</a> ideas, he believed would help convert the country into a <a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">socialist society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19901Taubman20177-20">[13]</a> Gorbachev's maternal grandfather joined the Communist Party and helped form the village's first <a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">kolkhoz</a> (collective farm) in 1929, becoming its chair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199815Taubman201712–13-21">[14]</a> This farm was 19 kilometres (12 mi) outside Privolnoye village and when he was three years old, Gorbachev left his parental home and moved into the kolkhoz with his maternal grandparents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201714-22">[15]</a> The country was then experiencing the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">famine of 1930–1933</a>, in which two of Gorbachev's paternal uncles and an aunt died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199816Taubman20177-23">[16]</a> This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>, in which individuals accused of being "<a href="/wiki/Enemies_of_the_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Enemies of the people">enemies of the people</a>", including those sympathetic to rival interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> like <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a>, were arrested and interned in labor camps, if not executed. Both of Gorbachev's grandfathers were arrested (his maternal in 1934 and his paternal in 1937) and spent time in <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> labor camps before being released.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199815–16Taubman20177,_8-24">[17]</a> After his December 1938 release, Gorbachev's maternal grandfather discussed having been tortured by <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">the secret police</a>, an account that influenced the young boy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201718–19-25">[18]</a> Following on from the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> in 1939, in June 1941 the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">German Army</a> invaded the Soviet Union. German forces occupied Privolnoye for four and a half months in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19905–6McCauley199817Taubman20177,_20–22-26">[19]</a> Gorbachev's father had joined the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and fought on the frontlines; he was wrongly declared dead during the conflict and fought in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a> before returning to his family, injured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19905McCauley199817Taubman20178,_26–27-27">[20]</a> After Germany was defeated, Gorbachev's parents had their second son, Aleksandr, in 1947; he and Mikhail would be their only children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201716-18">[11]</a> The village school was closed during much of the war but re-opened in autumn 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201727-28">[21]</a> Gorbachev did not want to return but when he did he excelled academically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20179,_27–28-29">[22]</a> He read voraciously, moving from the Western novels of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mayne_Reid" title="Thomas Mayne Reid">Thomas Mayne Reid</a> to the works of <a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Vissarion Belinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Nikolai Gogol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Mikhail Lermontov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201729–30-30">[23]</a> In 1946, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">Komsomol</a>, the Soviet political youth organization, becoming leader of his local group and then being elected to the Komsomol committee for the district.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20178,_28–29-31">[24]</a> From primary school he moved to the high school in <a href="/wiki/Krasnogvardeyskoye,_Stavropol_Krai" title="Krasnogvardeyskoye, Stavropol Krai">Molotovskoye</a>; he stayed there during the week while walking the 19 km (12 mi) home during weekends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201730-32">[25]</a> As well as being a member of the school's drama society,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19907McCauley199818Taubman201732-33">[26]</a> he organized sporting and social activities and led the school's morning exercise class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201732-34">[27]</a> Over the course of five consecutive summers from 1946 onward he returned home to assist his father in operating a combine harvester, during which they sometimes worked 20-hour days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199818Taubman201734-35">[28]</a> In 1948, they harvested over 8,000 <a href="/wiki/Quintal" title="Quintal">centners</a> of grain, a feat for which Sergey was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Lenin" title="Order of Lenin">Order of Lenin</a> and his son the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Banner_of_Labour" title="Order of the Red Banner of Labour">Order of the Red Banner of Labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19906McCauley199818Taubman20178,_34-36">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950–1955:_university">1950–1955: university</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1950–1955: university">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> I would consider it a high honour to be a member of the highly advanced, genuinely revolutionary Communist Party of Bolsheviks. I promise to be faithful to the great cause of Lenin and Stalin, to devote my entire life to the party's struggle for Communism. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Gorbachev's letter requesting membership of the Communist Party, 1950<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201742-37">[30]</a></cite> </div> In June 1950, Gorbachev became a candidate member of the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201742-37">[30]</a> He also applied to study at the law school of <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> (MSU), then the most prestigious university in the country. They accepted him without asking for an exam, likely because of his worker-peasant origins and his possession of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19906,_8McCauley199818Taubman201740–41-38">[31]</a> His choice of law was unusual; it was not a well-regarded subject in Soviet society at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198635-39">[32]</a> At age 19, he traveled by train to Moscow, the first time he had left his home region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201743-40">[33]</a> In Moscow, Gorbachev resided with fellow MSU students at a dormitory in the <a href="/wiki/Sokolniki_District" title="Sokolniki District">Sokolniki District</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201750-41">[34]</a> He and other rural students felt at odds with their Muscovite counterparts, but he soon came to fit in.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201744-42">[35]</a> Fellow students recall him working especially hard, often late into the night.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199014Taubman201748-43">[36]</a> He gained a reputation as a mediator during disputes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201753-44">[37]</a> and was also known for being outspoken in class, although he would reveal some of his views only privately; for instance, he confided in some students his opposition to the Soviet jurisprudential norm that a confession proved guilt, noting that confessions could have been forced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201752-45">[38]</a> During his studies, an <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> campaign spread through the Soviet Union, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a>; Gorbachev publicly defended Volodya Liberman, a Jewish student who was accused of disloyalty to the country by one of his fellows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199819Taubman201745,_52-46">[39]</a> At MSU, Gorbachev became the Komsomol head of his entering class, and then Komsomol's deputy secretary for agitation and propaganda at the law school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199010McCauley199819Taubman201746-47">[40]</a> One of his first Komsomol assignments in Moscow was to monitor the election polling in <a href="/wiki/Presnensky_District" title="Presnensky District">Presnensky District</a> to ensure the government's desire for near-total turnout; Gorbachev found that most of those who voted did so "out of fear".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201746-48">[41]</a> In 1952, he was appointed a full member of the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199819Taubman201746-49">[42]</a> As a party and Komsomol member, he was tasked with monitoring fellow students for potential subversion; some of his fellow students said that he did so only minimally and that they trusted him to keep confidential information secret from the authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201747-50">[43]</a> Gorbachev became close friends with <a href="/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_Mlyn%C3%A1%C5%99" title="Zdeněk Mlynář">Zdeněk Mlynář</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Demographics of Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovak</a> student who later became a primary ideologist of the 1968 <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a>. Mlynář recalled that the duo remained committed Marxist–Leninists despite their growing concerns about the <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198636–37DoderBranson199011McCauley199819Taubman201745,_53,_56–57-51">[44]</a> After Stalin died in March 1953, Gorbachev and Mlynář joined the crowds massing to see Stalin's body lying in state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820Taubman201757–58-52">[45]</a> At MSU, Gorbachev met <a href="/wiki/Raisa_Gorbacheva" title="Raisa Gorbacheva">Raisa Titarenko</a>, who was studying in the university's philosophy department.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199015Taubman201759,_63-53">[46]</a> She was engaged to another man, but after that engagement fell apart, she began a relationship with Gorbachev;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201759–63-54">[47]</a> together they went to bookstores, museums, and art exhibits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201766-55">[48]</a> In early 1953, he took an internship at the procurator's office in Molotovskoye district, but he was angered by the incompetence and arrogance of those working there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201772–73-56">[49]</a> That summer, he returned to Privolnoye to work with his father on the harvest; the money earned allowed him to pay for a wedding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820Taubman201768-57">[50]</a> On 25 September 1953 he and Raisa registered their marriage at Sokolniki Registry Office<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820Taubman201768-57">[50]</a> and in October moved in together at the <a href="/wiki/Sparrow_Hills" title="Sparrow Hills">Lenin Hills</a> dormitory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201770-58">[51]</a> Raisa discovered that she was pregnant and although the couple wanted to keep the child she fell ill and required a life-saving abortion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201770–71-59">[52]</a> In June 1955, Gorbachev graduated with a distinction;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198642McCauley199820-60">[53]</a> his final paper had been on the advantages of "socialist democracy" (the Soviet political system) over "bourgeois democracy" (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820-61">[54]</a> He was subsequently assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">Soviet Procurator</a>'s office, which was then focusing on the rehabilitation of the innocent victims of Stalin's purges, but found that they had no work for him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820–21Taubman201773–74-62">[55]</a> He was then offered a place on an MSU graduate course specializing in kolkhoz law, but declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820Taubman201774-63">[56]</a> He had wanted to remain in Moscow, where Raisa was enrolled in a PhD program, but instead gained employment in <a href="/wiki/Stavropol" title="Stavropol">Stavropol</a>; Raisa abandoned her studies to join him there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199820–21Taubman201775-64">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_CPSU_career">Early CPSU career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early CPSU career">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1955–1969:_Stavropol_Komsomol">1955–1969: Stavropol Komsomol</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1955–1969: Stavropol Komsomol">edit</a>]</div> In August 1955, Gorbachev started work at the Stavropol regional procurator's office, but disliked the job and used his contacts to get a transfer to work for Komsomol,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199821Taubman201777-65">[58]</a> becoming deputy director of Komsomol's agitation and propaganda department for that region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199031Taubman201778-66">[59]</a> In this position, he visited villages in the area and tried to improve the lives of their inhabitants; he established a discussion circle in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gorkaya_Balka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gorkaya Balka (page does not exist)">Gorkaya Balka</a> village to help its peasant residents gain social contacts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201795-67">[60]</a> Mikhail Gorbachev and his wife Raisa initially rented a small room in Stavropol,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998210Taubman201781–83-68">[61]</a> taking daily evening walks around the city and on weekends hiking in the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201781-69">[62]</a> In January 1957, Raisa gave birth to a daughter, Irina,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199019McCauley199823Taubman201786-70">[63]</a> and in 1958 they moved into two rooms in a <a href="/wiki/Communal_apartment" title="Communal apartment">communal apartment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199823Taubman201789-71">[64]</a> In 1961, Gorbachev pursued a second degree, in agricultural production; he took a <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_course" class="mw-redirect" title="Correspondence course">correspondence course</a> from the local Stavropol Agricultural Institute, receiving his diploma in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198656,_62DoderBranson199019McCauley199829Taubman2017115–116-72">[65]</a> His wife had also pursued a second degree, attaining a PhD in sociology in 1967 from the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_Pedagogical_University" title="Moscow State Pedagogical University">Moscow State Pedagogical University</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198663DoderBranson199019McCauley199829Taubman2017111–113-73">[66]</a> while in Stavropol she too joined the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201786-74">[67]</a> Stalin was ultimately succeeded as Soviet leader by <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, who denounced Stalin and his <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a> in a <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">speech given in February 1956</a>, after which he launched a <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> process throughout Soviet society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201790–91-75">[68]</a> Later biographer <a href="/wiki/William_Taubman" title="William Taubman">William Taubman</a> suggested that Gorbachev "embodied" the "reformist spirit" of the Khrushchev era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201790-76">[69]</a> Gorbachev was among those who saw themselves as "genuine Marxists" or "genuine Leninists" in contrast to what they regarded as the perversions of Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201791-77">[70]</a> He helped spread Khrushchev's anti-Stalinist message in Stavropol, but encountered many who continued to regard Stalin as a hero or who praised the Stalinist purges as just.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199822Taubman201796–98-78">[71]</a> Gorbachev rose steadily through the ranks of the local administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201778-79">[72]</a> The authorities regarded him as politically reliable,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201780-80">[73]</a> and he would flatter his superiors, for instance gaining favor with prominent local politician <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kulakov" title="Fyodor Kulakov">Fyodor Kulakov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198674DoderBranson199032McCauley199825Taubman2017105–106-81">[74]</a> With an ability to outmanoeuvre rivals, some colleagues resented his success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017103,_105-82">[75]</a> In September 1956, he was promoted First Secretary of the Stavropol city's Komsomol, placing him in charge of it;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198647DoderBranson199031McCauley199823Taubman201798-83">[76]</a> in April 1958 he was made deputy head of the Komsomol for the entire region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199823Taubman2017100-84">[77]</a> At this point he was given better accommodation: a two-room flat with its own private kitchen, toilet, and bathroom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201789-85">[78]</a> In Stavropol, he formed a discussion club for youths,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199823Taubman201799-86">[79]</a> and helped mobilize local young people to take part in Khrushchev's agricultural and development campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017100-87">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307,_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen,_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-1126-307%2C_LPG_Gol%C3%9Fen%2C_Besuch_durch_KPdSU_Delegation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev on a visit to <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> in 1966</figcaption></figure> In March 1961, Gorbachev became First Secretary of the regional Komsomol,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198649McCauley199823-88">[81]</a> in which position he went out of his way to appoint women as city and district leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017102-89">[82]</a> In 1961, Gorbachev played host to the Italian delegation for the <a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="World Youth Festival">World Youth Festival</a> in Moscow;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017149-90">[83]</a> that October, he also attended the <a href="/wiki/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198650DoderBranson199024McCauley199824-91">[84]</a> In January 1963, Gorbachev was promoted to personnel chief for the regional party's agricultural committee,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017107-92">[85]</a> and in September 1966 became First Secretary of the Stavropol City Party Organization ("Gorkom").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198661McCauley199826-93">[86]</a> By 1968 he was increasingly frustrated with his job—in large part because Khrushchev's reforms were stalling or being reversed—and he contemplated leaving politics to work in academia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017116-94">[87]</a> However, in August 1968, he was named Second Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, making him the deputy of First Secretary Leonid Yefremov and the second most senior figure in Stavropol Krai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198663DoderBranson199032McCauley199828Taubman2017119-95">[88]</a> In 1969, he was elected as a deputy to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a> and made a member of its Standing Commission for the Protection of the Environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198664-96">[89]</a> Cleared for travel to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries, in 1966 he was part of a delegation which visited <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, and in 1969 and 1974 visited <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199830-97">[90]</a> In August 1968 <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">the Soviet Union led an invasion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> to put an end to the Prague Spring, a period of political liberalization in the Marxist–Leninist country. Although Gorbachev later stated that he had had private concerns about the invasion, he publicly supported it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017123–124-98">[91]</a> In September 1969 he was part of a Soviet delegation sent to Czechoslovakia, where he found the Czechoslovak people largely unwelcoming to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198664–65McCauley199830Taubman2017124-99">[92]</a> That year, the Soviet authorities ordered him to punish Fagim B. Sadygov, a philosophy professor of the Stavropol agricultural institute whose ideas were regarded as critical of Soviet agricultural policy; Gorbachev ensured that Sadykov was fired from teaching but ignored calls for him to face tougher punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199828–29Taubman2017125-100">[93]</a> Gorbachev later related that he was "deeply affected" by the incident; "my conscience tormented me" for overseeing Sadykov's persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017125–126-101">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970–1977:_heading_the_Stavropol_region">1970–1977: heading the Stavropol region</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1970–1977: heading the Stavropol region">edit</a>]</div> In April 1970, Yefremov was promoted to a higher position in Moscow and Gorbachev succeeded him as the First Secretary of the Stavropol kraikom. This granted Gorbachev significant power over the Stavropol region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198665DoderBranson199032McCauley199829Taubman2017120-102">[95]</a> He had been personally vetted for the position by senior <a href="/wiki/Kremlin" title="Kremlin">Kremlin</a> leaders and was informed of their decision by the Soviet leader, <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017121–122-103">[96]</a> Aged 39, he was considerably younger than his predecessors in the position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017121-104">[97]</a> As head of the Stavropol region, he automatically became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th term</a>) in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198673Taubman2017121-105">[98]</a> According to biographer <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Medvedev" title="Zhores Medvedev">Zhores Medvedev</a>, Gorbachev "had now joined the Party's super-elite".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198665-106">[99]</a> As regional leader, Gorbachev initially attributed economic and other failures to "the inefficiency and incompetence of cadres, flaws in management structure or gaps in legislation", but eventually concluded that they were caused by an excessive centralization of decision making in Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017127-107">[100]</a> He began reading translations of restricted texts by Western Marxist authors such as <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Aragon" title="Louis Aragon">Louis Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Garaudy" title="Roger Garaudy">Roger Garaudy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Boffa" title="Giuseppe Boffa">Giuseppe Boffa</a>, and came under their influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017127-107">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG/220px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG/330px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG/440px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Stavropol_Canal" title="Great Stavropol Canal">Great Stavropol Canal</a> constructed under Gorbachev's regional leadership</figcaption></figure> Gorbachev's main task as regional leader was to raise agricultural production levels, a task hampered by severe droughts in 1975 and 1976.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017129-108">[101]</a> He oversaw the expansion of irrigation systems through construction of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Stavropol_Canal" title="Great Stavropol Canal">Great Stavropol Canal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199831–32Taubman2017130-109">[102]</a> For overseeing a record grain harvest in <a href="/wiki/Ipatovsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipatovsky">Ipatovsky</a> district, in March 1972 he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_October_Revolution" title="Order of the October Revolution">Order of the October Revolution</a> by Brezhnev in a Moscow ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199833Taubman2017131–132-110">[103]</a> Gorbachev always sought to maintain Brezhnev's trust;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017123-111">[104]</a> as regional leader, he repeatedly praised Brezhnev in his speeches, for instance referring to him as "the outstanding statesman of our time".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017128–129-112">[105]</a> Gorbachev and his wife holidayed in Moscow, Leningrad, Uzbekistan, and resorts in the North Caucasus;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017157-113">[106]</a> he holidayed with the head of the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, who was favorable towards him and who became an important patron.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199035–36Taubman2017138–139-114">[107]</a> Gorbachev also developed good relationships with senior figures including the Soviet prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199835Taubman2017145–146-115">[108]</a> and the longstanding senior party member <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986108,_113McCauley199835-116">[109]</a> The government considered Gorbachev sufficiently reliable that he was sent as part of Soviet delegations to Western Europe; he made five trips there between 1970 and 1977.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198678Taubman2017149-117">[110]</a> In September 1971 he was part of a delegation that traveled to Italy, where they met with representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Italian Communist Party</a>; Gorbachev loved Italian culture but was struck by the poverty and inequality he saw in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017149–150-118">[111]</a> In 1972, he visited Belgium and the Netherlands, and in 1973 <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199830Taubman2017150–151-119">[112]</a> Gorbachev and his wife visited France in 1976 and 1977, on the latter occasion touring the country with a guide from the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017151–152-120">[113]</a> He was surprised by how openly West Europeans offered their opinions and criticized their political leaders, something absent from the Soviet Union, where most people did not feel safe speaking so openly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017152-121">[114]</a> He later related that for him and his wife, these visits "shook our a priori belief in the superiority of socialist over bourgeois democracy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017153-122">[115]</a> Gorbachev had remained close to his parents; after his father became terminally ill in 1974, Gorbachev traveled to be with him in Privolnoe shortly before his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017153–154-123">[116]</a> His daughter, Irina, married fellow student Anatoly Virgansky in April 1978.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017156-124">[117]</a> In 1977, the Supreme Soviet appointed Gorbachev to chair the Standing Commission on Youth Affairs due to his experience with mobilizing young people in Komsomol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198677-125">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_CPSU">Secretary of the Central Committee of CPSU</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Secretary of the Central Committee of CPSU">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev was skeptical of the deployment of Soviet troops in Afghanistan (pictured here in 1986)</figcaption></figure> In November 1978, Gorbachev was appointed a Secretary of the Central Committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198692McCauley199836Taubman2017157-126">[119]</a> His appointment had been approved unanimously by the Central Committee's members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017161-127">[120]</a> To fill this position, Gorbachev and his wife moved to Moscow, where they were initially given an old <a href="/wiki/Dacha" title="Dacha">dacha</a> outside the city. They then moved to another, at <a href="/wiki/Sosnovka" title="Sosnovka">Sosnovka</a>, before finally being allocated a newly built brick house.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017164–175-128">[121]</a> He was also given an apartment inside the city, but gave that to his daughter and son-in-law; Irina had begun work at Moscow's <a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Research_Medical_University" title="Russian National Research Medical University">Second Medical Institute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017165,_166-129">[122]</a> As part of the Moscow political elite, Gorbachev and his wife now had access to better medical care and to specialized shops; they were also given cooks, servants, bodyguards, and secretaries, although many of these were spies for the KGB.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017165-130">[123]</a> In his new position, Gorbachev often worked twelve to sixteen hour days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017165-130">[123]</a> He and his wife socialized little, but liked to visit Moscow's theaters and museums.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199840Taubman2017166-131">[124]</a> In 1978, Gorbachev was appointed to the Central Committee's Secretariat for Agriculture (<a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th term</a>), replacing his old patron Kulakov, who had died of a heart attack.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198695–96DoderBranson199038–39-132">[125]</a> Gorbachev concentrated his attentions on agriculture: the harvests of 1979, 1980, and 1981 were all poor, due largely to weather conditions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev19867,_102–103,_106–107DoderBranson199040Galeotti199732Taubman2017175–177-133">[126]</a> and the country had to import increasing quantities of grain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986107DoderBranson199040-134">[127]</a> He had growing concerns about the country's agricultural management system, coming to regard it as overly centralized and requiring more bottom-up decision making;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017177–78-135">[128]</a> he raised these points at his first speech at a Central Committee Plenum, given in July 1978.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199834-136">[129]</a> He began to have concerns about other policies too. In December 1979, the Soviets sent the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">armed forces</a> into <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">neighbouring Afghanistan to support</a> its <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Soviet-aligned government</a> against <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">Islamist insurgents</a>; Gorbachev privately thought it a mistake.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017173-137">[130]</a> At times he openly supported the government position; in October 1980 he for instance endorsed Soviet calls for Poland's Marxist–Leninist government to crack down on <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">growing internal dissent in that country</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017173-137">[130]</a> That same month, he was promoted from a candidate member to a full member of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th term</a>), the highest decision-making authority in the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986107-138">[131]</a> At the time, he was the Politburo's youngest member.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986107-138">[131]</a> After Brezhnev's death in November 1982, Andropov succeeded him as <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party</a>, the de facto leader in the Soviet Union. Gorbachev was enthusiastic about the appointment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986118,_121–122DoderBranson199043McCauley199841Taubman2017179–180-139">[132]</a> However, although Gorbachev hoped that Andropov would introduce liberalizing reforms, the latter carried out only personnel shifts rather than structural change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017180-140">[133]</a> Gorbachev became Andropov's closest ally in the Politburo;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123-141">[134]</a> with Andropov's encouragement, Gorbachev sometimes chaired Politburo meetings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017181,_191-142">[135]</a> Andropov encouraged Gorbachev to expand into policy areas other than agriculture, preparing him for future higher office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleotti199732Taubman2017181-143">[136]</a> In April 1983, in a sign of growing ascendancy, Gorbachev delivered the annual speech marking the birthday of the Soviet founder <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123Galeotti199732Taubman2017181-144">[137]</a> this required him re-reading many of Lenin's later writings, in which the latter had called for reform in the context of the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> of the 1920s, and encouraged Gorbachev's own conviction that reform was needed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017182-145">[138]</a> In May 1983, Gorbachev was sent to Canada, where he met Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Trudeau" title="Pierre Trudeau">Pierre Trudeau</a> and spoke to the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Canadian Parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986124DoderBranson199046–47McCauley199831Taubman2017182–185-146">[139]</a> There, he met and befriended the Soviet ambassador, <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Yakovlev" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Yakovlev">Aleksandr Yakovlev</a>, who later became a key political ally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199047McCauley199831Taubman2017182-147">[140]</a> In February 1984, Andropov died; on his deathbed he indicated his desire that Gorbachev succeed him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199050Taubman2017190–191-148">[141]</a> Many in the Central Committee nevertheless thought the 53-year-old Gorbachev was too young and inexperienced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986138DoderBranson199056-149">[142]</a> Instead, <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a>—a longstanding Brezhnev ally—was appointed general secretary, but he too was in very poor health.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986138–139DoderBranson199051–52McCauley199843Taubman2017192-150">[143]</a> Chernenko was often too sick to chair Politburo meetings, with Gorbachev stepping in last minute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199057McCauley199843Taubman2017193-151">[144]</a> Gorbachev continued to cultivate allies both in the Kremlin and beyond,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017193-152">[145]</a> and also gave the main speech at a conference on Soviet ideology, where he angered party hardliners by implying that the country required reform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986158–159Taubman2017193–195-153">[146]</a> In April 1984, Gorbachev was appointed chair of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Soviet legislature, a largely honorific position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986142Taubman2017196-154">[147]</a> In June he traveled to Italy as a Soviet representative for the funeral of Italian Communist Party leader <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Berlinguer" title="Enrico Berlinguer">Enrico Berlinguer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199844Taubman2017195-155">[148]</a> and in September to <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, Bulgaria to attend celebrations of the fortieth anniversary of its liberation from the Nazis by the Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986155-156">[149]</a> In December, he visited Britain at the request of its prime minister <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>; she was aware that he was a potential reformer and wanted to meet him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986159DoderBranson199059McCauley199844Taubman2017196-157">[150]</a> At the end of the visit, Thatcher said: "I like Mr. Gorbachev. We can do business together".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986159McCauley199844Taubman2017201-158">[151]</a> He felt that the visit helped to erode <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a>'s dominance of Soviet foreign policy while at the same time sending a signal to the United States government that he wanted to improve <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93US_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet–US relations">Soviet–US relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017197-159">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)">Leader of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Leader of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg/330px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg/440px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_1985_Geneva_Summit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev in 1985 at a summit in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Switzerland</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 4,800 words. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Talk:Mikhail Gorbachev">talk page</a>. (May 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> On 10 March 1985, Chernenko died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev19864DoderBranson199062McCauley199845Taubman2017204-160">[153]</a> Gromyko proposed Gorbachev as the next general secretary; as a longstanding party member, Gromyko's recommendation carried great weight among the Central Committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199063–64McCauley199845-161">[154]</a> Gorbachev expected much opposition to his nomination as general secretary, but ultimately the rest of the Politburo supported him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017205–206-162">[155]</a> Shortly after Chernenko's death, the Politburo unanimously elected Gorbachev as his successor; they wanted him rather than another elderly leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198616McCauley199846Taubman2017211–212-163">[156]</a> He thus became the eighth leader of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198622-17">[10]</a> Few in the government imagined that he would be as radical a reformer as he proved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199069-164">[157]</a> Although he was not a well-known figure to the Soviet public, there was widespread relief that the new leader was not elderly and ailing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199065-165">[158]</a> Gorbachev's first public appearance as leader was at Chernenko's <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a> funeral, held on 14 March.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199066-166">[159]</a> Two months after being elected, he left Moscow for the first time, traveling to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a>, where he spoke to assembled crowds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199087McCauley199859Taubman2017213-167">[160]</a> In June he traveled to Ukraine, in July to Belarus, and in September to <a href="/wiki/Tyumen_Oblast" title="Tyumen Oblast">Tyumen Oblast</a>, urging party members in these areas to take more responsibility for fixing local problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986194–195DoderBranson1990101McCauley199860Taubman2017237-168">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1985–1986:_early_years">1985–1986: early years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1985–1986: early years">edit</a>]</div> Gorbachev's leadership style differed from that of his predecessors. He would stop to talk to civilians on the street, forbade the display of his portrait at the 1985 Red Square holiday celebrations, and encouraged frank and open discussions at Politburo meetings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017228-169">[162]</a> To the West, Gorbachev was seen as a more moderate and less threatening Soviet leader; some Western commentators however believed this an act to lull Western governments into a false sense of security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199076-170">[163]</a> His wife was his closest adviser, and took on the unofficial role of a "<a href="/wiki/First_lady" title="First lady">first lady</a>" by appearing with him on foreign trips; her public visibility was a breach of standard practice and generated resentment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199020Taubman2017224–226-171">[164]</a> His other close aides were <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Shakhnazarov" title="Georgy Shakhnazarov">Georgy Shakhnazarov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Chernyaev" title="Anatoly Chernyaev">Anatoly Chernyaev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199854Taubman2017223-172">[165]</a> Gorbachev was aware that the Politburo could remove him from office, and that he could not pursue more radical reform without a majority of supporters in the Politburo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199852,_55-173">[166]</a> He sought to remove several older members from the Politburo, encouraging <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Grigory Romanov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Nikolai Tikhonov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Viktor Grishin</a> into retirement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990100Taubman2017219–220-174">[167]</a> He promoted Gromyko to head of state, a largely ceremonial role with little influence, and moved his own ally, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a>, to Gromyko's former post in charge of foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986177DoderBranson199095McCauley199852Taubman2017220-175">[168]</a> Other allies whom he saw promoted were Yakovlev, <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lukyanov" title="Anatoly Lukyanov">Anatoly Lukyanov</a>, and Vadim Medvedev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199097Taubman2017221-176">[169]</a> Another of those promoted by Gorbachev was <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>, who was made a Secretary of the Central Committee (<a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th term</a>) in July 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986177McCauley199853Taubman2017222-177">[170]</a> Most of these appointees were from a new generation of well-educated officials who had been frustrated during the Brezhnev era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199094-178">[171]</a> In his first year, 14 of the 23 heads of department in the Secretariat were replaced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199854-179">[172]</a> Doing so, Gorbachev secured dominance in the Politburo within a year, faster than either Stalin, Khrushchev, or Brezhnev had achieved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199852-180">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Domestic_policies">Domestic policies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Domestic policies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418,_Berlin,_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0416-418%2C_Berlin%2C_Michail_Gorbatschow_an_der_Mauer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a> in 1986 during a visit to East Germany</figcaption></figure> Gorbachev recurrently employed the term perestroika, first used publicly in March 1984.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199850-181">[174]</a> He saw perestroika as encompassing a complex series of reforms to restructure society and the economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199855-182">[175]</a> He was concerned by the country's low productivity, poor work ethic, and inferior quality goods;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199081-183">[176]</a> like several economists, he feared this would lead to the country becoming a second-rate power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199082-184">[177]</a> The first stage of Gorbachev's perestroika was <a href="/wiki/Uskoreniye" class="mw-redirect" title="Uskoreniye">uskoreniye</a> ("acceleration"), a term he used regularly in the first two years of his leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199851,_55Taubman2017235-185">[178]</a> The Soviet Union was behind the United States in many areas of production,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199850–51-186">[179]</a> but Gorbachev claimed that it would accelerate industrial output to match that of the US by 2000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017236-187">[180]</a> The Five Year Plan of 1985–1990 was targeted to expand machine building by 50 to 100%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199856-188">[181]</a> To boost agricultural productivity, he merged five ministries and a state committee into a single entity, Agroprom, although by late 1986 he acknowledged this merger as a failure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017236–237-189">[182]</a> The purpose of reform was to prop up the <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">centrally planned economy</a>—not to transition to <a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">market socialism</a>. Speaking in late summer 1985 to the secretaries for economic affairs of the central committees of the East European communist parties, Gorbachev said: "Many of you see the solution to your problems in resorting to market mechanisms in place of direct planning. Some of you look at the market as a lifesaver for your economies. But, comrades, you should not think about lifesavers but about the ship, and the ship is socialism."<a href="#cite_note-190">[183]</a> Gorbachev's perestroika also<a href="#cite_note-UaWarExplained.com-2022-191">[184]</a> entailed attempts to move away from technocratic management of the economy by increasingly involving the labor force in industrial production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199856,_57-192">[185]</a> He was of the view that once freed from the strong control of central planners, state-owned enterprises would act as <a href="/wiki/Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">market agents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199857-193">[186]</a> Gorbachev and other Soviet leaders did not anticipate opposition to the perestroika reforms; according to their interpretation of Marxism, they believed that in a socialist society like the Soviet Union there would not be "antagonistic contradictions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199861–62-194">[187]</a> However, there would come to be a public perception in the country that many bureaucrats were paying lip service to the reforms while trying to undermine them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990167McCauley199858-195">[188]</a> He also initiated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Gospriyomka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospriyomka">gospriyomka</a> (state acceptance of production) during his time as leader,<a href="#cite_note-196">[189]</a> which represented quality control.<a href="#cite_note-197">[190]</a> In April 1986, he introduced an <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarian</a> reform which linked salaries to output and allowed collective farms to sell 30% of their produce directly to shops or co-operatives rather than giving it all to the state for distribution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990166-198">[191]</a> In a September 1986 speech, he embraced the idea of reintroducing <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economics</a> to the country alongside limited private enterprise, citing Lenin's New Economic Policy as a precedent; he nevertheless stressed that he did not regard this as a return to <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990166-198">[191]</a> In the Soviet Union, alcohol consumption had risen steadily between 1950 and 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarschys199316BhattacharyaGathmannMiller2013236-199">[192]</a> By the 1980s, drunkenness was a major social problem and Andropov had planned a major campaign to limit alcohol consumption, but died before the plan was put into action. Encouraged by his wife, Gorbachev—who believed the campaign would improve health and work efficiency—oversaw its implementation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017232,_234-200">[193]</a> Alcohol production was reduced by around 40%, the legal drinking age rose from 18 to 21, alcohol prices were increased, stores were banned from selling it before 2 pm, and tougher penalties were introduced for workplace or public drunkenness and home production of alcohol. The program also recommended that drinking scenes be censored from old movies. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986187–188DoderBranson199086BhattacharyaGathmannMiller2013236-201">[194]</a> The All-Union Voluntary Society for the Struggle for Temperance was formed to promote sobriety; it had over 14 million members within three years.Anti-alcohol propaganda was distributed, mostly by way of <a href="/wiki/Billboards" class="mw-redirect" title="Billboards">billboards</a> extolling the virtues of a sober workforce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarschys199319BhattacharyaGathmannMiller2013236-202">[195]</a> As a result, crime rates fell and life expectancy grew slightly between 1986 and 1987.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017232-203">[196]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Moonshine" title="Moonshine">bootleg liquor</a> production rose considerably,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986188Tarschys199320-204">[197]</a> and the reform imposed large costs on the Soviet economy, namely from decreasing <a href="/wiki/Tax_collector" title="Tax collector">tax collections</a> from declining alcohol sales, resulting in losses of up to US$100 billion between 1985 and 1990. Another serious problem was the strain on the Soviet healthcare system, as uneducated Soviet citizens had resorted to drinking rubbing alcohol, nail polish remover or cologne as dangerous substitutes, resulting in a rise in poisoning cases. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199862Taubman2017233-205">[198]</a> Gorbachev later considered the campaign to have been an error,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017233-206">[199]</a> and it was terminated in October 1988.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarschys199322BhattacharyaGathmannMiller2013238-207">[200]</a> After it ended, it took several years for production to return to previous levels, after which alcohol consumption soared in Russia between 1990 and 1993.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharyaGathmannMiller2013233,_238-208">[201]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_(Vilnius,_1990).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg/220px-Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg/330px-Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg/440px-Gorbachev%27s_visit_to_Lithuania_%28Vilnius%2C_1990%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6176" data-file-height="4045" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev's visit to <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> in 1990 in an attempt to stop <a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Lithuania's declaration of independence</a>, which passed two months later</figcaption></figure> In the second year of his leadership, Gorbachev began speaking of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a>, or "openness".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199075,_140,_142-209">[202]</a> According to Doder and Branson, this meant "greater openness and candour in government affairs and for an interplay of different and sometimes conflicting views in political debates, in the press, and in Soviet culture".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990142–143-210">[203]</a> Encouraging reformers into prominent media positions, he brought in <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Zalygin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Zalygin">Sergei Zalygin</a> as head of <a href="/wiki/Novy_Mir" title="Novy Mir">Novy Mir</a> magazine and <a href="/wiki/Yegor_Yakovlev" title="Yegor Yakovlev">Yegor Yakovlev</a> as editor-in-chief of <a href="/wiki/Moscow_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow News">Moscow News</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199093-211">[204]</a> He made the historian <a href="/wiki/Yury_Afanasyev" title="Yury Afanasyev">Yury Afanasyev</a> dean of the State Historical Archive Faculty, from where Afansiev could press for the opening of secret archives and the reassessment of Soviet history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199094-178">[171]</a> Prominent dissidents like <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a> were freed from internal exile or prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990172Taubman2017250–251-212">[205]</a> Gorbachev saw glasnost as a necessary measure to ensure perestroika by alerting the Soviet populace to the nature of the country's problems in the hope that they would support his efforts to fix them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990143-213">[206]</a> Particularly popular among the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, who became key Gorbachev supporters,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990148-214">[207]</a> glasnost boosted his domestic popularity but alarmed many Communist Party hardliners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017251-215">[208]</a> For many Soviet citizens, this newfound level of freedom of speech and press—and its accompanying revelations about the country's past—was uncomfortable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990146–147-216">[209]</a> Some in the party thought Gorbachev was not going far enough in his reforms; a prominent liberal critic was Yeltsin. He had risen rapidly since 1985, attaining the role of party secretary in Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017322-217">[210]</a> Like many members of the government, Gorbachev was skeptical of Yeltsin, believing that he engaged in too much self-promotion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017324-218">[211]</a> Yeltsin was also critical of Gorbachev, regarding him as patronizing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017322-217">[210]</a> In early 1986, Yeltsin began sniping at Gorbachev in Politburo meetings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017324-218">[211]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Twenty-Seventh Party Congress</a> in February, Yeltsin called for more far-reaching reforms than Gorbachev was initiating and criticized the party leadership, although he did not cite Gorbachev by name, claiming that a new cult of personality was forming. Gorbachev then opened the floor to responses, after which attendees publicly criticized Yeltsin for several hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199871Taubman2017323,_326–328-219">[212]</a> After this, Gorbachev also criticized Yeltsin, claiming that he cared only for himself and was "politically illiterate".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017329-220">[213]</a> Yeltsin then resigned both as Moscow party secretary and as a member of the Politburo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017329-220">[213]</a> From this point, tensions between the two men developed into a mutual hatred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017330-221">[214]</a> In April 1986 the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990129Taubman2017240-222">[215]</a> In the immediate aftermath, officials fed Gorbachev incorrect information to downplay the incident. As the scale of the disaster became apparent, 336,000 people were evacuated from the area around Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017240-223">[216]</a> Taubman noted that the disaster marked "a turning point for Gorbachev and the Soviet regime".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017241-224">[217]</a> Several days after it occurred, he gave a televised report to the nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990134-225">[218]</a> He cited the disaster as evidence for what he regarded as widespread problems in Soviet society, such as shoddy workmanship and workplace inertia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990137-226">[219]</a> Gorbachev later described the incident as one which made him appreciate the scale of incompetence and cover-ups in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017241-224">[217]</a> From April to the end of the year, Gorbachev became increasingly open in his criticism of the Soviet system, including food production, state bureaucracy, the military draft, and the large size of the prison population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017242–243-227">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg/220px-Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg/330px-Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg/440px-Gorbachev_and_Reagan_1986-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>US president <a href="/wiki/Reagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan">Reagan</a> and Gorbachev meeting in Iceland, 1986</figcaption></figure> In a May 1985 speech given to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Foreign_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Foreign Ministry">Soviet Foreign Ministry</a>—the first time a Soviet leader had directly addressed his country's diplomats—Gorbachev spoke of a "radical restructuring" of foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017266-228">[221]</a> A major issue facing his leadership was Soviet involvement in the Afghan Civil War, which had then been going on for over five years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017271-229">[222]</a> Over the course of the war, the Soviet Army took heavy casualties and there was much opposition to Soviet involvement among both the public and military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017271-229">[222]</a> On becoming leader, Gorbachev saw withdrawal from the war as a key priority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017272-230">[223]</a> In October 1985, he met with Afghan Marxist leader <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>, urging him to acknowledge the lack of widespread public support for his government and pursue a <a href="/wiki/Power_sharing" title="Power sharing">power sharing</a> agreement with the opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017272-230">[223]</a> That month, the Politburo approved Gorbachev's decision to withdraw combat troops from Afghanistan, although the last troops did not leave until February 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017272–273-231">[224]</a> Gorbachev had inherited a renewed period of high tension in the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017263-232">[225]</a> He believed strongly in the need to sharply improve relations with the United States; he was appalled at the prospect of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a>, was aware that the Soviet Union was unlikely to win the <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> and thought that the continued focus on high military spending was detrimental to his desire for domestic reform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017263-232">[225]</a> US president <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> publicly appeared to not want a de-escalation of tensions, having scrapped détente and arms controls, initiating a military build-up, and calling the Soviet Union the "<a href="/wiki/Evil_Empire_speech" title="Evil Empire speech">evil empire</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017275-233">[226]</a> Both Gorbachev and Reagan wanted a summit to discuss the Cold War, but each faced some opposition to such a move within their respective governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017278-234">[227]</a> They agreed to hold <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">a summit in Geneva, Switzerland</a>, in November 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990109Taubman2017278-235">[228]</a> In the buildup to this, Gorbachev sought to improve relations with the US's <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> allies, visiting France in October 1985 to meet with President <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986237–238McCauley1998142Taubman2017278–279-236">[229]</a> At the Geneva summit, discussions between Gorbachev and Reagan were sometimes heated, and Gorbachev was initially frustrated that his US counterpart "does not seem to hear what I am trying to say".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017285-237">[230]</a> As well as discussing the Cold War <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy conflicts</a> in Afghanistan and <a href="/wiki/Contra_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra War">Nicaragua</a> and human rights issues, the pair discussed the US's <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a> (SDI), to which Gorbachev was strongly opposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017286-238">[231]</a> The duo's wives also met and spent time together at the summit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017289–291-239">[232]</a> The summit ended with a joint commitment to avoiding nuclear war and to meet for two further summits: in Washington, DC, in 1986 and in Moscow in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017286-238">[231]</a> Following the conference, Gorbachev traveled to <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> to inform other <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> leaders of developments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990114-240">[233]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010,_Berlin,_XI._SED-Parteitag,_Gorbatschow,_Honecker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0421-010%2C_Berlin%2C_XI._SED-Parteitag%2C_Gorbatschow%2C_Honecker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev with <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> of East Germany. Privately, Gorbachev told Chernyaev that Honecker was a "scumbag".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017484-241">[234]</a></figcaption></figure> In January 1986, Gorbachev publicly proposed a three-stage programme for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">abolishing</a> the <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">world's nuclear weapons</a> by the end of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199880Taubman2017291-242">[235]</a> An agreement was then reached to <a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">meet with Reagan in Reykjavík, Iceland</a>, in October 1986. Gorbachev wanted to secure guarantees that SDI would not be implemented, and in return was willing to offer concessions, including a 50% reduction in Soviet long range nuclear missiles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990159–162McCauley199881Taubman2017294-243">[236]</a> Both leaders agreed with the shared goal of abolishing nuclear weapons, but Gorbachev ultimately thought that too out of reach and instead proposed a mutual elimination of all medium-range nuclear missiles. Reagan refused to terminate the SDI program and no deal was reached.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199880–81Taubman2017297–301-244">[237]</a> After the summit, many of Reagan's allies criticized him for going along with the idea of abolishing nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017304-245">[238]</a> Gorbachev meanwhile told the Politburo that Reagan was "extraordinarily primitive, troglodyte, and intellectually feeble".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017304-245">[238]</a> In his relations with the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>, Gorbachev found many of its leaders professing <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary socialist">revolutionary socialist</a> credentials or a pro-Soviet attitude—such as Libya's <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a> and Syria's <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>—frustrating, and his best personal relationship was instead with India's prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi" title="Rajiv Gandhi">Rajiv Gandhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017271-229">[222]</a> He thought that the "<a href="/wiki/Socialist_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist camp">socialist camp</a>" of Marxist–Leninist governed states—the Eastern Bloc countries, North Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba—were a drain on the Soviet economy, receiving a far greater amount of goods from the Soviet Union than they collectively gave in return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017267-246">[239]</a> He sought improved relations with China, a country whose Marxist government had severed ties with the Soviets in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a> and had since undergone its own <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">structural reform</a>. In June 1985 he signed a US$14 billion five-year trade agreement with the country and in July 1986, he proposed troop reductions along the Soviet-Chinese border, hailing China as "a great socialist country".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990154–155-247">[240]</a> He made clear his desire for Soviet membership of the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> and for greater ties to Pacific countries, especially China and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990222-248">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1987–1989:_further_reforms">1987–1989: further reforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1987–1989: further reforms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_in_1987_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="865" data-file-height="1265" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev in 1987</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Domestic_reforms">Domestic reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Domestic reforms">edit</a>]</div> In January 1987, Gorbachev attended a Central Committee plenum where he talked about perestroika and democratization while criticizing widespread corruption.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990191–192Taubman2017307,_309-249">[242]</a> He considered putting a proposal to allow multi-party elections into his speech, but decided against doing so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017308-250">[243]</a> After the plenum, he focused his attentions on economic reform, holding discussions with government officials and economists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017310-251">[244]</a> Many economists proposed reducing ministerial controls on the economy and allowing state-owned enterprises to set their own targets; Ryzhkov and other government figures were skeptical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017311-252">[245]</a> In June, Gorbachev finished his report on economic reform. It reflected a compromise: ministers would retain the ability to set output targets but these would not be considered binding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017312-253">[246]</a> That month, a plenum accepted his recommendations and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet" title="Supreme Soviet">Supreme Soviet</a> passed a "law on enterprises" implementing the changes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990239Taubman2017313-254">[247]</a> Economic problems remained: by the late 1980s there were still widespread shortages of basic goods, rising inflation, and declining living standards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998115Taubman2017434–435,_449–450-255">[248]</a> These stoked a number of miners' strikes in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998116Taubman2017450-256">[249]</a> By 1987, the ethos of glasnost had spread through Soviet society: journalists were writing increasingly openly,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017314-257">[250]</a> many economic problems were being publicly revealed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017338–339-258">[251]</a> and studies appeared that critically reassessed Soviet history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017317-259">[252]</a> Gorbachev was broadly supportive, describing glasnost as "the crucial, irreplaceable weapon of perestroika".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017314-257">[250]</a> He nevertheless insisted that people should use the newfound freedom responsibly, stating that journalists and writers should avoid "sensationalism" and be "completely objective" in their reporting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017315-260">[253]</a> Nearly two hundred previously restricted Soviet films were publicly released, and a range of Western films were also made available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990151Taubman2017341-261">[254]</a> In 1989, Soviet responsibility for the 1940 <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a> was finally revealed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998131-262">[255]</a> In September 1987, the government stopped jamming the signal of the <a href="/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="British Broadcasting Corporation">British Broadcasting Corporation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990217Taubman2017397-263">[256]</a> The reforms also included greater tolerance of religion;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199074Taubman2017340-264">[257]</a> an Easter service was broadcast on Soviet television for the first time and the millennium celebrations of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> were given media attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990290Taubman2017340-265">[258]</a> Independent organizations appeared, most supportive of Gorbachev, although the largest, <a href="/wiki/Pamyat" title="Pamyat">Pamyat</a>, was ultra-nationalist and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic">antisemitic</a> in nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990186–187-266">[259]</a> Gorbachev also announced that <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Jews">Soviet Jews</a> wishing to migrate to Israel would be allowed to do so, something previously prohibited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990195-267">[260]</a> In August 1987, Gorbachev holidayed in Nizhnyaya Oreanda in <a href="/wiki/Oreanda" title="Oreanda">Oreanda</a>, Crimea, there writing Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and Our World<a href="#cite_note-268">[261]</a> at the suggestion of US publishers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990246Taubman2017319-269">[262]</a> For the 70th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> of 1917—which brought Lenin and the Communist Party to power—Gorbachev produced a speech on "October and Perestroika: The Revolution Continues". Delivered to a ceremonial joint session of the Central Committee and the Supreme Soviet in the <a href="/wiki/Kremlin_Palace_of_Congresses" class="mw-redirect" title="Kremlin Palace of Congresses">Kremlin Palace of Congresses</a>, it praised Lenin but criticized Stalin for overseeing mass human rights abuses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990281McCauley199892Taubman2017320–321-270">[263]</a> Party hardliners thought the speech went too far; liberalisers thought it did not go far enough.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990282Taubman2017321-271">[264]</a> In March 1988, the magazine <a href="/wiki/Sovetskaya_Rossiya" title="Sovetskaya Rossiya">Sovetskaya Rossiya</a> published an open letter by the teacher <a href="/wiki/Nina_Andreyeva" title="Nina Andreyeva">Nina Andreyeva</a>. It criticized elements of Gorbachev's reforms, attacking what she regarded as the denigration of the Stalinist era and arguing that a reformer clique—whom she implied were mostly Jews and ethnic minorities—were to blame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990305–306McCauley199893–94Taubman2017342-272">[265]</a> Over 900 Soviet newspapers reprinted it and anti-reformists rallied around it; many reformers panicked, fearing a backlash against perestroika.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017345–346-273">[266]</a> On returning from Yugoslavia, Gorbachev called a Politburo meeting to discuss the letter, at which he confronted those hardliners supporting its sentiment. Ultimately, the Politburo arrived at a unanimous decision to express disapproval of Andreyeva's letter and publish a rebuttal in Pravda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199894Taubman2017346–349-274">[267]</a> Yakovlev and Gorbachev's rebuttal claimed that those who "look everywhere for internal enemies" were "not patriots" and presented Stalin's "guilt for massive repressions and lawlessness" as "enormous and unforgiveable".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017349–350-275">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forming_the_Congress_of_People's_Deputies">Forming the Congress of People's Deputies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Forming the Congress of People's Deputies">edit</a>]</div> Although the next party congress was not scheduled until 1991, Gorbachev convened the <a href="/wiki/19th_All-Union_Conference_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th All-Union Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th Party Conference</a> in its place in June 1988. He hoped that by allowing a broader range of people to attend than at previous conferences, he would gain additional support for his reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990192–193,_324McCauley199894–95Taubman2017351-276">[269]</a> With sympathetic officials and academics, Gorbachev drafted plans for reforms that would shift power away from the Politburo and towards the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviets</a>. While the soviets had become largely powerless bodies that rubber-stamped Politburo policies, he wanted them to become year-round legislatures. He proposed the formation of a new institution, the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a>, whose members were to be elected in a largely free vote.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990336Steele1996144–145Taubman2017353-277">[270]</a> This congress would in turn elect a <a href="/wiki/USSR_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR Supreme Soviet">USSR Supreme Soviet</a>, which would do most of the legislating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998105Taubman2017353–354-278">[271]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_28133_Gorbachev_with_spouse_in_Poland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev and his wife Raisa on a trip to Poland in 1988</figcaption></figure> These proposals reflected Gorbachev's desire for more democracy; however, in his view there was a major impediment in that the Soviet people had developed a "slave psychology" after centuries of Tsarist autocracy and Marxist–Leninist authoritarianism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017352-279">[272]</a> Held at the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, the conference brought together 5,000 delegates and featured arguments between hardliners and liberalisers. The proceedings were televised, and for the first time since the 1920s, voting was not unanimous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017359-280">[273]</a> In the months following the conference, Gorbachev focused on redesigning and streamlining the party apparatus; the Central Committee staff—which then numbered around 3,000—was halved, while various Central Committee departments were merged to cut down the overall number from twenty to nine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998100Taubman2017371-281">[274]</a> In March and April 1989, <a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1989 Soviet Union legislative election">elections to the new Congress</a> were held.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998104–105Taubman2017428–429-282">[275]</a> Of the 2,250 legislators to be elected, one hundred—termed the "Red Hundred" by the press—were directly chosen by the Communist Party, with Gorbachev ensuring many were reformists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998104–105Taubman2017429–430-283">[276]</a> Although over 85% of elected deputies were party members,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998107Taubman2017444-284">[277]</a> many of those elected—including Sakharov and Yeltsin—were liberalisers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998106–107Taubman2017431–432-285">[278]</a> Gorbachev was happy with the result, describing it as "an enormous political victory under extraordinarily difficult circumstances".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017433-286">[279]</a> The new Congress convened in May 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017434-287">[280]</a> Gorbachev was then elected its chair—the new de facto head of state—with 2,123 votes in favor to 87 against.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998108Taubman2017442-288">[281]</a> Its sessions were televised live,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998108Taubman2017442-288">[281]</a> and its members elected the new Supreme Soviet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998109Taubman2017444-289">[282]</a> At the Congress, Sakharov spoke repeatedly, exasperating Gorbachev with his calls for greater liberalization and the introduction of private property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017445–448-290">[283]</a> When Sakharov died shortly after, Yeltsin became the figurehead of the liberal opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017456–457-291">[284]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_China_and_Western_states">Relations with China and Western states</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Relations with China and Western states">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva,_Switzerland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2651" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with Reagan at <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">a summit in Geneva, Switzerland</a>, 1985</figcaption></figure> Gorbachev tried to improve relations with the UK, France, and West Germany;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017387-292">[285]</a> like previous Soviet leaders, he was interested in pulling Western Europe away from US influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017386–387-293">[286]</a> Calling for greater pan-European co-operation, he publicly spoke of a "<a href="/wiki/Common_European_Home" title="Common European Home">Common European Home</a>" and of a Europe "from the Atlantic to the Urals".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990231McCauley199883,_142Taubman2017387-294">[287]</a> In March 1987, Thatcher visited Gorbachev in Moscow; despite their ideological differences, they liked one another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990217,_220McCauley199884,_143Taubman2017390–392-295">[288]</a> In April 1989 he visited London, lunching with <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990371McCauley1998143Taubman2017475–476-296">[289]</a> In May 1987, Gorbachev again visited France, and in November 1988 Mitterrand visited him in Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017387–388-297">[290]</a> The West German chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a>, had initially offended Gorbachev by comparing him to Nazi propagandist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>, although he later informally apologized and in October 1988 visited Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199843Taubman2017388–389-298">[291]</a> In June 1989 Gorbachev then visited Kohl in West Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017476–478-299">[292]</a> In November 1989 he also visited Italy, meeting with <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998144-300">[293]</a> Gorbachev's relationships with these West European leaders were typically far warmer than those he had with their Eastern Bloc counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017392-301">[294]</a> Gorbachev continued to pursue good relations with China to heal the Sino-Soviet Split. In May 1989 he <a href="/wiki/1989_Sino-Soviet_Summit" title="1989 Sino-Soviet Summit">visited Beijing</a> and there met its leader <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>; Deng shared Gorbachev's belief in economic reform but rejected calls for democratization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990364Taubman2017478–479-302">[295]</a> Pro-democracy students had massed in <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> during Gorbachev's visit but after he left <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">were massacred by troops</a>. Gorbachev did not condemn the massacre publicly but it reinforced his commitment not to use violent force in dealing with pro-democracy protests in the Eastern Bloc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017479–480-303">[296]</a> Following the failures of earlier talks with the US, in February 1987, Gorbachev held a conference in Moscow, titled "For a World without Nuclear Weapons, for Mankind's Survival", which was attended by various international celebrities and politicians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990208–209-304">[297]</a> By publicly pushing for nuclear disarmament, Gorbachev sought to give the Soviet Union the moral high ground and weaken the West's self-perception of moral superiority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990215-305">[298]</a> Aware that Reagan would not budge on SDI, Gorbachev focused on reducing "Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces", to which Reagan was receptive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017393–394-306">[299]</a> In April 1987, Gorbachev discussed the issue with US secretary of state <a href="/wiki/George_P._Shultz" class="mw-redirect" title="George P. Shultz">George P. Shultz</a> in Moscow; he agreed to eliminate the Soviets' <a href="/wiki/SS-23" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-23">SS-23</a> rockets and allow US inspectors to visit Soviet military facilities to ensure compliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017394–396-307">[300]</a> There was hostility to such compromises from the Soviet military, but following the May 1987 <a href="/wiki/Mathias_Rust" title="Mathias Rust">Mathias Rust</a> incident—in which a West German teenager was able to fly undetected from Finland and land in Red Square—Gorbachev fired many senior military figures for incompetence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990234–237Taubman2017396–397-308">[301]</a> In December 1987, Gorbachev visited Washington, DC, where he and Reagan signed the <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty" title="Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty">Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990284–285McCauley1998138Taubman2017401–403-309">[302]</a> Taubman called it "one of the highest points of Gorbachev's career".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017401-310">[303]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Nancy_Reagan_with_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2665" /></a><figcaption>Reagan and Gorbachev with wives (Nancy and Raisa, respectively) attending a dinner at the <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia,_Washington,_D.C." title="Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.">Soviet Embassy</a> in Washington, 1987</figcaption></figure> A second US–Soviet summit occurred in Moscow in May–June 1988, which Gorbachev expected to be largely symbolic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990318Taubman2017411,_413-311">[304]</a> Again, he and Reagan criticized each other's countries—Reagan raising Soviet restrictions on religious freedom; Gorbachev highlighting poverty and racial discrimination in the US, but Gorbachev related that they spoke "on friendly terms".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017414-312">[305]</a> They reached an agreement on notifying each other before conducting ballistic missile tests and made agreements on transport, fishing, and radio navigation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017415-313">[306]</a> At the summit, Reagan told reporters that he no longer considered the Soviet Union an "evil empire" and the two revealed that they considered themselves friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990320Taubman2017416–417-314">[307]</a> The third summit was held in New York City in December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017419-315">[308]</a> Arriving there, Gorbachev gave a speech to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> where he announced a unilateral reduction in the Soviet armed forces by 500,000; he also announced that 50,000 troops would be withdrawn from Central and Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990356–357McCauley1998139Taubman2017421–422-316">[309]</a> He then met with Reagan and President-elect <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>, following which he rushed home, skipping a planned visit to Cuba, to deal with the <a href="/wiki/1988_Armenian_earthquake" title="1988 Armenian earthquake">Armenian earthquake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990352McCauley1998139Taubman2017422–426-317">[310]</a> On becoming US president, Bush appeared interested in continuing talks with Gorbachev but wanted to appear tougher on the Soviets than Reagan, and had to allay criticism from the right wing of his <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017467–470-318">[311]</a> In December 1989, Gorbachev and Bush met at the <a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998140–141Taubman2017494–496-319">[312]</a> Bush offered to assist the Soviet economy by suspending the <a href="/wiki/Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment" title="Jackson–Vanik amendment">Jackson–Vanik amendment</a> and repealing the Stevenson and Baird Amendments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017496–497-320">[313]</a> There, they agreed to a joint press conference, the first time that a US and Soviet leader had done so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017498-321">[314]</a> Gorbachev also urged Bush to normalize relations with Cuba and meet its president, <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>, although Bush refused to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998142-322">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nationality_question_and_the_Eastern_Bloc">Nationality question and the Eastern Bloc</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nationality question and the Eastern Bloc">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg/220px-Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg/330px-Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg/440px-Ceausescu_%26_Gorbachev_1985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1254" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev meeting the Romanian Marxist–Leninist leader <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> in 1985. According to Taubman, Ceaușescu was Gorbachev's "favorite punching bag".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017271-229">[222]</a></figcaption></figure> On taking power, Gorbachev found some unrest among different national groups within the Soviet Union. In December 1986, riots broke out in several Kazakh cities after a Russian was appointed head of the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199874–75-323">[316]</a> In 1987, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> protested in Moscow to demand resettlement in Crimea, the area from which they had been <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">deported on Stalin's orders in 1944</a>. Gorbachev ordered a commission, headed by Gromyko, to examine their situation. Gromyko's report opposed calls for assisting Tatar resettlement in Crimea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990268McCauley199876Taubman2017367-324">[317]</a> By 1988, the Soviet "nationality question" was increasingly pressing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990302Taubman2017386-325">[318]</a> In February, the administration of the <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast">Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast</a> officially requested that it be transferred from the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>; the majority of the region's population were ethnically Armenian and wanted unification with other majority Armenian areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990267–268,_299–300McCauley1998119Taubman2017368-326">[319]</a> As rival Armenian and Azerbaijani demonstrations took place in Nagorno-Karabakh, Gorbachev called an emergency meeting of the Politburo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017368-327">[320]</a> Gorbachev promised greater autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh but refused the transfer, fearing that it would set off similar ethnic tensions and demands throughout the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990301Taubman2017369-328">[321]</a> In the end however, greater autonomy was never given, and instead Gorbachev ordered the further violent ethnic cleansing of Armenians in parts of Nagorno-Karabakh and the adjacent Armenian-populated Shahumyan region, in what was named <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ring" title="Operation Ring">Operation Ring</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dewaal5000-329">[322]</a> That month, in the Azerbaijani city of <a href="/wiki/Sumgait" title="Sumgait">Sumgait</a>, Azerbaijani gangs began killing members of the Armenian minority. Local troops tried to quell the unrest but were attacked by mobs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990301McCauley1998119Taubman2017369–370-330">[323]</a> The Politburo ordered additional troops into the city, but in contrast to those like Ligachev who wanted a massive display of force, Gorbachev urged restraint. He believed that the situation could be resolved through a political solution, urging talks between the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Armenia_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Armenia (Soviet Union)">Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Communist_Party_(1920)" title="Azerbaijan Communist Party (1920)">Azerbaijani Communist Parties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017370-331">[324]</a> Further <a href="/wiki/Baku_pogrom" title="Baku pogrom">anti-Armenian violence</a> broke out in <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a> in January 1990, followed by the Soviet Army <a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">killing</a> about 150 Azeris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990413McCauley1998159Taubman2017504–505Tuminez2003117-332">[325]</a> Problems also emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>; in April 1989, Soviet troops <a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">crushed</a> Georgian pro-independence demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a>, resulting in various deaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998130Taubman2017436–437Tuminez2003119-333">[326]</a> Independence sentiment was also rising in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a>; the Supreme Soviets of the <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvian Soviet Socialist Republics</a> declared their economic "autonomy" from the Soviet central government and introduced measures to restrict Russian immigration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998126–127Taubman2017435-334">[327]</a> In August 1989, protesters formed the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a>, a human chain across the three countries to symbolize their wish to restore independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998128Taubman2017452-335">[328]</a> That month, the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet ruled the 1940 Soviet annexation of their country to be illegal;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998128-336">[329]</a> in January 1990, Gorbachev visited the republic to encourage it to remain part of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990412McCauley1998157–158Taubman2017503-337">[330]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="647" /></a><figcaption>Berlin Wall, Thank you, Gorbi!, October 1990</figcaption></figure> Gorbachev rejected the <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a>, the idea that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene militarily in other Marxist–Leninist countries if their governments were threatened.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990212McCauley199832-338">[331]</a> In December 1987 he announced the withdrawal of 500,000 Soviet troops from Central and Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017386-339">[332]</a> While pursuing domestic reforms, he did not publicly support reformers elsewhere in the Eastern Bloc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017379-340">[333]</a> Hoping instead to lead by example, he later related that he did not want to interfere in their internal affairs, but he may have feared that pushing reform in Central and Eastern Europe would have angered his own hardliners too much.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017381,_382,_383-341">[334]</a> Some Eastern Bloc leaders, like Hungary's <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a> and Poland's <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a>, were sympathetic to reform; others, like Romania's <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a>, were hostile to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990230-342">[335]</a> In May 1987 Gorbachev visited Romania, where he was appalled by the state of the country, later telling the Politburo that there "human dignity has absolutely no value".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017384–385-343">[336]</a> He and Ceaușescu disliked each other, and argued over Gorbachev's reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990230Taubman2017385-344">[337]</a> In August 1989, the <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a> planned as a test of Gorbachev, resulted in a large mass exodus of East German refugees. According to the "<a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a>", the Soviet Union did not interfere and the media-informed Eastern European population realized that on the one hand their rulers were increasingly losing power and on the other hand the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> was falling apart as a bracket for the Eastern Bloc.<a href="#cite_note-345">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-347">[340]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unraveling_of_the_USSR">Unraveling of the USSR</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Unraveling of the USSR">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a>, most of the Marxist–Leninist states of Central and Eastern Europe held multi-party elections resulting in regime change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017465-348">[341]</a> In most countries, like Poland and Hungary, this was achieved peacefully, but in Romania, the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">revolution turned violent</a>, and led to Ceaușescu's overthrow and execution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017465-348">[341]</a> Gorbachev was too preoccupied with domestic problems to pay much attention to these events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017465–466-349">[342]</a> He believed that democratic elections would not lead Eastern European countries into abandoning their commitment to socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998133Taubman2017481-350">[343]</a> In 1989, he visited East Germany for the fortieth anniversary of its founding;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199835–36Taubman2017484–485-351">[344]</a> shortly after, in November, the East German government allowed its citizens to cross the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>, a decision Gorbachev praised. Over the following years, much of the wall was demolished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017462–463-352">[345]</a> Neither Gorbachev nor Thatcher or Mitterrand wanted a swift reunification of Germany, aware that it would likely become the dominant European power. Gorbachev wanted a gradual process of German integration but Kohl began calling for rapid reunification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017488–494-353">[346]</a> With German reunification in 1990, many observers declared the Cold War over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017427-354">[347]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990–1991:_presidency_of_the_Soviet_Union">1990–1991: presidency of the Soviet Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1990–1991: presidency of the Soviet Union">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg/255px-RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg/340px-RIAN_archive_485307_Mikhail_Gorbachev.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev addressing the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> in 1988. During the speech, he dramatically announced deep unilateral cuts in Soviet military forces in Eastern Europe.</figcaption></figure> In February 1990, both liberalisers and Marxist–Leninist hardliners intensified their attacks on Gorbachev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017505-355">[348]</a> A liberalizer march took place in Moscow criticizing Communist Party rule,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017505–506-356">[349]</a> while at a Central Committee meeting, the hardliner <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Brovikov" title="Vladimir Brovikov">Vladimir Brovikov</a> accused Gorbachev of reducing the country to "anarchy" and "ruin" and of pursuing Western approval at the expense of the Soviet Union and the Marxist–Leninist cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017506–507-357">[350]</a> Gorbachev was aware that the Central Committee could still oust him as general secretary, and so decided to reformulate the role of head of government to a presidency from which he could not be removed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998160–161Taubman2017507-358">[351]</a> He decided that the presidential election should be held by the Congress of People's Deputies. He chose this over a public vote because he thought the latter would escalate tensions and feared that he might lose it;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998165Taubman2017508–509-359">[352]</a> a spring 1990 poll nevertheless still showed him as the most popular politician in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017509-360">[353]</a> In March, the Congress of People's Deputies held the first (and only) <a href="/wiki/1990_Soviet_Union_presidential_election" title="1990 Soviet Union presidential election">Soviet presidential election</a>, in which Gorbachev was the only candidate. He secured 1,329 in favor to 495 against; 313 votes were invalid or absent. He therefore became the first (and only) executive <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998164–165Taubman2017509-361">[354]</a> A new 18-member <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Council_(USSR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Council (USSR)">Presidential Council</a> de facto replaced the Politburo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998165–166Taubman2017511-362">[355]</a> At the same Congress meeting, he presented the idea of repealing Article 6 of the Soviet constitution, which had ratified the Communist Party as the "ruling party" of the Soviet Union. The Congress passed the reform, undermining the de jure nature of the one-party state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990408McCauley1998161Taubman2017510–522-363">[356]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1990_Russian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Russian Supreme Soviet election">1990 elections</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_Russia" title="Supreme Soviet of Russia">Russian Supreme Soviet</a>, the Communist Party faced challengers from an alliance of liberalisers known as "<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a>"; the latter did particularly well in urban centers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998170Taubman2017513-364">[357]</a> Yeltsin was elected the parliament's chair, something Gorbachev was unhappy about.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998169Taubman2017513–514-365">[358]</a> That year, opinion polls showed Yeltsin overtaking Gorbachev as the most popular politician in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017509-360">[353]</a> Gorbachev struggled to understand Yeltsin's growing popularity, commenting: "he drinks like a fish ... he's inarticulate, he comes up with the devil knows what, he's like a worn-out record".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017515-366">[359]</a> The Russian Supreme Soviet was now out of Gorbachev's control;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017515-366">[359]</a> in June 1990, it declared that in the Russian Republic, its laws took precedence over those of the Soviet central government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998172-367">[360]</a> Amid a growth in <a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalist</a> sentiment, Gorbachev had reluctantly allowed the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a> as a branch of the larger Soviet Communist Party. Gorbachev attended its first congress in June, but soon found it dominated by hardliners who opposed his reformist stance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998174–175Taubman2017500–501,_515–516-368">[361]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German_reunification_and_the_Gulf_War">German reunification and the Gulf War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: German reunification and the Gulf War">edit</a>]</div> In January 1990, Gorbachev privately agreed to permit East German reunification with West Germany, but rejected the idea that a unified Germany could retain West Germany's NATO membership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017543-369">[362]</a> His compromise that Germany might retain both NATO and Warsaw Pact memberships did not attract support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017552-370">[363]</a> On 9 February 1990 in a phone conversation with <a href="/wiki/James_Baker" title="James Baker">James Baker</a>, then the US secretary of state, he set out his position that "a broadening of the NATO zone is not acceptable" to which Baker agreed. Scholars are puzzled why Gorbachev never pursued a written pledge.<a href="#cite_note-moh119-371">[364]</a> In May 1990, he visited the US for talks with President Bush;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990422Taubman2017550-372">[365]</a> there, he agreed that an independent Germany would have the right to choose its international alliances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017552-370">[363]</a> Ultimately he acquiesced to the reunification on the condition that NATO troops not be posted to the territory of Eastern Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017546-373">[366]</a> There remains <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany#Eastward_expansion_of_NATO" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">some confusion</a> over whether US secretary of state James Baker led Gorbachev to believe that NATO would not expand into other countries in Eastern Europe as well. There was no oral or written US promise that explicitly said so. Gorbachev himself has stated that he was only made such a promise regarding East Germany and that it was kept.<a href="#cite_note-374">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[368]</a> In July, Kohl visited Moscow and Gorbachev informed him that the Soviets would not oppose a reunified Germany being part of NATO.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017564-376">[369]</a> Domestically, Gorbachev's critics accused him of betraying the national interest;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017565-377">[370]</a> more broadly, they were angry that Gorbachev had allowed the Eastern Bloc to move away from direct Soviet influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017540–541-378">[371]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg/220px-Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg/330px-Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg/440px-Bush_Gorba_P15623-25A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2958" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption>In September 1990, Gorbachev met repeatedly with US president George Bush at the <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></figcaption></figure> In August 1990, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>'s Iraqi government <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Kuwait" title="Iraqi invasion of Kuwait">invaded Kuwait</a>; Gorbachev endorsed President Bush's condemnation of it.<a href="#cite_note-379">[372]</a> This brought criticism from many in the Soviet state apparatus, who saw Hussein as a key ally in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and feared for the safety of the 9,000 Soviet citizens in Iraq, although Gorbachev argued that the Iraqis were the clear aggressors in the situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998213Taubman2017540–541,_566–567-380">[373]</a> In November the Soviets endorsed <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_660" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 660">a UN Resolution</a> permitting force to be used in expelling the Iraqi Army from Kuwait.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017567–568-381">[374]</a> Gorbachev later called it a "watershed" in world politics, "the first time the superpowers acted together in a regional crisis".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017568-382">[375]</a> However, when the US announced plans for <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">a ground invasion</a>, Gorbachev opposed it, urging instead a peaceful solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017588–589-383">[376]</a> In October 1990, Gorbachev was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>; he was flattered but acknowledged "mixed feelings" about the accolade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998220Taubman2017572-384">[377]</a> Polls indicated that 90% of Soviet citizens disapproved of the award, which was widely seen as a Western and anti-Soviet accolade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017572-385">[378]</a> With the Soviet budget deficit climbing and no domestic money markets to provide the state with loans, Gorbachev looked elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998214-386">[379]</a> Throughout 1991, Gorbachev requested sizable loans from Western countries and Japan, hoping to keep the Soviet economy afloat and ensure the success of perestroika.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017568–569-387">[380]</a> Although the Soviet Union had been excluded from the <a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a>, Gorbachev secured an invitation to <a href="/wiki/17th_G7_summit" title="17th G7 summit">its London summit</a> in July 1991.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998218–219Taubman2017593-388">[381]</a> There, he continued to call for financial assistance; Mitterrand and Kohl backed him,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017570-389">[382]</a> while Thatcher—no longer in office—also urged Western leaders to agree.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998215Taubman2017595–596-390">[383]</a> Most G7 members were reluctant, instead offering technical assistance and proposing the Soviets receive "special associate" status—rather than full membership—of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998218–219Taubman2017595-391">[384]</a> Gorbachev was frustrated that the US would spend $100 billion on the Gulf War but would not offer his country loans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998214Taubman2017595-392">[385]</a> Other countries were more forthcoming; West Germany had given the Soviets <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a>60 billion by mid-1991.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017569-393">[386]</a> Bush visited Moscow in late July, when he and Gorbachev concluded ten years of negotiations by signing the <a href="/wiki/START_I" title="START I">START I</a> treaty, a bilateral agreement on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998221Taubman2017596–598-394">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="August_coup_and_government_crises">August coup and government crises</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: August coup and government crises">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GorbachevMS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/GorbachevMS.jpg/220px-GorbachevMS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/GorbachevMS.jpg/330px-GorbachevMS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/GorbachevMS.jpg/440px-GorbachevMS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="4050" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev in October 1991</figcaption></figure> At the <a href="/wiki/28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th Communist Party Congress</a> in July 1990, hardliners criticized the reformists, but Gorbachev was re-elected party leader with the support of three-quarters of delegates, and his choice of deputy general secretary, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a>, was also elected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990425McCauley1998178Taubman2017519–520-395">[388]</a> Seeking compromise with the liberalizers, Gorbachev assembled a team of both his own and Yeltsin's advisers to come up with an economic reform package: the result was the "<a href="/wiki/500_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="500 Days">500 Days</a>" programme. This called for further decentralization and some privatization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998183–185Taubman2017521–524-396">[389]</a> Gorbachev described the plan as "modern socialism" rather than a return to capitalism but had many doubts about it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017525,_528-397">[390]</a> In September, Yeltsin presented the plan to the Russian Supreme Soviet, which backed it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998185–186Taubman2017529-398">[391]</a> Many in the Communist Party and state apparatus warned against it, arguing that it would create marketplace chaos, rampant inflation, and unprecedented levels of unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017530-399">[392]</a> The 500 Days plan was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017529-400">[393]</a> At this, Yeltsin railed against Gorbachev in an October speech, claiming that Russia would no longer accept a subordinate position to the Soviet government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017530–531-401">[394]</a> By mid-November 1990, much of the press was calling for Gorbachev to resign and predicting civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017532-402">[395]</a> Hardliners were urging Gorbachev to disband the presidential council and arrest vocal liberals in the media.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017533-403">[396]</a> In November, he addressed the Supreme Soviet where he announced an eight-point program, which included governmental reforms, among them the abolition of the presidential council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998188Taubman2017533-404">[397]</a> By this point, Gorbachev was isolated from many of his former close allies and aides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017536-405">[398]</a> Yakovlev had moved out of his inner circle and Shevardnadze had resigned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998193–194Taubman2017534–535-406">[399]</a> His support among the intelligentsia was declining,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017531-407">[400]</a> and by the end of 1990 his approval ratings had plummeted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017539-408">[401]</a> Amid growing dissent in <a href="/wiki/The_Baltics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Baltics">the Baltics</a>, especially Lithuania, in January 1991 Gorbachev demanded that the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Supreme_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Supreme Council">Lithuanian Supreme Council</a> rescind its pro-independence reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017575-409">[402]</a> Soviet troops occupied several <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> buildings and <a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">attacked protesters</a>,<a href="#cite_note-dw-january_events-410">[403]</a> 15 of whom were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998199–200Taubman2017575-411">[404]</a> Gorbachev was widely blamed by liberalizers, with Yeltsin calling for his resignation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017575–576-412">[405]</a> Gorbachev denied sanctioning the military operation, although some in the military claimed that he had; the truth of the matter was never clearly established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017576–577-413">[406]</a> Fearing more civil disturbances, that month Gorbachev banned demonstrations and ordered troops to patrol Soviet cities alongside the police. This further alienated the liberalizers but was not enough to win over hardliners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998208Taubman2017577–578-414">[407]</a> Wanting to preserve the Union, in April Gorbachev and the leaders of nine Soviet republics jointly pledged to prepare a treaty that would renew the federation under a new constitution; but six of the republics—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Georgia, and Armenia—did not endorse this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998209–210Taubman2017579-415">[408]</a> A <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">referendum on the issue</a> brought 76.4% in favor of continued federation but the six rebellious republics had not taken part.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998206–207Taubman2017580-416">[409]</a> Negotiations took place to decide what form the new constitution would take, again bringing together Gorbachev and Yeltsin in discussion; it was planned to be formally signed in August.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017580–582-417">[410]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-August_1991_coup_-_awaiting_the_counterattack_outside_the_White_House_Moscow_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Tens of thousands of anti-coup protesters surrounding the <a href="/wiki/White_House_(Moscow)" title="White House (Moscow)">White House</a>, Moscow</figcaption></figure> In August, Gorbachev and his family holidayed at their dacha, "Zarya" ('Dawn') in <a href="/wiki/Foros,_Crimea" title="Foros, Crimea">Foros, Crimea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998233Taubman2017602,_605-418">[411]</a> Two weeks into his holiday, a group of senior Communist Party figures—the "<a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Eight_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gang of Eight (Soviet Union)">Gang of Eight</a>"—calling themselves the <a href="/wiki/State_Committee_on_the_State_of_Emergency" title="State Committee on the State of Emergency">State Committee on the State of Emergency</a> launched a <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">coup d'état</a> to seize control of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017607–608-419">[412]</a> The phone lines to his dacha were cut and a group arrived, including Boldin, Shenin, Baklanov, and General Varennikov, informing him of the take-over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998235Taubman2017607–608-420">[413]</a> The coup leaders demanded that Gorbachev formally declare a state of emergency in the country, but he refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017608-421">[414]</a> Gorbachev and his family were kept under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a> in their dacha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017608–610-422">[415]</a> The coup plotters publicly announced that Gorbachev was ill and thus Vice President Yanayev would take charge of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998237Taubman2017610-423">[416]</a> Yeltsin, now President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, went inside the Moscow <a href="/wiki/White_House_(Moscow)" title="White House (Moscow)">White House</a>. Tens of thousands of protesters massed outside it to prevent troops storming the building to arrest him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998237–238Taubman2017611-424">[417]</a> Outside of the White House, Yeltsin, atop a tank, gave a memorable speech condemning the coup.<a href="#cite_note-425">[418]</a> Gorbachev feared that the coup plotters would order him killed, so had his guards barricade his dacha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017612-426">[419]</a> However, the coup's leaders realized that they lacked sufficient support and ended their efforts. On 21 August, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kryuchkov" title="Vladimir Kryuchkov">Vladimir Kryuchkov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Yazov" title="Dmitry Yazov">Dmitry Yazov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Baklanov" title="Oleg Baklanov">Oleg Baklanov</a>, Anatoly Lukyanov, and Vladimir Ivashko arrived at Gorbachev's dacha to inform him that they were doing so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017612-426">[419]</a> That evening, Gorbachev returned to Moscow, where he thanked Yeltsin and the protesters for helping to undermine the coup.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017614–615-427">[420]</a> At a subsequent press conference, he pledged to reform the Soviet Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017621-428">[421]</a> Two days later, he resigned as its general secretary and called on the Central Committee to dissolve.<a href="#cite_note-429">[422]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998244Taubman2017621-430">[423]</a> Several members of the coup committed suicide; others were fired.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998239Taubman2017621-431">[424]</a> Gorbachev attended a session of the Russian Supreme Soviet on 23 August, where Yeltsin aggressively criticized him for having appointed and promoted many of the coup members to start with.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998244Taubman2017622-432">[425]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_days_and_collapse">Final days and collapse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Final days and collapse">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></div> After the coup, the Supreme Soviet indefinitely suspended all Communist Party activity, effectively ending communist rule in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-433">[426]</a><a href="#cite_note-Президент_России-434">[427]</a> From then on, the country collapsed with dramatic speed. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Leaders of the Soviet Republics</a> sign the <a href="/wiki/Belovezha_Accords" title="Belovezha Accords">Belovezha Accords</a>, which eliminated the USSR and established the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>, 1991</figcaption></figure> On 30 October, Gorbachev attended <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">a conference</a> in Madrid trying to revive the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">Israeli–Palestinian peace process</a>. The event was co-sponsored by the US and Soviet Union, one of the first examples of such cooperation between the two countries. There, he again met with Bush.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998248–249Taubman2017631–632-435">[428]</a> En route home, he traveled to France where he stayed with Mitterrand at the latter's home near <a href="/wiki/Bayonne" title="Bayonne">Bayonne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998249Taubman2017633-436">[429]</a> To keep unity within the country, Gorbachev continued to pursue plans for a new union treaty but found increasing opposition to the idea of a continued federal state as the leaders of various Soviet republics bowed to growing nationalist pressure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017624-437">[430]</a> Yeltsin stated that he would veto any idea of a unified state, instead favoring a <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> with little central authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998252Taubman2017627-438">[431]</a> Only the leaders of <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a> supported Gorbachev's approach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017628-439">[432]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">referendum in Ukraine</a> on 1 December with a 90% turnout for secession from the Union was a fatal blow; Gorbachev had expected Ukrainians to reject independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998253Taubman2017628–629-440">[433]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_War_border_changes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/250px-Cold_War_border_changes.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/375px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/500px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Changes in national boundaries after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991</figcaption></figure> Without Gorbachev's knowledge, Yeltsin met with Ukrainian president <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a> and Belarusian president <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Shushkevich" title="Stanislav Shushkevich">Stanislav Shushkevich</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belovezha_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Belovezha Forest">Belovezha Forest</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Brest,_Belarus" title="Brest, Belarus">Brest, Belarus</a>, on 8 December and signed the <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a>, which declared the Soviet Union had ceased to exist and formed the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a> (CIS) as its successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998254–255Taubman2017629–630-441">[434]</a> Gorbachev only learned of this development when Shushkevich phoned him; Gorbachev was furious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998255Taubman2017630-442">[435]</a> He desperately looked for an opportunity to preserve the Soviet Union, hoping in vain that the media and intelligentsia might rally against the idea of its dissolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017634–635-443">[436]</a> Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Russian Supreme Soviets then ratified the establishment of the CIS.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998256Taubman2017625-444">[437]</a> On 9 December, Gorbachev issued a statement calling the CIS agreement "illegal and dangerous".<a href="#cite_note-445">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017636-446">[439]</a> On 20 December, the leaders of 11 of the 12 remaining republics—all except Georgia—met in Kazakhstan and signed the <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a>, agreeing to dismantle the Soviet Union and formally establish the CIS. They also provisionally accepted Gorbachev's resignation as president of what remained of the Soviet Union. Accepting the fait accompli of the Soviet Union's dissolution, Gorbachev revealed that he would resign as soon as he saw that the CIS was a reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017637-447">[440]</a><a href="#cite_note-448">[441]</a> Gorbachev reached a deal with Yeltsin that called for Gorbachev to formally announce his resignation as Soviet president and Commander-in-Chief on 25 December, before vacating the Kremlin by 29 December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017638-449">[442]</a> Yakovlev, Chernyaev and Shevardnadze joined Gorbachev to help him write a resignation speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017637-447">[440]</a> Gorbachev then gave his speech in the Kremlin in front of television cameras, allowing for international broadcast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998257Taubman2017645-450">[443]</a> In it, he announced, "I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." He expressed regret for the breakup of the Soviet Union but cited what he saw as the achievements of his administration: political and religious freedom, the end of totalitarianism, the introduction of democracy and a market economy, and an end to the arms race and Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017646-451">[444]</a> Gorbachev was the third out of eight Soviet leaders, after <a href="/wiki/Malenkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Malenkov">Malenkov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev" class="mw-redirect" title="Khrushchev">Khrushchev</a>, not to die in office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017651-452">[445]</a><a href="#cite_note-453">[446]</a> The following day, 26 December, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_the_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet of the Republics">Soviet of the Republics</a>, the upper house of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, formally voted the country out of existence.<a href="#cite_note-454">[447]</a> As of 31 December 1991, all Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function.<a href="#cite_note-455">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998258-456">[449]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-USSR_life">Post-USSR life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Post-USSR life">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1991–1999:_initial_years">1991–1999: initial years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1991–1999: initial years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg/220px-Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg/330px-Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg/440px-Reagan_and_Gorbachev_in_western_hats_1992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev visiting Reagan, at <a href="/wiki/Rancho_del_Cielo" title="Rancho del Cielo">Rancho del Cielo</a> in 1992</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_(1994)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg/330px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg/440px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_speech_at_Legislative_Yuan_%281994%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3303" data-file-height="2040" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev giving a speech at the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a> in Taiwan, 1994</figcaption></figure> Out of office, Gorbachev had more time to spend with his wife and family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017653-457">[450]</a> He and Raisa initially lived in their dilapidated dacha on Rublevskoe Shosse, and were also allowed to privatize their smaller apartment on Kosygin Street.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017653-457">[450]</a> He focused on establishing his <a href="/wiki/International_Foundation_for_Socio-Economic_and_Political_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="International Foundation for Socio-Economic and Political Studies">International Foundation for Socio-Economic and Political Studies</a>, or "Gorbachev Foundation", launched in March 1992;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998258Taubman2017651,_654-458">[451]</a> Yakovlev and Revenko were its first vice presidents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017654-459">[452]</a> Its initial tasks were in analyzing and publishing material on the history of perestroika, as well as defending the policy from what it called "slander and falsifications". The foundation also tasked itself with monitoring and critiquing life in post-Soviet Russia, presenting alternative development forms to those pursued by Yeltsin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017654-459">[452]</a> To finance his foundation, Gorbachev began lecturing internationally, charging large fees to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017654-459">[452]</a> On a visit to Japan, he was well received and given multiple honorary degrees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017656-460">[453]</a> In 1992, he toured the US in a <a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a> private jet to raise money for his foundation. During the trip he met up with the Reagans for a social visit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017656-460">[453]</a> From there he went to Spain, where he attended the <a href="/wiki/Seville_Expo_%2792" title="Seville Expo '92">Expo '92</a> <a href="/wiki/World%27s_fair" title="World's fair">world fair</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and met with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">Felipe González</a>, who had become a friend of his.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017656–657-461">[454]</a> He further visited Israel and Germany, where he was received warmly by many politicians who praised his role in facilitating <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017657-462">[455]</a> To supplement his lecture fees and book sales, Gorbachev appeared in commercials such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Pizza_Hut_commercial" title="Mikhail Gorbachev Pizza Hut commercial">a television advertisement for Pizza Hut</a>, another for the <a href="/wiki/%C3%96BB" class="mw-redirect" title="ÖBB">ÖBB</a><a href="#cite_note-463">[456]</a> and photograph advertisements for <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer">Apple Computer</a><a href="#cite_note-464">[457]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Vuitton" title="Louis Vuitton">Louis Vuitton</a>, enabling him to keep the foundation afloat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017654–655-465">[458]</a><a href="#cite_note-466">[459]</a> With his wife's assistance, Gorbachev worked on his memoirs, which were published in Russian in 1995 and in English the following year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998258–259Taubman2017664-467">[460]</a> He also began writing a monthly syndicated column for <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017675-468">[461]</a> In 1993, Gorbachev launched <a href="/wiki/Green_Cross_International" title="Green Cross International">Green Cross International</a>, which focused on encouraging sustainable futures, and then the <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Political_Forum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Political Forum (page does not exist)">World Political Forum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017652-469">[462]</a> In 1995, he initiated the <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_of_Nobel_Peace_Laureates" title="World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates">World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-470">[463]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 230px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?76259-1/memoirs">Booknotes interview with Gorbachev on his memoirs, 24 November 1996</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Gorbachev had promised to refrain from criticizing Yeltsin while the latter pursued democratic reforms, but soon the two men were publicly criticizing each other again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017655-471">[464]</a> After Yeltsin's decision to lift price caps generated massive inflation and plunged many Russians into poverty, Gorbachev openly criticized him, comparing the reform to Stalin's policy of forced collectivization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017655-471">[464]</a> After pro-Yeltsin parties did poorly in the <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_legislative_election" title="1993 Russian legislative election">1993 legislative election</a>, Gorbachev called on him to resign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017658-472">[465]</a> In 1995, his foundation held a conference on "The Intelligentsia and Perestroika". It was there that Gorbachev proposed to the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">Duma</a> a law that would reduce many of the presidential powers established by Yeltsin's <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">1993 constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017659-473">[466]</a> Gorbachev continued to defend perestroika but acknowledged that he had made tactical errors as Soviet leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017652-469">[462]</a> While he still believed that Russia was undergoing a process of democratization, he concluded that it would take decades rather than years, as he had previously thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017652–653-474">[467]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Gorbachev_with_Carlos_Menem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Mikhail_Gorbachev_with_Carlos_Menem.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_with_Carlos_Menem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Mikhail_Gorbachev_with_Carlos_Menem.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev with Argentine president <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Menem" title="Carlos Menem">Carlos Menem</a> in 1999</figcaption></figure> In contrast to her husband's political activities, Raisa had focused on campaigning for children's charities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017663–664-475">[468]</a> In 1997, she founded a sub-division of the Gorbachev Foundation known as Raisa Maksimovna's Club to focus on improving women's welfare in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017664–665-476">[469]</a> The Foundation had initially been housed in the former Social Science Institute building, but Yeltsin introduced limits to the number of rooms it could use there;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017658–659-477">[470]</a> the American philanthropist <a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> then donated over $1 million to enable the foundation to build new premises on the <a href="/wiki/Leningradsky_Avenue" title="Leningradsky Avenue">Leningradsky Prospekt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017665-478">[471]</a> In 1999, Gorbachev made his first visit to Australia, where he gave a speech to the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">country's parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017666–667-479">[472]</a> Shortly after, in July, Raisa was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>. With the assistance of German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a>, she was transferred to a cancer center in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a>, Germany, and there underwent <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017668-480">[473]</a> In September she fell into a coma and died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017272-230">[223]</a> After Raisa's passing, Gorbachev's daughter Irina and his two granddaughters moved into his Moscow home to live with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017674-481">[474]</a> When questioned by journalists, he said that he would never remarry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017675-468">[461]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_46207_Funeral_of_Raisa_Gorbachev.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="802" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev, daughter Irina and his wife's sister Lyudmila at the funeral of Raisa, 1999</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1996_presidential_campaign">1996 presidential campaign</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: 1996 presidential campaign">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign">Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/1996_Russian_presidential_election" title="1996 Russian presidential election">Russian presidential elections</a> were scheduled for June 1996, and although his wife and most of his friends urged him not to run, Gorbachev decided to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017660-482">[475]</a> He hated the idea that the election would result in a run-off between Yeltsin and <a href="/wiki/Gennady_Zyuganov" title="Gennady Zyuganov">Gennady Zyuganov</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Communist Party of the Russian Federation">Communist Party of the Russian Federation</a> candidate whom Yeltsin saw as a Stalinist hardliner. He never expected to win outright but thought a centrist bloc could be formed around either himself or one of the other candidates with similar views, such as <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky" title="Grigory Yavlinsky">Grigory Yavlinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Svyatoslav_Fyodorov" title="Svyatoslav Fyodorov">Svyatoslav Fyodorov</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lebed" title="Alexander Lebed">Alexander Lebed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017660–661-483">[476]</a> After securing the necessary one million signatures of nomination, he announced his candidacy in March.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017661-484">[477]</a> Launching <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign">his campaign</a>, he traveled across Russia giving rallies in twenty cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017661-484">[477]</a> He repeatedly faced anti-Gorbachev protesters, while some pro-Yeltsin local officials tried to hamper his campaign by banning local media from covering it or by refusing him access to venues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017662-485">[478]</a> In the election, Gorbachev came seventh with approximately 386,000 votes, or around 0.5% of the total.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017663-486">[479]</a> Yeltsin and Zyuganov went through to the second round, where the former was victorious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017663-486">[479]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1999–2008:_promoting_social_democracy_in_Putin's_Russia">1999–2008: promoting social democracy in Putin's Russia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 1999–2008: promoting social democracy in Putin's Russia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg/220px-Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg/330px-Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg/440px-Inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin_7_May_2000-13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev attended the <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin" title="First inauguration of Vladimir Putin">inauguration of Vladimir Putin</a> in May 2000</figcaption></figure> In December 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was succeeded by his deputy, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>, who then won the <a href="/wiki/2000_Russian_presidential_election" title="2000 Russian presidential election">March 2000 presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017676-487">[480]</a> Gorbachev attended Putin's inauguration ceremony in May, the first time he had entered the Kremlin since 1991.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017677-488">[481]</a> Gorbachev initially welcomed Putin's rise, seeing him as an anti-Yeltsin figure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017652-469">[462]</a> Although he spoke out against some of the Putin government's actions, Gorbachev also had praise for the new government; in 2002, he said: "I've been in the same skin. That's what allows me to say that what [Putin] has done is in the interest of the majority."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017679-489">[482]</a> At the time, he believed Putin to be a committed democrat who nevertheless had to use "a certain dose of authoritarianism" to stabilize the economy and rebuild the state after the Yeltsin era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017677-488">[481]</a> At Putin's request, Gorbachev became co-chair of the "Petersburg Dialogue" project between high-ranking Russians and Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017676-487">[480]</a> In 2000, Gorbachev helped form the <a href="/wiki/Russian_United_Social_Democratic_Party" title="Russian United Social Democratic Party">Russian United Social Democratic Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017678-490">[483]</a> In June 2002, he participated in a meeting with Putin, who praised the venture, suggesting that a center-left party could be good for Russia and that he would be open to working with it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017679-489">[482]</a> In 2003, Gorbachev's party merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)" title="Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001)">Social Democratic Party of Russia</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017678-490">[483]</a>—which, however, faced much internal division and failed to gain traction with voters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017678-490">[483]</a> Gorbachev resigned as party leader in May 2004 following a disagreement with the party's chairman over the direction taken in the <a href="/wiki/2003_Russian_legislative_election" title="2003 Russian legislative election">2003 election campaign</a>. The party was later banned in 2007 by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of the Russian Federation">Supreme Court of the Russian Federation</a> due to its failure to establish local offices with at least 500 members in the majority of Russian regions, which is required by Russian law for a political organization to be listed as a party.<a href="#cite_note-491">[484]</a> Later that year, Gorbachev founded a new movement, the Union of Social Democrats. Stating that it would not contest the forthcoming elections, Gorbachev declared: "We are fighting for power, but only for power over people's minds".<a href="#cite_note-492">[485]</a> Gorbachev was critical of US hostility to Putin, arguing that the US government "doesn't want Russia to rise" again as a global power and wants "to continue as the sole superpower in charge of the world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017680-493">[486]</a> More broadly, Gorbachev was critical of US policy following the Cold War, arguing that the West had attempted to "turn [Russia] into some kind of backwater".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685-494">[487]</a> He rejected the idea—expressed by Bush—that the US had "won" the Cold War, arguing that both sides had cooperated to end the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685-494">[487]</a> He declared that since the fall of the Soviet Union, the US, rather than cooperating with Russia, had conspired to build a "new empire headed by themselves".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685–686-495">[488]</a> He was critical of how the US had expanded NATO right up to Russia's borders despite their initial assurances that they would not do so, citing this as evidence that the US government could not be trusted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685-494">[487]</a><a href="#cite_note-496">[489]</a> He spoke out against the 1999 <a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">NATO bombing of Yugoslavia</a> because it lacked UN backing, as well as the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a> led by the US.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685-494">[487]</a> In June 2004, Gorbachev nevertheless attended <a href="/wiki/Reagan%27s_state_funeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan's state funeral">Reagan's state funeral</a>,<a href="#cite_note-497">[490]</a> and in 2007 visited <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> to see the damage caused by <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-498">[491]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2008–2022:_growing_criticism_of_Putin_and_foreign_policy_remarks">2008–2022: growing criticism of Putin and foreign policy remarks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 2008–2022: growing criticism of Putin and foreign policy remarks">edit</a>]</div> Barred by the constitution from serving more than two consecutive terms as president, Putin stood down in 2008 and was succeeded by his chosen successor, <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev" title="Dmitry Medvedev">Dmitry Medvedev</a>, who reached out to Gorbachev in ways that Putin had not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017680-493">[486]</a> In September 2008, Gorbachev and business oligarch <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lebedev" title="Alexander Lebedev">Alexander Lebedev</a> announced they would form the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Democratic_Party_of_Russia" title="Independent Democratic Party of Russia">Independent Democratic Party of Russia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-499">[492]</a> and in May 2009 Gorbachev announced that the launch was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-500">[493]</a> After the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a> between Russia and South Ossetian separatists on one side and Georgia on the other, Gorbachev spoke out against US support for Georgian president <a href="/wiki/Mikheil_Saakashvili" title="Mikheil Saakashvili">Mikheil Saakashvili</a> and for moving to bring the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> into the sphere of its national interest.<a href="#cite_note-501">[494]</a><a href="#cite_note-502">[495]</a> Gorbachev nevertheless remained critical of Russia's government and criticized the <a href="/wiki/2011_Russian_legislative_election" title="2011 Russian legislative election">2011 parliamentary elections</a> as being rigged in favor of the governing party, <a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a>, and called for them to be re-held.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017681-503">[496]</a> After <a href="/wiki/2011_Russian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Russian protests">protests broke out in Moscow</a> over the election, Gorbachev praised the protesters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017681-503">[496]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg/220px-Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg/330px-Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg/440px-Barack_Obama_%26_Joe_Biden_with_Mikhail_Gorbachev_3-20.09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev (right) being introduced to US president <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> by US vice president <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>, March 2009. US ambassador to Russia <a href="/wiki/Michael_McFaul" title="Michael McFaul">Michael McFaul</a> is pictured in the background.</figcaption></figure> In 2009, Gorbachev released Songs for Raisa, an album of Russian romantic ballads, sung by him and accompanied by musician <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Makarevich" title="Andrey Makarevich">Andrey Makarevich</a>, to raise money for a charity devoted to his late wife.<a href="#cite_note-504">[497]</a> That year, he also met with US president <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> in efforts to "reset" strained US–Russian relations,<a href="#cite_note-505">[498]</a> and attended an event in Berlin commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall.<a href="#cite_note-506">[499]</a> In 2011, an eightieth birthday gala for him was held at London's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall" title="Royal Albert Hall">Royal Albert Hall</a>, featuring tributes from <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Rocard" title="Michel Rocard">Michel Rocard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>. The rock band <a href="/wiki/Scorpions_(band)" title="Scorpions (band)">Scorpions</a> were invited and performed their song "<a href="/wiki/Wind_of_Change_(Scorpions_song)" title="Wind of Change (Scorpions song)">Wind of Change</a>", inspired by the fall of the Iron Curtain.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Proceeds from the event went to the Raisa Gorbachev Foundation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017682–683-507">[500]</a> That year, Medvedev awarded him the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_St._Andrew" title="Order of St. Andrew">Order of St Andrew the Apostle the First-Called</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017681-503">[496]</a> After Putin announced his intention to run for president in the <a href="/wiki/2012_Russian_presidential_election" title="2012 Russian presidential election">2012 election</a>, Gorbachev was opposed to the idea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017684-508">[501]</a><a href="#cite_note-509">[502]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBCGorbachevInterview-510">[503]</a> He complained that Putin's new measures had "tightened the screws" on Russia and that the president was trying to "completely subordinate society", adding that United Russia now "embodied the worst bureaucratic features of the Soviet Communist party".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017684-508">[501]</a> In 2015, Gorbachev ceased his frequent international traveling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017681–682-511">[504]</a> He continued to speak out on issues affecting Russia and the world. In 2014, he defended the <a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_status_referendum" title="2014 Crimean status referendum">Crimean status referendum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Russia's annexation of Crimea</a> that began the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017685-494">[487]</a> In his judgment, while Crimea was <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_Crimea_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of Crimea in the Soviet Union">transferred from Russia to Ukraine</a> in 1954, when both were part of the Soviet Union, the Crimean people had not been asked at the time, whereas in the 2014 referendum they had.<a href="#cite_note-512">[505]</a> After sanctions were placed on Russia as a result of the annexation, Gorbachev spoke out against them.<a href="#cite_note-513">[506]</a> His comments led to Ukraine banning him from entering the country for five years.<a href="#cite_note-514">[507]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Russia can succeed only through democracy. Russia is ready for political competition, a real multiparty system, fair elections and regular rotation of government. This should define the role and responsibility of the president. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– Gorbachev, 2017<a href="#cite_note-515">[508]</a></cite> </div> At a November 2014 event marking 25 years since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Gorbachev warned that the ongoing <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">war in Donbas</a> had brought the world to the brink of a <a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">new Cold War</a>, and he accused Western powers, particularly the US, of adopting an attitude of "triumphalism" towards Russia.<a href="#cite_note-516">[509]</a><a href="#cite_note-517">[510]</a> In December 2014, he said that both sides in the war in Donbas "have been violating the terms of the ceasefire; both sides are guilty of using dangerous types of weapons and violating human rights",<a href="#cite_note-518">[511]</a> adding that <a href="/wiki/Minsk_agreements" title="Minsk agreements">Minsk agreements</a> "form the basis for the settlement" of the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-519">[512]</a> In 2016, he said that "Politicians who think that problems and disputes can be solved by using military force—even as a last resort—should be rejected by society, they should clear the political stage."<a href="#cite_note-520">[513]</a> In July 2016, Gorbachev criticized NATO for deploying more troops to Eastern Europe amid escalating tensions between the military alliance and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-521">[514]</a> In June 2018, he welcomed the <a href="/wiki/2018_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_summit" title="2018 Russia–United States summit">Russia–United States summit in Helsinki</a> between Putin and US president <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>,<a href="#cite_note-522">[515]</a> although in October criticized Trump's threat to withdraw from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, saying the move "is not the work of a great mind". He added: "all agreements aimed at nuclear disarmament and the limitation of nuclear weapons must be preserved, for the sake of life on Earth".<a href="#cite_note-523">[516]</a> Following the death of former president George H. W. Bush in 2018, a critical partner and friend of his time in office, Gorbachev stated that the work they had both accomplished led directly to the end of the Cold War and the nuclear arms race, and that he "deeply appreciated the attention, kindness and simplicity typical of George, Barbara and their large, friendly family".<a href="#cite_note-524">[517]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 United States Capitol attack</a>, Gorbachev declared, "The storming of the capitol was clearly planned in advance, and it's obvious by whom." He did not clarify to whom he was referring. Gorbachev also stated that the attack "called into question the future fate of the United States as a nation".<a href="#cite_note-525">[518]</a> In an interview with Russian news agency <a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a> on 20 January 2021, Gorbachev said that relations between the United States and Russia are of "great concern", and called on US president <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> to begin talks with the Kremlin to make the two countries' "intentions and actions clearer" and "in order to normalize relations".<a href="#cite_note-526">[519]</a> On 24 December 2021, Gorbachev said that the United States "grew arrogant and self-confident" after the collapse of the Soviet Union, resulting in "a new empire. Hence the idea of NATO expansion". He also endorsed the upcoming security talks between the United States and Russia, saying, "I hope there will be a result."<a href="#cite_note-527">[520]</a> Gorbachev made no personal comment publicly on the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, although his <a href="/wiki/Gorbachev_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorbachev Foundation">Gorbachev Foundation</a> stated on 26 February that "[they] affirm the need for an early cessation of hostilities and immediate start of peace negotiations. There is nothing more precious in the world than human lives."<a href="#cite_note-528">[521]</a> At the end of July 2022, Gorbachev's close friend, journalist <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Venediktov" title="Alexei Venediktov">Alexei Venediktov</a>, said that Gorbachev was very upset when he found out that Putin had launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. According to Venediktov, Gorbachev believed that Putin "destroyed his life's work".<a href="#cite_note-529">[522]</a> Gorbachev's interpreter, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Palazhchenko" title="Pavel Palazhchenko">Pavel Palazhchenko</a>, also stated that Gorbachev was psychologically traumatized by the invasion in the months preceding his death.<a href="#cite_note-530">[523]</a><a href="#cite_note-531">[524]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_ideology">Political ideology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Political ideology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Even before he left office, Gorbachev had become a kind of <a href="/wiki/Social_democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Social democrat">social democrat</a>—believing in, as he later put it, equality of opportunity, publicly supported education and medical care, a guaranteed minimum of social welfare, and a "socially oriented market economy"—all within a democratic political framework. Exactly when this transformation occurred is hard to say, but surely by 1989 or 1990 it had taken place. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Gorbachev biographer William Taubman, 2017<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017678-490">[483]</a></cite> </div> According to his university friend Zdeněk Mlynář, in the early 1950s "Gorbachev, like everyone else at the time, was a Stalinist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199011-532">[525]</a> Mlynář noted, however, that unlike most other Soviet students, Gorbachev did not view Marxism simply as "a collection of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> to be committed to memory".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199013-533">[526]</a> Biographers Doder and Branson related that after Stalin's death, Gorbachev's "ideology would never be doctrinal again",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199012-534">[527]</a> but noted that he remained "a true believer" in the Soviet system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199025-535">[528]</a> Doder and Branson noted that at the Twenty-Seventh Party Congress in 1986, Gorbachev was seen to be an orthodox Marxist–Leninist;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990116-536">[529]</a> that year, the biographer Zhores Medvedev stated that "Gorbachev is neither a liberal nor a bold reformist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986245-537">[530]</a> By the mid-1980s, when Gorbachev took power, many analysts were arguing that the Soviet Union was declining to the status of a <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a> country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunce1992201-538">[531]</a> In this context, Gorbachev argued that the Communist Party had to adapt and engage in creative thinking much as Lenin had creatively interpreted and adapted the writings of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> to the situation of early 20th century Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990116–117-539">[532]</a> For instance, he thought that rhetoric about global revolution and overthrowing the bourgeoisie—which had been integral to Leninist politics—had become too dangerous in an era where <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear warfare</a> could obliterate humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990117-540">[533]</a> He began to move away from the Marxist–Leninist belief in class struggle as the engine of political change, instead viewing politics as a way of coordinating the interests of all classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990250-541">[534]</a> However, as Gooding noted, the changes that Gorbachev proposed were "expressed wholly within the terms of Marxist-Leninist ideology".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGooding1990197-542">[535]</a> According to Doder and Branson, Gorbachev also wanted to "dismantle the hierarchical military society at home and abandon the grand-style, costly, imperialism abroad".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990288-543">[536]</a> However, Jonathan Steele argued that Gorbachev failed to appreciate why the Baltic nations wanted independence and "at heart he was, and remains, a Russian imperialist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteele1996151-544">[537]</a> Gooding thought that Gorbachev was "committed to democracy", something marking him out as different from his predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGooding1990195-545">[538]</a> Gooding also suggested that when in power, Gorbachev came to see socialism not as a place on the path to communism, but a destination in itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGooding1990202-546">[539]</a> Gorbachev's political outlook was shaped by the 23 years he served as a party official in Stavropol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199022-547">[540]</a> Doder and Branson thought that throughout most of his political career prior to becoming general secretary, "his publicly expressed views almost certainly reflected a politician's understanding of what should be said, rather than his personal philosophy. Otherwise he could not have survived politically."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson19909-548">[541]</a> Like many Russians, Gorbachev sometimes thought of the Soviet Union as being largely synonymous with Russia and in various speeches described it as "Russia"; in one incident he had to correct himself after calling the USSR "Russia" while giving a speech in <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199022-547">[540]</a> McCauley noted that perestroika was "an elusive concept", one which "evolved and eventually meant something radically different over time".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998262–263-549">[542]</a> McCauley stated that the concept originally referred to "radical reform of the economic and political system" as part of Gorbachev's attempt to motivate the labor force and make management more effective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998264-550">[543]</a> It was only after initial measures to achieve this proved unsuccessful that Gorbachev began to consider market mechanisms and co-operatives, albeit with the state sector remaining dominant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998264-550">[543]</a> The political scientist John Gooding suggested that had the perestroika reforms succeeded, the Soviet Union would have "exchanged totalitarian controls for milder authoritarian ones" although not become "democratic in the Western sense".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGooding1990195-545">[538]</a> With perestroika, Gorbachev had wanted to improve the existing Marxist–Leninist system but ultimately ended up destroying it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998265-551">[544]</a> In this, he brought an end to state socialism in the Soviet Union and paved the way for a transition to liberal democracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunce1992205-552">[545]</a> Taubman nevertheless thought Gorbachev remained a socialist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017215-553">[546]</a> He described Gorbachev as "a true believer—not in the Soviet system as it functioned (or didn't) in 1985 but in its potential to live up to what he deemed its original ideals".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017215-553">[546]</a> He added that "until the end, Gorbachev reiterated his belief in socialism, insisting that it wasn't worthy of the name unless it was truly democratic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017690-554">[547]</a> As Soviet leader, Gorbachev believed in incremental reform rather than a radical transformation;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017218-555">[548]</a> he later referred to this as a "revolution by evolutionary means".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017218-555">[548]</a> Doder and Branson noted that over the course of the 1980s, his thought underwent a "radical evolution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990386-556">[549]</a> Taubman noted that by 1989 or 1990, Gorbachev had transformed into a social democrat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017678-490">[483]</a> McCauley suggested that by at least June 1991 Gorbachev was a "post-Leninist", having "liberated himself" from Marxism–Leninism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998220-557">[550]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">fall of the Soviet Union</a>, the newly formed Communist Party of the Russian Federation would have nothing to do with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998259-558">[551]</a> However, in 2006, he expressed his continued belief in Lenin's ideas: "I trusted him then and I still do".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017215-553">[546]</a> He claimed that "the essence of Lenin" was a desire to develop "the living creative activity of the masses".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017215-553">[546]</a> Taubman believed that Gorbachev identified with Lenin on a psychological level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017216-559">[552]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif/400px-Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif" decoding="async" width="400" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif/600px-Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Gorbachev_Party_Document_of_the_CPSU.gif 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>The official Soviet portrait of Gorbachev. Many official photographs and visual depictions of Gorbachev removed the port-wine birthmark from his head.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986160-560">[553]</a></figcaption></figure> By 1955, Gorbachev's hair was thinning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201777-561">[554]</a> and by the late 1960s he was bald,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199032Taubman2017121-562">[555]</a> revealing a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Port-wine_stain" title="Port-wine stain">port-wine stain</a> on the top of his head.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199050Taubman20177-563">[556]</a> Gorbachev reached an adult height of 5 foot 9 inches (1.75 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199050-564">[557]</a> Throughout the 1960s, he struggled against obesity and dieted to control the problem;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017116-94">[87]</a> Doder and Branson characterized him as "stocky but not fat".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199050-564">[557]</a> He spoke in a southern Russian accent,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199050Taubman201744-565">[558]</a> and was known to sing both folk and pop songs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201794-566">[559]</a> Throughout his life, he tried to dress fashionably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017179-567">[560]</a> Having an aversion to hard liquor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199818-568">[561]</a> he drank sparingly and did not smoke.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017142-569">[562]</a> He was protective of his private life and avoided inviting people to his home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017153-122">[115]</a> Gorbachev cherished his wife,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20174-570">[563]</a> who in turn was protective of him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017157-113">[106]</a> He was an involved parent and grandparent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20174–5-571">[564]</a> He sent his daughter, his only child, to a local school in Stavropol rather than to a school set aside for the children of party elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017155-572">[565]</a> Unlike many of his contemporaries in the Soviet administration, he was not a womanizer and was known for treating women respectfully.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017102-89">[82]</a> Gorbachev was baptized Russian Orthodox and when he was growing up, his grandparents had been practicing Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990290-573">[566]</a> In 2008, there was some press speculation that he was a practicing Christian after he visited the tomb of <a href="/wiki/St_Francis_of_Assisi" class="mw-redirect" title="St Francis of Assisi">St Francis of Assisi</a>, to which he publicly clarified that he was an atheist.<a href="#cite_note-ChiTrib2008-03-23-574">[567]</a> Since studying at university, Gorbachev considered himself an intellectual;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201744-42">[35]</a> Doder and Branson thought that "his intellectualism was slightly self-conscious",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199016-575">[568]</a> noting that unlike most Russian intelligentsia, Gorbachev was not closely connected "to the world of science, culture, the arts, or education".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990150-576">[569]</a> When living in Stavropol, he and his wife collected hundreds of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017114–115-577">[570]</a> Among his favorite authors were <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Miller" title="Arthur Miller">Arthur Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinghiz_Aitmatov" title="Chinghiz Aitmatov">Chinghiz Aitmatov</a>, while he also enjoyed reading detective fiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199017-578">[571]</a> He enjoyed going for walks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017137-579">[572]</a> having a love of natural environments,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017163-580">[573]</a> and was also a fan of association football.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990347-581">[574]</a> He favored small gatherings where the assembled discussed topics like art and philosophy rather than the large, alcohol-fueled parties common among Soviet officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017136–137-582">[575]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality">Personality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Personality">edit</a>]</div> Gorbachev's university friend, Mlynář, described him as "loyal and personally honest".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198637DoderBranson199013-583">[576]</a> He was self-confident,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199022McCauley199823,_273Taubman20175,_689-584">[577]</a> polite,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017142-569">[562]</a> and tactful;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017142-569">[562]</a> he had a happy and optimistic temperament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199038Taubman20178-585">[578]</a> He used self-deprecating humor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199032-586">[579]</a> and sometimes profanities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199032-586">[579]</a> and often referred to himself in the <a href="/wiki/Illeism" title="Illeism">third person</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20171-587">[580]</a> He was a skilled manager,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017102-89">[82]</a> and had a good memory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199851-588">[581]</a> A hard worker or workaholic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998270Taubman2017229-589">[582]</a> as general secretary, he would rise at 7:00 or 8:00 in the morning and not go to bed until 1:00 or 2:00.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017229-590">[583]</a> He commuted from the western suburbs between 9 and 10 in the morning and returned home around 8 in the evening.<a href="#cite_note-591">[584]</a> Taubman called him "a remarkably decent man";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20174-570">[563]</a> he thought Gorbachev to have "high moral standards".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017134-592">[585]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_(GPO)_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/220px-Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/330px-Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/440px-Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_Gorbachev_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, 1992</figcaption></figure> Zhores Medvedev thought he was a talented orator, in 1986 stating that "Gorbachev is probably the best speaker there has been in the top Party echelons" since <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198643-593">[586]</a> Medvedev also considered Gorbachev "a charismatic leader", something Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko had not been.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986165-594">[587]</a> Doder and Branson called him "a charmer capable of intellectually seducing doubters, always trying to co-opt them, or at least blunt the edge of their criticism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990287-595">[588]</a> McCauley thought Gorbachev displayed "great tactical skill" in maneuvering successfully between hardline Marxist–Leninists and liberalisers for most of his time as leader, adding, though, that he was "much more skilled at tactical, short-term policy than strategic, long-term thinking", in part because he was "given to making policy on the hoof".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998268–269-596">[589]</a> Doder and Branson thought Gorbachev "a Russian to the core, intensely patriotic as only people living in the border regions can be".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199022-547">[540]</a> Taubman also noted that the former Soviet leader has a "sense of self-importance and self-righteousness" as well as a "need for attention and admiration" which grated on some of his colleagues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017134-592">[585]</a> He was sensitive to personal criticism and easily took offense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998161Taubman2017134,_135-597">[590]</a> Colleagues were often frustrated that he would leave tasks unfinished,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017117-598">[591]</a> and sometimes also felt underappreciated and discarded by him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998273-599">[592]</a> Biographers Doder and Branson thought that Gorbachev was "a puritan" with "a proclivity for order in his personal life".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson199014-600">[593]</a> Taubman noted that he was "capable of blowing up for calculated effect".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017516-601">[594]</a> He also thought that by 1990, when his domestic popularity was waning, Gorbachev had become "psychologically dependent on being lionized abroad", a trait for which he was criticized in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017541-602">[595]</a> McCauley was of the view that "one of his weaknesses was an inability to foresee the consequences of his actions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998161-603">[596]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Death_and_funeral_of_Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Death and funeral of Mikhail Gorbachev">Death and funeral of Mikhail Gorbachev</a></div> Gorbachev died at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Clinical_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Clinical Hospital">Central Clinical Hospital</a> in Moscow on 30 August 2022,<a href="#cite_note-604">[597]</a> at the age of 91.<a href="#cite_note-605">[598]</a> He died after a "severe and prolonged illness," according to the hospital.<a href="#cite_note-606">[599]</a><a href="#cite_note-Источник-2022-607">[600]</a><a href="#cite_note-Вишнева-2022-608">[601]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preceding_deterioration_of_health">Preceding deterioration of health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Preceding deterioration of health">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorbachev_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorbachev_2019.jpg/220px-Gorbachev_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorbachev_2019.jpg/330px-Gorbachev_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorbachev_2019.jpg/440px-Gorbachev_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3317" /></a><figcaption>Gorbachev in Moscow, 2019, receiving assistance in walking</figcaption></figure> For a number of years before his death, Gorbachev suffered from severe <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and underwent several surgeries and hospital stays.<a href="#cite_note-forbes.ru-609">[602]</a> In April 2011, Gorbachev underwent complex spinal surgery in Germany, at the <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> clinic Schön Klinik München Harlaching.<a href="#cite_note-610">[603]</a> On 11 June 2013, it was reported that Gorbachev was hospitalized for a routine examination. Two months earlier, he had not come to the <a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Margaret_Thatcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral of Margaret Thatcher">funeral of Margaret Thatcher</a> for health reasons.<a href="#cite_note-forbes.ru-609">[602]</a> On 22 October 2013, it became known that Gorbachev was undergoing another examination in a German clinic.<a href="#cite_note-611">[604]</a> He was also hospitalized in the Central Clinical Hospital on 9 October 2014.<a href="#cite_note-612">[605]</a> Also in 2014, Gorbachev underwent oral surgery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017681-503">[496]</a> Gorbachev was briefly hospitalized in May 2015 as well.<a href="#cite_note-613">[606]</a> In November 2016, Gorbachev had a <a href="/wiki/Pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemaker">pacemaker</a> installed at the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Central_Clinical_Hospital" title="Moscow Central Clinical Hospital">Moscow Central Clinical Hospital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-614">[607]</a> Also in 2016, he underwent surgery to replace his <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lenses</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-615">[608]</a> The length of his hospital visits increased in 2019, with Gorbachev hospitalized in December with <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-616">[609]</a><a href="#cite_note-617">[610]</a> At the beginning of 2020, Gorbachev was placed under the continuous supervision of doctors.<a href="#cite_note-Источник-2022-607">[600]</a><a href="#cite_note-Вишнева-2022-608">[601]</a> Gorbachev's condition deteriorated even further in July 2022 as he developed <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a> problems, which led to him being transferred for <a href="/wiki/Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">hemodialysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-618">[611]</a> Shortly before his death, Gorbachev underwent four more operations, lost 40 kilograms of weight, and could no longer walk.<a href="#cite_note-619">[612]</a> In interviews given shortly before his death, Gorbachev had complained about health and appetite problems.<a href="#cite_note-620">[613]</a> Gorbachev was receiving <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">palliative care</a>, but was allowed to leave the hospital for short periods of time. On 29 August 2022, Gorbachev arrived at the Central Clinical Hospital for another hemodialysis, where he died on 30 August at approximately 10:00 p.m. <a href="/wiki/Moscow_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow time">Moscow time</a>. Russian president Vladimir Putin bid an official farewell to Gorbachev on 1 September 2022 during a visit to the Central Clinical Hospital, where he laid flowers at his coffin.<a href="#cite_note-mk.ru-2022-621">[614]</a><a href="#cite_note-622">[615]</a> His press secretary <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Peskov" title="Dmitry Peskov">Dmitry Peskov</a> said that the "tight schedule of the president" would not allow him to be present at the funeral, as he was scheduled to visit <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mk.ru-2022-621">[614]</a><a href="#cite_note-623">[616]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funeral_and_burial">Funeral and burial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Funeral and burial">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg/330px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg/440px-Mikhail_Gorbachev_Lying_in_repose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Corpse of Gorbachev <a href="/wiki/Lying_in_state" title="Lying in state">lying in state</a> at the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Unions" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Unions">House of Unions</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg/220px-Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg/330px-Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg/440px-Grave_of_gorbachev%27s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1329" /></a><figcaption>Grave at <a href="/wiki/Novodevichy_Cemetery" title="Novodevichy Cemetery">Novodevichy Cemetery</a></figcaption></figure> A funeral for Gorbachev was held on 3 September 2022 from 10 a.m. to 12 noon in the Column Hall of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Unions" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Unions">House of Unions</a>. The ceremony included an <a href="/wiki/Honor_guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Honor guard">honor guard</a>, but was not an official <a href="/wiki/State_funeral" title="State funeral">state funeral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-624">[617]</a> The service included rites administered by a Russian Orthodox priest.<a href="#cite_note-625">[618]</a><a href="#cite_note-626">[619]</a> Gorbachev was buried at Moscow's <a href="/wiki/Novodevichy_Cemetery" title="Novodevichy Cemetery">Novodevichy Cemetery</a>, in the same grave as his wife Raisa, as requested by his will.<a href="#cite_note-Президент_России-434">[427]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactions">Reactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Reactions">edit</a>]</div> Russian president Vladimir Putin expressed his condolences on the death of Gorbachev,<a href="#cite_note-627">[620]</a> and paid tribute to him at the Moscow hospital where the ex-president had died but, according to spokesman Dmitry Peskov, had no time to attend his funeral due to a busy work schedule. Putin also sent a telegram to Gorbachev's family, calling him "a politician and statesman who had a huge impact on the course of world history".<a href="#cite_note-628">[621]</a> Russian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin" title="Mikhail Mishustin">Mikhail Mishustin</a> called Gorbachev an "outstanding statesman".<a href="#cite_note-629">[622]</a> Other reactions were less positive, with the leader of Russia's Communist Party, Gennady Zyuganov, stating that Gorbachev was a leader whose rule brought "absolute sadness, misfortune and problems" for "all the peoples of our country".<a href="#cite_note-630">[623]</a> <a href="/wiki/Naina_Yeltsina" title="Naina Yeltsina">Naina Yeltsina</a>, widow of former Russian president Boris Yeltsin, said that Gorbachev "sincerely wanted to change the Soviet system" and transform the USSR into a "free and peaceful state".<a href="#cite_note-631">[624]</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> president <a href="/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen" title="Ursula von der Leyen">Ursula von der Leyen</a> paid tribute to him on Twitter, as did the UK's prime minister <a href="/wiki/Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Boris Johnson</a>, former US secretary of state <a href="/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a> and Ireland's Taoiseach <a href="/wiki/Miche%C3%A1l_Martin" title="Micheál Martin">Micheál Martin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-632">[625]</a> United Nations secretary-general <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a> said Gorbachev was a "one-of-a-kind statesman who changed the course of history and a towering global leader, committed multilateralist, and tireless advocate for peace", as former US secretary of state <a href="/wiki/James_Baker_III" class="mw-redirect" title="James Baker III">James Baker III</a> stated that "history will remember Mikhail Gorbachev as a giant who steered his great nation towards democracy" in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>'s conclusion. Queen Elizabeth II, in her condolence and in one of her last public messages,<a href="#cite_note-634">[h]</a> stated that "through his courage and vision, he gained the admiration, affection and respect of the British people".<a href="#cite_note-635">[627]</a> Canadian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Justin_Trudeau" title="Justin Trudeau">Justin Trudeau</a> said "He helped bring an end to the Cold War, embraced reforms in the Soviet Union, and reduced the threat of nuclear weapons. He leaves behind an important legacy",<a href="#cite_note-636">[628]</a> while former Canadian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mulroney" title="Brian Mulroney">Brian Mulroney</a> said that "he was a very pleasant man to deal with" and "history will remember him as a transformational leader".<a href="#cite_note-637">[629]</a> French president <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a> called Gorbachev "a man of peace whose choices opened up a path of liberty for Russians". US president Joe Biden called Gorbachev "a man of remarkable vision".<a href="#cite_note-638">[630]</a> Polish foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Rau" title="Zbigniew Rau">Zbigniew Rau</a> stated that Gorbachev had "increased the scope of freedom of the enslaved peoples of the Soviet Union in an unprecedented way, giving them hope for a more dignified life".<a href="#cite_note-639">[631]</a> Lithuanian foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Gabrielius_Landsbergis" title="Gabrielius Landsbergis">Gabrielius Landsbergis</a> said that Lithuanians would not glorify Gorbachev or forget about the 1991 <a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January Events</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dw-january_events-410">[403]</a><a href="#cite_note-UaWarExplained.com-2022-191">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-641">[i]</a> The <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a> wrote to the Gorbachev Foundation to express his "condolences to his daughter, Irina Virganskaya and members of his family, his friends and supporters".<a href="#cite_note-642">[633]</a> Japan's prime minister <a href="/wiki/Fumio_Kishida" title="Fumio Kishida">Fumio Kishida</a> said Gorbachev had "left behind great [accomplishments] as a world leader supporting the abolishment of nuclear weapons".<a href="#cite_note-643">[634]</a> Germany's former chancellor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a>, who grew up in East Germany, said he completely changed her life and the world while current German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a> hailed Gorbachev's role in <a href="/wiki/Reuniting_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reuniting Germany">reuniting Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-644">[635]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_legacy">Reception and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reception and legacy">edit</a>]</div> Opinions on Gorbachev are deeply divided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20171-587">[580]</a> According to a 2017 survey carried out by the independent institute <a href="/wiki/Levada_Center" title="Levada Center">Levada Center</a>, 46% of Russian citizens have a negative opinion towards Gorbachev, 30% are indifferent, while only 15% have a positive opinion.<a href="#cite_note-645">[636]</a> Many, particularly in Western countries, see him as the greatest statesman of the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20171,_539-646">[637]</a> US press referred to the presence of "Gorbymania" in Western countries during the late 1980s and early 1990s, as represented by large crowds that turned out to greet his visits,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990286McCauley1998138-647">[638]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> naming him its "Man of the Decade" in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990391-648">[639]</a> In the Soviet Union itself, opinion polls indicated that Gorbachev was the most popular politician from 1985 through to late 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998267-649">[640]</a> For his domestic supporters, Gorbachev was seen as a reformer trying to modernise the Soviet Union,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990396-650">[641]</a> and to build a form of democratic socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990410-651">[642]</a> Taubman characterized Gorbachev as "a visionary who changed his country and the world—though neither as much as he wished".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017688-652">[643]</a> Taubman regarded Gorbachev as being "exceptional ... as a Russian ruler and a world statesman", highlighting that he avoided the "traditional, authoritarian, anti-Western norm" of both predecessors like Brezhnev and successors like Putin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017687-653">[644]</a> McCauley thought that in allowing the Soviet Union to move away from Marxism–Leninism, Gorbachev gave the Soviet people "something precious, the right to think and manage their lives for themselves", with all the uncertainty and risk that that entailed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998278–279-654">[645]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Gorbachev succeeded in destroying what was left of totalitarianism in the Soviet Union; he brought freedom of speech, of assembly, and of conscience to people who had never known it, except perhaps for a few chaotic months in 1917. By introducing free elections and creating parliamentary institutions, he laid the groundwork for democracy. It is more the fault of the raw material he worked with than of his own real shortcomings and mistakes that Russian democracy will take much longer to build than he thought. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Gorbachev biographer William Taubman, 2017<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017688-652">[643]</a></cite> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 280px; clear: left; float:left;margin:0 1.5em 1.5em 0;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?433793-1/qa-william-taubman">Q&A interview with William Taubman on Gorbachev: His Life and Times, October 15, 2017</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Gorbachev's negotiations with the US helped bring an end to the Cold War and reduced the threat of nuclear conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017688-652">[643]</a> His decision to allow the Eastern Bloc to break apart prevented significant bloodshed in Central and Eastern Europe; as Taubman noted, this meant that the "<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a>" ended in a far more peaceful manner than the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> several decades before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017688-652">[643]</a> Similarly, under Gorbachev, the Soviet Union broke apart without falling into civil war, as happened during the <a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">breakup of Yugoslavia</a> at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunce1992205McCauley1998275-655">[646]</a> McCauley noted that in facilitating the merger of East and West Germany, Gorbachev was "a co-father of German unification", assuring him long-term popularity among the German people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998197-656">[647]</a> However, he remains a controversial figure in former Soviet-occupied and administered countries such as the Baltic States, Ukraine, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Poland, after violent repressions against the local populations who sought independence. Locals have stated that they consider western veneration of the man an injustice and have said they do not understand his positive legacy in the west, with a group of Lithuanians having pursued legal action against him.<a href="#cite_note-657">[648]</a> He also faced domestic criticism during his rule. During his career, Gorbachev attracted the admiration of some colleagues, but others came to hate him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017134-592">[585]</a> Across society more broadly, his inability to reverse the decline in the Soviet economy brought discontent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990388-658">[649]</a> Liberals thought he lacked the radicalism to really break from Marxism–Leninism and establish a free market liberal democracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990416Steele1996145-659">[650]</a> Conversely, many of his Communist Party critics thought his reforms were reckless and threatened the survival of Soviet socialism;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990324-660">[651]</a> some believed he should have followed the example of China's Communist Party and restricted himself to economic rather than governmental reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteele1996145-661">[652]</a> Many Russians saw his emphasis on persuasion rather than force as a sign of weakness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017690-554">[547]</a> For much of the Communist Party nomenklatura, the Soviet Union's dissolution was disastrous as it resulted in their loss of power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998276-662">[653]</a> In Russia, he is widely despised for his role in the collapse of the Soviet Union and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">economic collapse</a> in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman20171-587">[580]</a> <a href="/wiki/Valentin_Varennikov" title="Valentin Varennikov">General Varennikov</a>, one of those who orchestrated the 1991 coup attempt against Gorbachev, for instance called him "a renegade and traitor to your own people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017659-473">[466]</a> Many of his critics attacked him for allowing the Marxist–Leninist governments across Eastern Europe to fall,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017268-663">[654]</a> and for allowing a reunited Germany to join NATO, something they deem to be contrary to Russia's national interest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017691-664">[655]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_Galeotti" title="Mark Galeotti">Mark Galeotti</a> stressed the connection between Gorbachev and his predecessor, Andropov. In Galeotti's view, Andropov was "the godfather of the Gorbachev revolution", because—as a former head of the KGB—he was able to put forward the case for reform without having his loyalty to the Soviet cause questioned, an approach that Gorbachev was able to build on and follow through with.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleotti199735-665">[656]</a> According to McCauley, Gorbachev "set reforms in motion without understanding where they could lead. Never in his worst nightmare could he have imagined that perestroika would lead to the destruction of the Soviet Union".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley1998257–258-666">[657]</a> According to The New York Times, "Few leaders in the 20th century, indeed in any century, have had such a profound effect on their time. In little more than six tumultuous years, Mr. Gorbachev lifted the Iron Curtain, decisively altering the political climate of the world."<a href="#cite_note-667">[658]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Awards and honors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_presents_Reagan_Freedom_Medal_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Reagan_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2595" /></a><figcaption>Former US president <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> awards the first <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award" title="Ronald Reagan Freedom Award">Ronald Reagan Freedom Award</a> to Gorbachev at the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Library">Reagan Library</a>, 1992</figcaption></figure> In 1988, India awarded Gorbachev the <a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi_Prize_for_Peace,_Disarmament_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development">Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoderBranson1990366-668">[659]</a> in 1990, he was given the Nobel Peace Prize for "his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community".<a href="#cite_note-669">[660]</a> Out of office he continued to receive honors. In 1992, he was the first recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award" title="Ronald Reagan Freedom Award">Ronald Reagan Freedom Award</a>,<a href="#cite_note-670">[661]</a> and in 1994 was given the <a href="/wiki/Grawemeyer_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Grawemeyer Award">Grawemeyer Award</a> by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Louisville" title="University of Louisville">University of Louisville</a>, Kentucky.<a href="#cite_note-grawemeyer.org-671">[662]</a> In 1995, he was awarded the Grand-Cross of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Liberty" title="Order of Liberty">Order of Liberty</a> by Portuguese president <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Soares" title="Mário Soares">Mário Soares</a>,<a href="#cite_note-672">[663]</a> and in 1998 the Freedom Award from the <a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-673">[664]</a> In 2000, he was presented with the Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a> at an awards ceremony at <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Court_Palace" title="Hampton Court Palace">Hampton Court Palace</a> near London.<a href="#cite_note-674">[665]</a> In 2002, Gorbachev received the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City_of_Dublin" title="Freedom of the City of Dublin">Freedom of the City of Dublin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dublin_City_Council" title="Dublin City Council">Dublin City Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-675">[666]</a> In 2002, Gorbachev was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_European_Award" title="Charles V European Award">Charles V Prize</a> by the European Academy of Yuste Foundation.<a href="#cite_note-676">[667]</a> Gorbachev, together with <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Loren" title="Sophia Loren">Sophia Loren</a>, were awarded the <a href="/wiki/46th_Annual_Grammy_Awards" title="46th Annual Grammy Awards">2004 Grammy Award</a> for <a href="/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" title="Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children">Best Spoken Word Album for Children</a> for their recording of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev" title="Sergei Prokofiev">Sergei Prokofiev</a>'s 1936 <a href="/wiki/Peter_and_the_Wolf" title="Peter and the Wolf">Peter and the Wolf</a> for <a href="/wiki/Pentatone_(record_label)" title="Pentatone (record label)">Pentatone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-677">[668]</a> In 2005, Gorbachev was awarded the Point Alpha Prize for his role in supporting German reunification.<a href="#cite_note-Deutsche_Welle-678">[669]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Title </th> <th>Co-author </th> <th>Publisher </th></tr> <tr> <td>1987 </td> <td>PERESTROIKA - New Thinking for Our Country and the World </td> <td>– </td> <td>Harper & Row </td></tr> <tr> <td>1996 </td> <td>Memoirs </td> <td>– </td> <td>Doubleday </td></tr> <tr> <td>2005 </td> <td>Moral Lessons of the Twentieth Century: Gorbachev and Ikeda on Buddhism and Communism </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daisaku_Ikeda" title="Daisaku Ikeda">Daisaku Ikeda</a> </td> <td>I. B. Tauris </td></tr> <tr> <td>2016 </td> <td>The New Russia </td> <td>– </td> <td>Polity </td></tr> <tr> <td>2018 </td> <td>In a Changing World </td> <td>– </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2020 </td> <td>What Is at Stake Now: My Appeal for Peace and Freedom </td> <td>– </td> <td>Polity </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan,_Margaret_Thatcher,_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_(8480300191).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg/170px-InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg/255px-InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg/340px-InSapphoWeTrust_-_Ronald_Reagan%2C_Margaret_Thatcher%2C_and_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_Madame_Tussauds_London_%288480300191%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Waxworks of Reagan, Thatcher and Gorbachev at <a href="/wiki/Madame_Tussauds" title="Madame Tussauds">Madame Tussauds</a>, London</figcaption></figure> In 2020/2021, the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Nations" title="Theatre of Nations">Theatre of Nations</a> in Moscow, in collaboration with Latvian director <a href="/wiki/Alvis_Hermanis" title="Alvis Hermanis">Alvis Hermanis</a>, staged a production called Gorbachev.<a href="#cite_note-679">[670]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Mironov_(actor)" title="Yevgeny Mironov (actor)">Yevgeny Mironov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chulpan_Khamatova" title="Chulpan Khamatova">Chulpan Khamatova</a> played the roles of Gorbachev and his wife Raisa respectively.<a href="#cite_note-gorbachev-680">[671]</a> Gorbachev was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/David_Dencik" title="David Dencik">David Dencik</a> in the 2019 miniseries <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_(miniseries)" title="Chernobyl (miniseries)">Chernobyl</a>,<a href="#cite_note-DeadlineDencik-681">[672]</a> by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Marsh_(actor)" title="Matthew Marsh (actor)">Matthew Marsh</a> in the 2023 film <a href="/wiki/Tetris_(film)" title="Tetris (film)">Tetris</a><a href="#cite_note-682">[673]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Krupa" title="Aleksander Krupa">Aleksander Krupa</a> in the 2024 biographical drama <a href="/wiki/Reagan_(2024_film)" title="Reagan (2024 film)">Reagan</a>. Gorbachev appears in <a href="/wiki/Call_of_Duty:_Black_Ops_Cold_War" title="Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War">Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War</a> during a mission where the playable character infiltrates the KGB headquarters. Gorbachev is portrayed by David Agranov.<a href="#cite_note-683">[674]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> On 14 March 1990, the provision on the CPSU monopoly on power was removed from Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR. Thus, in the Soviet Union, a multi-party system was officially allowed, and the CPSU ceased to be part of the state apparatus. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Briefly suspended from 19 to 21 August 1991 during the <a href="/wiki/August_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="August Coup">August Coup</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> De facto until 21 August 1991; de jure until 4 September. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> This post was abolished on <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">25 December 1991</a> and powers were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">President of Russia</a>. Functions of the presidency were succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Heads_of_State_of_the_CIS" title="Council of Heads of State of the CIS">Council of Heads of State</a> and the Executive Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Himself as the Chairman of the United Social Democratic Party of Russia until 24 November 2001, and the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)" title="Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001)">Social Democratic Party of Russia</a> until 20 October 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> In this name that follows <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs" title="Eastern Slavic naming customs">Eastern Slavic naming customs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a> is Sergeyevich and the <a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">family name</a> is Gorbachev. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɡɔːrbətʃɒf, ˌɡɔːrbəˈtʃɒf/</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-tʃɔːf, -tʃɛf/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-7">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[3]</a> Russian: Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[mʲɪxɐˈil sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪdʑ ɡərbɐˈtɕɵf]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e5\/Ru-Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachev.ogg\/Ru-Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachev.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Ru-Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachev.ogg/Ru-Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachev.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-Mikhail_Sergeyevich_Gorbachev.ogg" title="File:Ru-Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev.ogg">ⓘ</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-634"><a href="#cite_ref-634">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Elizabeth_II" title="Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II">The Queen died</a> only nine days after Gorbachev.<a href="#cite_note-633">[626]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-641"><a href="#cite_ref-641">^</a> Gorbachev at the time asserted that no one in Moscow gave orders to start the violent confrontations of the so-called January Events in <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a> that cost the lives of 14 civilians.<a href="#cite_note-640">[632]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/gorbachev">"Gorbachev"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114118/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gorbachev">Archived</a> 2 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/gorbachev,_mikhail">"Gorbachev, Mikhail"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190513151055/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/gorbachev,_mikhail">Archived</a> 13 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 4 February 2019 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gorbachev">"Gorbachev"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a>. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 4 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Gorbachev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FGorbachev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198622DoderBranson19901McCauley199815Taubman20177-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedvedev198622DoderBranson19901McCauley199815Taubman20177_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMedvedev1986">Medvedev 1986</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFDoderBranson1990">Doder & Branson 1990</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFMcCauley1998">McCauley 1998</a>, p. 15; <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman201710-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaubman201710_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199815Taubman201710-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCauley199815Taubman201710_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCauley1998">McCauley 1998</a>, p. 15; 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<a href="#CITEREFDoderBranson1990">Doder & Branson 1990</a>, p. 43; <a href="#CITEREFMcCauley1998">McCauley 1998</a>, p. 41; <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, pp. 179–180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017180-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaubman2017180_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMedvedev1986">Medvedev 1986</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubman2017181,_191-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaubman2017181,_191_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, pp. 181, 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleotti199732Taubman2017181-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaleotti199732Taubman2017181_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGaleotti1997">Galeotti 1997</a>, p. 32; <a href="#CITEREFTaubman2017">Taubman 2017</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123Galeotti199732Taubman2017181-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedvedev1986123Galeotti199732Taubman2017181_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMedvedev1986">Medvedev 1986</a>, p. 123; 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Retrieved 27 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Mikhail+Gorbachev+says+Nato+is+escalating+Cold+War+with+Russia+%27into+a+hot+one%27&rft.date=2016-07-09&rft.aulast=Worley&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fnato-chief-russia-soviet-mikhail-gorbachev-ukraine-eastern-europe-tensions-jens-stoltenberg-unified-a7128521.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-522"><a href="#cite_ref-522">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/a8cad273fde84304a2aa31c6cd5cf7a6">"The Latest: Gorbachev has high hopes for Putin-Trump summit"</a>. Associated Press News. 28 June 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180717154114/https://apnews.com/a8cad273fde84304a2aa31c6cd5cf7a6">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press+News&rft.atitle=The+Latest%3A+Gorbachev+has+high+hopes+for+Putin-Trump+summit&rft.date=2018-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Fa8cad273fde84304a2aa31c6cd5cf7a6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-523"><a href="#cite_ref-523">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllyatt2018" class="citation news cs1">Ellyatt, Holly (22 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/22/gorbachev-says-trumps-nuclear-treaty-withdrawal-not-the-work-of-a-great-mind.html">"Gorbachev says Trump's nuclear treaty withdrawal 'not the work of a great mind'"</a>. CNBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109013135/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/22/gorbachev-says-trumps-nuclear-treaty-withdrawal-not-the-work-of-a-great-mind.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Gorbachev+says+Trump%27s+nuclear+treaty+withdrawal+%27not+the+work+of+a+great+mind%27&rft.date=2018-10-22&rft.aulast=Ellyatt&rft.aufirst=Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2018%2F10%2F22%2Fgorbachev-says-trumps-nuclear-treaty-withdrawal-not-the-work-of-a-great-mind.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-524"><a href="#cite_ref-524">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/former-soviet-leader-gorbachev-lauds-george-hw-bush-for-political-abilities-character/4682566.html">"Former Soviet Leader Gorbachev Lauds George HW Bush for Political Abilities, Character"</a>. 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Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VOA&rft.atitle=Former+Soviet+Leader+Gorbachev+Lauds+George+HW+Bush+for+Political+Abilities%2C+Character&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fformer-soviet-leader-gorbachev-lauds-george-hw-bush-for-political-abilities-character%2F4682566.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-525"><a href="#cite_ref-525">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interfax.ru/world/744285">"Горбачев увидел угрозу судьбе США как государства"</a> (in Russian). <a href="/wiki/Interfax" title="Interfax">Interfax</a>. 7 January 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210110212641/https://www.interfax.ru/world/744285">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021. <q>По его мнению, произошедшие в Вашингтоне беспорядки "поставили под вопрос дальнейшую судьбу США как государства".</q> [In Gorbachev's opinion, the riots that took place in Washington "called into question the future fate of the United States as a nation".]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2+%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB+%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83+%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5+%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BA+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.date=2021-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.interfax.ru%2Fworld%2F744285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-526"><a href="#cite_ref-526">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkins2021" class="citation web cs1">Adkins, William (20 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/mikhail-gorbachev-us-russia-relationship-great-concern-salvageable/">"Gorbachev: US-Russia relations of 'great concern' but salvageable"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210217180321/https://www.politico.eu/article/mikhail-gorbachev-us-russia-relationship-great-concern-salvageable/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2021. 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September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mk.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%81+%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BC&rft.date=2022-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mk.ru%2Fpolitics%2F2022%2F09%2F01%2Fopublikovany-kadry-proshhaniya-putina-s-gorbachevym.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-622"><a href="#cite_ref-622">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/69242">"Владимир Путин простился с Михаилом Горбачёвым"</a>. 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Retrieved 1 September 2022. <q>Spokesman Dmitry Peskov said Mr Putin's work schedule would not permit him to attend the event [i.e. Gorbachev's funeral] on Saturday.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Putin+will+not+attend+Gorbachev%27s+funeral&rft.date=2022-09-01&rft.aulast=Plummer&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-62756196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-629"><a href="#cite_ref-629">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatypova2022" class="citation web cs1">Latypova, Leyla (31 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/08/31/praise-and-blame-how-russia-reacted-to-the-death-of-gorbachev-a78690">"Praise and Blame: How Russia Reacted to the Death of Gorbachev"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Times">Moscow Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Moscow+Times&rft.atitle=Praise+and+Blame%3A+How+Russia+Reacted+to+the+Death+of+Gorbachev&rft.date=2022-08-31&rft.aulast=Latypova&rft.aufirst=Leyla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.themoscowtimes.com%2F2022%2F08%2F31%2Fpraise-and-blame-how-russia-reacted-to-the-death-of-gorbachev-a78690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-630"><a href="#cite_ref-630">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/08/31/praise-and-blame-how-russia-reacted-to-the-death-of-gorbachev-a78690">"Praise and Blame: How Russia Reacted to the Death of Gorbachev"</a>. 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American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 5 (2): 232–260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fapp.5.2.232">10.1257/app.5.2.232</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1945-7790">1945-7790</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43189436">43189436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3818525">3818525</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24224067">24224067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Journal%3A+Applied+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Gorbachev+Anti-Alcohol+Campaign+and+Russia%27s+Mortality+Crisis&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=232-260&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3818525%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43189436%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fapp.5.2.232&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24224067&rft.issn=1945-7790&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft.au=Gathmann%2C+Christina&rft.au=Miller%2C+Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3818525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunce1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bunce, Valerie (1992). "On Gorbachev". The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review. 19 (1): 199–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F187633292X00108">10.1163/187633292X00108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Soviet+and+Post-Soviet+Review&rft.atitle=On+Gorbachev&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=199-206&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F187633292X00108&rft.aulast=Bunce&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoderBranson1990" class="citation book cs1">Doder, Dusko; Branson, Louise (1990). Gorbachev: Heretic in the Kremlin. London: Futura. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-70884940-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-70884940-8"><bdi>978-0-70884940-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev%3A+Heretic+in+the+Kremlin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Futura&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-70884940-8&rft.aulast=Doder&rft.aufirst=Dusko&rft.au=Branson%2C+Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaleotti1997" class="citation book cs1">Galeotti, Mark (1997). Gorbachev and his Revolution. London: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-33363855-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-33363855-2"><bdi>978-0-33363855-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev+and+his+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-33363855-2&rft.aulast=Galeotti&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGooding1990" class="citation journal cs1">Gooding, John (1990). "Gorbachev and Democracy". Soviet Studies. 42 (2): 195–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139008411864">10.1080/09668139008411864</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152078">152078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Studies&rft.atitle=Gorbachev+and+Democracy&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-231&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139008411864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152078%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gooding&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley1998" class="citation book cs1">McCauley, Martin (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gorbachev00mcca">Gorbachev</a>. Profiles in Power. London and New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-58221597-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-58221597-9"><bdi>978-0-58221597-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=Profiles+in+Power&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-58221597-9&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgorbachev00mcca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1986" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Zhores (1986). Gorbachev. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39302308-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39302308-4"><bdi>978-0-39302308-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-39302308-4&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Zhores&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteele1996" class="citation journal cs1">Steele, Jonathan (1996). "Why Gorbachev Failed". New Left Review. 216: 141–152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Left+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Gorbachev+Failed&rft.volume=216&rft.pages=141-152&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Steele&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarschys1993" class="citation journal cs1">Tarschys, Daniel (1993). "The Success of a Failure: Gorbachev's Alcohol Policy, 1985–88". Europe-Asia Studies. 45 (1): 7–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139308412074">10.1080/09668139308412074</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/153247">153247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Success+of+a+Failure%3A+Gorbachev%27s+Alcohol+Policy%2C+1985%E2%80%9388&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-25&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139308412074&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F153247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tarschys&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaubman2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Taubman" title="William Taubman">Taubman, William</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/Gorbachev:_His_Life_and_Times" title="Gorbachev: His Life and Times">Gorbachev: His Life and Times</a>. New York City: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-47114796-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-47114796-8"><bdi>978-1-47114796-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gorbachev%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-47114796-8&rft.aulast=Taubman&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuminez2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tuminez, Astrid S. (2003). "Nationalism, Ethnic Pressures, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union". Journal of Cold War Studies. 5 (4): 81–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F152039703322483765">10.1162/152039703322483765</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26925339">26925339</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57565508">57565508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cold+War+Studies&rft.atitle=Nationalism%2C+Ethnic+Pressures%2C+and+the+Breakup+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=81-136&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57565508%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26925339%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F152039703322483765&rft.aulast=Tuminez&rft.aufirst=Astrid+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMikhail+Gorbachev" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_post-Stalinist_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union">bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Brown, Archie. The human factor: Gorbachev, Reagan, and Thatcher, and the end of the Cold War (Oxford University Press, 2020). [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Duncan, W. Raymond, and Carolyn McGiffert Ekedahl. Moscow and the third world under Gorbachev (Routledge, 2019). [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Eklof, Ben. Soviet briefing: Gorbachev and the reform period (Routledge, 2019). [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Kotkin, Stephen. Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000 (2nd ed. 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Armageddon-Averted-Soviet-Collapse-1970-2000-dp-0195368649/dp/0195368649/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031133512/https://www.amazon.com/Armageddon-Averted-Soviet-Collapse-1970-2000-dp-0195368649/dp/0195368649/">Archived</a> 31 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Kramer, Mark. "Mikhail Gorbachev and the Origins of Perestroika: A Retrospective." Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization 29.3 (2021): 255–258.</li> <li>Lane, David. "The Gorbachev revolution: The role of the political elite in regime disintegration." Political studies 44.1 (1996): 4–23.</li> <li>McHugh, James T. "Last of the enlightened despots: A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II." Social Science Journal 32.1 (1995): 69–85 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9">online abstract </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415012036/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9">Archived</a> 15 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Woodby, Sylvia Babus. Gorbachev and the decline of ideology in Soviet foreign policy (Routledge, 2019). [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Ostrovsky, Alexander (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ru.bookshome.net/book/3299571/e53580">Кто поставил Горбачёва? (Who put Gorbachev?)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220807112401/https://ru.bookshome.net/book/3299571/e53580">Archived</a> 7 August 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – М.: Алгоритм-Эксмо, 2010. – 544 с. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-699-40627-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-699-40627-2">978-5-699-40627-2</a>.</li> <li>Ostrovsky, Alexander (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ru.bookshome.net/book/1137525/d94429">Глупость или измена? Расследование гибели СССР. (Stupidity or treason? Investigation of the death of the USSR)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830215714/https://ru.bookshome.net/book/1137525/d94429">Archived</a> 30 August 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> М.: Форум, Крымский мост-9Д, 2011. – 864 с. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-89747-068-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-89747-068-6">978-5-89747-068-6</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gorby.ru/en/">Official website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/mikhail-s-gorbachev">Mikhail S. Gorbachev</a> collected news and commentary at <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0329784/">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Yefremov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Yefremov (page does not exist)">Leonid Yefremov</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Secretary_of_the_Stavropol_Regional_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee of the Communist Party (page does not exist)">First Secretary of the Stavropol CPSU Regional Committee</a> 1970–1978 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Murakhovsky" title="Vsevolod Murakhovsky">Vsevolod Murakhovsky</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> 1985–1991 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(acting)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a></div>as <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(1988–1989) <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Supreme Soviet">Chairman of the Supreme Soviet</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(1989–1990) <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(1990–1991) 1988–1991 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Office abolished </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFF179;">Awards and achievements </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> 1990 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Award established </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award" title="Ronald Reagan Freedom Award">Ronald Reagan Freedom Award</a> 1992 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Mikhail_Gorbachev" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Mikhail Gorbachev</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Era_of_Stagnation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stagnation_Era" title="Template:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stagnation_Era" title="Template talk:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stagnation_Era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stagnation Era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Era_of_Stagnation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">Events (1964–1982)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassboro_Summit_Conference" title="Glassboro Summit Conference">Glassboro Summit Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">1968 Red Square demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Attempted assassination of Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladivostok_Summit_Meeting_on_Arms_Control" title="Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control">Vladivostok Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Accords" title="Helsinki Accords">Helsinki Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Moscow_bombings" title="1977 Moscow bombings">1977 Moscow bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977 Soviet constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1978 Georgian demonstrations">1978 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Reaction to 1980–1981 Polish crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_Zapad-81" class="mw-redirect" title="Exercise Zapad-81">Exercise Zapad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">Events (1982–1985)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RYAN" class="mw-redirect" title="RYAN">RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Soviet_nuclear_false_alarm_incident" title="1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident">1983 false nuclear alarm incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_cotton_scandal" title="Uzbek cotton scandal">Uzbek cotton scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Games" title="Friendship Games">Friendship Games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politburo members <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a></li></ul></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dolgikh" title="Vladimir Dolgikh">Dolgikh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Efremov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Efremov (page does not exist)">Efremov</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Grechko" title="Andrei Grechko">Grechko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Grishin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Kirilenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_Kiselyov" title="Tikhon Kiselyov">Kiselyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kulakov" title="Fyodor Kulakov">Kulakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Masherov" title="Pyotr Masherov">Masherov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirill_Mazurov" title="Kirill Mazurov">Mazurov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Mikoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Mzhavanadze" title="Vasil Mzhavanadze">Mzhavanadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Pelše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Polyansky" title="Dmitry Polyansky">Polyansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Ponomarev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharof_Rashidov" title="Sharof Rashidov">Rashidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Romanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Shelepin" title="Alexander Shelepin">Shelepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Shelest" title="Petro Shelest">Shelest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Shvernik" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Shvernik">Shvernik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Ustinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Ustinov">Ustinov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Voronov" title="Gennady Voronov">Voronov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vorotnikov</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">Troika</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governments of the Soviet Union">Governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_First_Government" title="Kosygin's First Government">Kosygin's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Second_Government" title="Kosygin's Second Government">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Third_Government" title="Kosygin's Third Government">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fourth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fourth Government">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fifth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fifth Government">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_First_Government" title="Tikhonov's First Government">Tikhonov's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_Second_Government" title="Tikhonov's Second Government">2nd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1973 Soviet economic reform">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1979 Soviet economic reform">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Programme" title="Food Programme">Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1984_Soviet_economic_reform&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1984 Soviet economic reform (page does not exist)">1984</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eighth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">8th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ninth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">9th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Tenth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">10th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eleventh five-year plan (Soviet Union)">11th plan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> (1912–24)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1924–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1953–64)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> (1964–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1982–84)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a> (1984–85)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1985–91)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Stasova" title="Elena Stasova">Elena Stasova</a> (1917–18)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Yakov Sverdlov</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Stasova" title="Elena Stasova">Elena Stasova</a> (Mar.–Dec. 1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Krestinsky" title="Nikolay Krestinsky">Nikolay Krestinsky</a> (1919–21)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> (1921–22)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1922–52)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1953–64)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> (1964–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1982–84)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a> (1984–85)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1985–91)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a> (acting, Aug. 1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Decision-making bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo / Presidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo" title="Orgburo">Orgburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Control Commission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Departments of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Departments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Administrative_Organs_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Administrative Organs Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Administrative Organs</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_Industry_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemical Industry Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Chemical Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Construction Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Culture Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_Industry_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Defence Industry Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Defence Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_Cadres_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foreign Cadres Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Foreign Cadres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heavy_Industry_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heavy Industry Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Heavy Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Information Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="International Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">International</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-_and_Food_Industry_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Light- and Food Industry Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Light- and Food Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_Industry_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Machine Industry Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Machine Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organisational-party_Work_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Organisational-party Work of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Organisational-party Work</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planning_and_Financial_Organs_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planning and Financial Organs Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Planning and Financial Organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Political_Directorate_of_the_Soviet_Army_and_Soviet_Navy" title="Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Soviet Navy">Political Administration of the Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agitprop" title="Agitprop">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_Education_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and Education Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Science and Education</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trade_and_Consumers%27_Services_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trade and Consumers' Services Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Trade and Consumers' Services</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation-Communications_Department_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation-Communications Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Transportation-Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhenotdel" title="Zhenotdel">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommunist" title="Kommunist">Bolshevik / Kommunist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National meetings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="1st Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">1st (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">2nd (1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="3rd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">3rd (1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">4th (1906)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">5th (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">6th (1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="7th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">7th (1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">9th (1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">11th (1922)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">12th (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="13th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="21st Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">21st (1959)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd (1961)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd (1966)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th (1971)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th (1976)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th (1986)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th (1990)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conference_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Conference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tampere_conference_of_1905" title="Tampere conference of 1905">1st (1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2nd_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2nd Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (page does not exist)">2nd (1906)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=3rd_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3rd Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (page does not exist)">3rd (Aug. 1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=4th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (page does not exist)">4th (Nov. 1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (page does not exist)">5th (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Conference" title="Prague Conference">6th (1912)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">7th (1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=8th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="8th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">8th (1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=9th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="9th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">9th (1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=10th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="10th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">10th (May 1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=11th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">11th (Dec. 1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=12th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="12th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">12th (1922)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=13th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="13th Conference of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">13th (1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=14th_Conference_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="14th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">14th (1925)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=15th_Conference_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="15th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">15th (1926)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=16th_Conference_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="16th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">16th (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=17th_Conference_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="17th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">17th (1932)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th_Conference_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="18th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">18th (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_All-Union_Conference_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th All-Union Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1988)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership sittings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elected by the Central Committee</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner-composition_of_the_6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Inner-composition of the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">Aug.–Oct. 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner-composition_of_the_6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Inner-composition of the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">Oct.–Dec. 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner-composition_of_the_6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Inner-composition of the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">6th (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_7th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Bureau, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 7th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">7th (1918–19)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_and_Secretariat_of_the_8th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo and Secretariat of the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">9th (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">11th (1922–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th (1956–61)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd (1961–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd (1966–71)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th (1971–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th (1976–81)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th (1981–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th (1986–90)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th (1990–91)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner-composition_of_the_6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Inner-composition of the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">6th (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_7th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Bureau, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 7th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">7th (1918–19)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_and_Secretariat_of_the_8th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo and Secretariat of the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">9th (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">11th (1922–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Secretariat of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th (1956–61)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd (1961–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd (1966–71)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th (1971–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th (1976–81)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th (1981–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th (1986–90)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th (1990–91)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orgburo" title="Orgburo">Orgburo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_7th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Bureau, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 7th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">7th (Jan.–Mar. 1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_8th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo,_Secretariat_and_Orgburo_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Politburo, Secretariat and Orgburo of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">9th (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">11th (1922–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Orgburo of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939–52)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Control Committee</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Commission_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Commission of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Commission_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Commission of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">18th (1939–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">19th (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">20th (1956–61)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">22nd (1961–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">23rd (1966–71)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">24th (1971–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">25th (1976–81)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">26th (1981–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_Control_Committee_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party Control Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">27th (1986–90)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elected by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Control Commission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Presidium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the 16th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">28th (1990–91)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secretariat_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secretariat of the Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Secretariat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secretariat_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secretariat of the Central Control Commission of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secretariat_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secretariat of the Central Control Commission of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secretariat_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secretariat of the Central Control Commission of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">14th (1925–27)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Collegium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collegium_of_the_Central_Control_Commission_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collegium of the Central Control Commission of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">16th (1930–34)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elected by Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="1st Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">1st (1898–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Central Committee of the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">2nd (1903–05)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_3rd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Central Committee of the 3rd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">3rd (Apr.–Dec. 1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_1st_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Central Committee of the 1st Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">CC of the 1st Conf. (1905–06)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_4th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Central Committee of the 4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">4th (1906–07)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_5th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Central Committee of the 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">5th (1907–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_6th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 6th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">CC of the 6th Conf. (1912–17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_7th_Conference_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 7th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">CC of the 7th Conf. (Apr.–Aug. 1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_6th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)">6th (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_7th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 7th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">7th (1918–19)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_8th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">9th (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">11th (1922–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Committee of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th (1956–61)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd (1961–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd (1966–71)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th (1971–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th (1976–81)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th (1981–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th (1986–90)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th (1990–91)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Auditing Commission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_8th,_10th,_13th,_14th_and_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 8th, 10th, 13th, 14th and 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">8th (1919–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_8th,_10th,_13th,_14th_and_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 8th, 10th, 13th, 14th and 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">10th (1921–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_8th,_10th,_13th,_14th_and_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 8th, 10th, 13th, 14th and 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_8th,_10th,_13th,_14th_and_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 8th, 10th, 13th, 14th and 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_8th,_10th,_13th,_14th_and_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 8th, 10th, 13th, 14th and 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th (1934–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th (1939–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th (1956–61)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd (1961–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd (1966–71)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th (1971–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th (1976–81)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th (1981–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Auditing Commission of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th (1986–90)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Control_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Control Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Control Commission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">9th (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">10th (1921–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_11th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 11th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">11th (1922–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_12th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">12th (1923–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_13th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">13th (1924–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">14th (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_15th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">15th (1927–30)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (page does not exist)">16th (1930–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Control_Commission_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Control Commission of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">28th (1990–91)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wider organisation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republican-level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Armenia_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Armenia (Soviet Union)">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Communist_Party_(1920)" title="Azerbaijan Communist Party (1920)">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Byelorussia" title="Communist Party of Byelorussia">Byelorussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bukhara" title="Communist Party of Bukhara">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Estonia" title="Communist Party of Estonia">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Georgia_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Georgia (Soviet Union)">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Communist Party of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic">Karelo-Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Soviet Union)">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Khorezm" title="Communist Party of Khorezm">Khorezmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kirghizia" title="Communist Party of Kirghizia">Kirghiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Latvia" title="Communist Party of Latvia">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Lithuania" title="Communist Party of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Moldavia" title="Communist Party of Moldavia">Moldavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Tajikistan" title="Communist Party of Tajikistan">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communist_Party_of_Transcaucasia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Communist Party of Transcaucasia (page does not exist)">Transcaucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Turkestan" title="Communist Party of Turkestan">Turkestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Turkmenistan" title="Communist Party of Turkmenistan">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ukraine_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Uzbekistan" title="Communist Party of Uzbekistan">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local-level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Regional Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Obkom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Okrug_committee_of_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Okrug committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Okrugkom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=City_committee_of_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="City committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Gorkom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_committee_of_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Raikom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Party_committee_of_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Party committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Partkom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other organs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statute_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Statute of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (page does not exist)">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">All-Union Leninist Young Communist League (Komsomol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Pioneers_(Soviet_Union)" title="Young Pioneers (Soviet Union)">Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Political_Directorate_of_the_Soviet_Army_and_Soviet_Navy" title="Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Soviet Navy">Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Soviet Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_on_factions_in_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ban on factions in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Ban on factions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Democratic_Centralism" title="Group of Democratic Centralism">Group of Democratic Centralism</a> (1919–21)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Opposition" title="Workers' Opposition">Workers' Opposition</a> (1920–21)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Truth" title="Workers' Truth">Workers' Truth</a> (1921–23)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Opposition" title="Left Opposition">Left Opposition</a> (1923–27)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Group_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party" title="Workers Group of the Russian Communist Party">Workers' Group</a> (1923–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Opposition" title="Right Opposition">Right Opposition</a> (1924–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Opposition_(Soviet_Union)" title="United Opposition (Soviet Union)">United Opposition</a> (1926–27)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrtsov-Lominadze_Affair" title="Syrtsov-Lominadze Affair">Left-Right Bloc</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryutin_affair" title="Ryutin affair">Union of Marxist-Leninists</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Soviet_Oppositions" title="Bloc of Soviet Oppositions">Bloc of Soviet Oppositions</a> (1932–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Party_Group" title="Anti-Party Group">Anti-Party Group</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(faction)" title="Soyuz (faction)">Soyuz</a> (1990–91)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Committee_on_the_State_of_Emergency" title="State Committee on the State of Emergency">State Committee on the State of Emergency</a> (1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Communists_and_Non-Partisans" title="Bloc of Communists and Non-Partisans">Bloc of Communists and Non-Partisans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund" title="General Jewish Labour Bund">General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Russian_Revolutionary_Social_Democracy_Abroad" title="League of Russian Revolutionary Social Democracy Abroad">League of Russian Revolutionary Social Democracy Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Struggle_for_the_Emancipation_of_the_Working_Class" title="League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class">League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Purges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Social-Democratic_Union" title="Siberian Social-Democratic Union">Siberian Social-Democratic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democracy_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania">Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Russian_Social_Democrats_Abroad" title="Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad">Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Heads of state of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Heads of state of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heads of state of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heads of state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kalinin" title="Mikhail Kalinin">Kalinin</a> (1922–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Shvernik" title="Nikolai Shvernik">Shvernik</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Voroshilov</a> (1953–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a> (1960–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Mikoyan</a> (1964–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a> (1965–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a> (1977–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a> (1983–1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a> (1984–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Gromyko</a> (1985–1988)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gorbachev</a> (1988–1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice heads of state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Kuznetsov</a> (1977–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Demichev</a> (1986–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lukyanov" title="Anatoly Lukyanov">Lukyanov</a> (1988–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Yanayev" title="Gennady Yanayev">Yanayev</a> (1990–1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="28th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1990–1991)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:28th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="28th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1990–1991)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/28th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="28th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">28th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1990–1991)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mykolas_Burokevi%C4%8Dius" title="Mykolas Burokevičius">Mykolas Burokevičius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givi_Gumbaridze" title="Givi Gumbaridze">Givi Gumbaridze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Hurenko" title="Stanislav Hurenko">Stanislav Hurenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dzasokhov" title="Alexander Dzasokhov">Alexander Dzasokhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_Karimov" title="Islam Karimov">Islam Karimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Lucinschi" title="Petru Lucinschi">Petru Lucinschi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absamat_Masaliyev" title="Absamat Masaliyev">Absamat Masaliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qahhor_Mahkamov" title="Qahhor Mahkamov">Qahhor Mahkamov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Movsisyan" title="Vladimir Movsisyan">Vladimir Movsisyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaz_Mutallibov" title="Ayaz Mutallibov">Ayaz Mutallibov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev" title="Nursultan Nazarbayev">Nursultan Nazarbayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saparmyrat_Ny%C3%BDazow" class="mw-redirect" title="Saparmyrat Nyýazow">Saparmyrat Nyýazow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Polozkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Polozkov">Ivan Polozkov</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuri_Prokofiev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuri Prokofiev (page does not exist)">Yuri Prokofiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfr%C4%93ds_Rubiks" title="Alfrēds Rubiks">Alfrēds Rubiks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galina_Semenova" title="Galina Semenova">Galina Semenova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enn-Arno_Sillari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enn-Arno Sillari (page does not exist)">Enn-Arno Sillari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Sokolov_(marshal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Sokolov (marshal)">Sergey Sokolov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yegor_Stroyev" title="Yegor Stroyev">Yegor Stroyev</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Frolov_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ivan Frolov (politician) (page does not exist)">Ivan Frolov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Shenin" title="Oleg Shenin">Oleg Shenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Yanayev" title="Gennady Yanayev">Gennady Yanayev</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatoly_Malafeev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatoly Malafeev (page does not exist)">Anatoly Malafeev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Pogosyan" title="Stepan Pogosyan">Stepan Pogosyan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembit_Annus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembit Annus (page does not exist)">Lembit Annus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dzhumgalbek_Amanbayev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dzhumgalbek Amanbayev (page does not exist)">Dzhumgalbek Amanbayev</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gregory_Yeremey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gregory Yeremey (page does not exist)">Gregory Yeremey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Surkov_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikhail Surkov (politician) (page does not exist)">Mikhail Surkov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:27th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:27th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:27th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:27th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="27th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1986–1990)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/27th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="27th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">27th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1986–1990)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Full members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vitaly Vorotnikov</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Zaykov" title="Lev Zaykov">Lev Zaykov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Dinmukhamed Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yegor_Ligachyov" title="Yegor Ligachyov">Yegor Ligachyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ryzhkov" title="Nikolai Ryzhkov">Nikolai Ryzhkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Mikhail Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Viktor Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Volodymyr Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Yakovlev_(Russian_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)">Alexander Yakovlev</a></li> <li>Viktor Nikonov</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Slyunkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Slyunkov">Nikolay Slyunkov</a></li> <li>Vadim Medvedev</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Maslyukov" title="Yuri Maslyukov">Yuri Maslyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kryuchkov" title="Vladimir Kryuchkov">Vladimir Kryuchkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivashko" title="Vladimir Ivashko">Vladimir Ivashko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidate members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Pyotr Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dolgikh" title="Vladimir Dolgikh">Vladimir Dolgikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Slyunkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Slyunkov">Nikolay Slyunkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Sokolov_(marshal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Sokolov (marshal)">Sergey Sokolov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Talyzin" title="Nikolai Talyzin">Nikolai Talyzin</a></li> <li>Yuri Solovyev</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Yakovlev_(Russian_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)">Alexander Yakovlev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Yazov" title="Dmitry Yazov">Dmitry Yazov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Maslyukov" title="Yuri Maslyukov">Yuri Maslyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Razumovsky" title="Georgy Razumovsky">Georgy Razumovsky</a></li> <li>Alexandra Biryukova</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Vlasov_(politician)" title="Aleksandr Vlasov (politician)">Alexander Vlasov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lukyanov" title="Anatoly Lukyanov">Anatoly Lukyanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Primakov" title="Yevgeny Primakov">Yevgeny Primakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pugo" title="Boris Pugo">Boris Pugo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1981–1986)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1981–1986)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/26th_Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1981–1986)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Full members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Viktor Grishin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Andrei Kirilenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Dinmukhamed Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Arvīds Pelše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Grigory Romanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Nikolai Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ustinov" title="Dmitry Ustinov">Dmitry Ustinov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Volodymyr Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vitaly Vorotnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Mikhail Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Viktor Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yegor_Ligachyov" title="Yegor Ligachyov">Yegor Ligachyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ryzhkov" title="Nikolai Ryzhkov">Nikolai Ryzhkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidate members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Pyotr Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_Kiselyov" title="Tikhon Kiselyov">Tikhon Kiselyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Vasili Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Boris Ponomarev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharof_Rashidov" title="Sharof Rashidov">Sharof Rashidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Mikhail Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dolgikh" title="Vladimir Dolgikh">Vladimir Dolgikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vitaly Vorotnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Viktor Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Sokolov_(marshal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Sokolov (marshal)">Sergey Sokolov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Talyzin" title="Nikolai Talyzin">Nikolai Talyzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Grechko" title="Andrei Grechko">Andrei Grechko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Viktor Grishin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Andrei Kirilenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kulakov" title="Fyodor Kulakov">Fyodor Kulakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Dinmukhamed Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirill_Mazurov" title="Kirill Mazurov">Kirill Mazurov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Arvīds Pelše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Grigory Romanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ustinov" title="Dmitry Ustinov">Dmitry Ustinov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Volodymyr Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Nikolai Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidate members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Pyotr Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Masherov" title="Pyotr Masherov">Pyotr Masherov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Boris Ponomarev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharof_Rashidov" title="Sharof Rashidov">Sharof Rashidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Mikhail Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Vasili Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Nikolai Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_Kiselyov" title="Tikhon Kiselyov">Tikhon Kiselyov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Leaders_of_the_ruling_Communist_parties_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Leaders_of_the_Ruling_Parties_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Template:Leaders of the Ruling Parties of the Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Leaders_of_the_Ruling_Parties_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Template talk:Leaders of the Ruling Parties of the Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Leaders_of_the_Ruling_Parties_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Leaders of the Ruling Parties of the Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Leaders_of_the_ruling_Communist_parties_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Leaders of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Communist_party" title="Communist party">Communist parties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:80em;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania" title="Party of Labour of Albania">Party of Labour of Albania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Enver Hoxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Communist_Party" title="Bulgarian Communist Party">Bulgarian Communist Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Dimitrov" title="Georgi Dimitrov">Georgi Dimitrov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valko_Chervenkov" title="Valko Chervenkov">Valko Chervenkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Mladenov" title="Petar Mladenov">Petar Mladenov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Communist Party of Czechoslovakia">Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klement_Gottwald" title="Klement Gottwald">Klement Gottwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Novotn%C3%BD" title="Antonín Novotný">Antonín Novotný</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Urb%C3%A1nek" title="Karel Urbánek">Karel Urbánek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck" title="Wilhelm Pieck">Wilhelm Pieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Grotewohl" title="Otto Grotewohl">Otto Grotewohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Working_People%27s_Party" title="Hungarian Working People's Party">Hungarian Working People's Party</a> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Workers%27_Party" title="Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party">Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s_R%C3%A1kosi" title="Mátyás Rákosi">Mátyás Rákosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ern%C5%91_Ger%C5%91" title="Ernő Gerő">Ernő Gerő</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rezs%C5%91_Nyers" title="Rezső Nyers">Rezső Nyers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:90em;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">Polish Workers' Party</a> <a href="/wiki/Polish_United_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish United Workers' Party">Polish United Workers' Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Bierut" title="Bolesław Bierut">Bolesław Bierut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ochab" title="Edward Ochab">Edward Ochab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gierek" title="Edward Gierek">Edward Gierek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Kania" title="Stanisław Kania">Stanisław Kania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Rakowski" title="Mieczysław Rakowski">Mieczysław Rakowski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party" title="Romanian Communist Party">Romanian Communist Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Gheorghiu-Dej" title="Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej">Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Apostol" title="Gheorghe Apostol">Gheorghe Apostol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia" title="League of Communists of Yugoslavia">League of Communists of Yugoslavia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Doronjski" title="Stevan Doronjski">Stevan Doronjski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazar_Mojsov" title="Lazar Mojsov">Lazar Mojsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Dragosavac" title="Dušan Dragosavac">Dušan Dragosavac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitja_Ribi%C4%8Di%C4%8D" title="Mitja Ribičič">Mitja Ribičič</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoslav_Markovi%C4%87" title="Dragoslav Marković">Dragoslav Marković</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_%C5%A0ukrija" title="Ali Šukrija">Ali Šukrija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidoje_%C5%BDarkovi%C4%87" title="Vidoje Žarković">Vidoje Žarković</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milanko_Renovica" title="Milanko Renovica">Milanko Renovica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%C5%A1ko_Kruni%C4%87" title="Boško Krunić">Boško Krunić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stipe_%C5%A0uvar" title="Stipe Šuvar">Stipe Šuvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Pan%C4%8Devski" title="Milan Pančevski">Milan Pančevski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutions_of_1989" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template talk:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Revolutions_of_1989" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Chinese economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation Priboi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation Unthinkable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation Masterdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation Blacklist Forty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation Gladio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS Pueblo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template talk:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">Afghan conflict</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Belligerents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Unity_of_Afghanistan_Mujahideen" title="Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen">Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamiat-e_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamiat-e Islami">Jamiat-e Islami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shura-e_Nazar" title="Shura-e Nazar">Shura-e Nazar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Gulbuddin" title="Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin">Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maktab_al-Khidamat" title="Maktab al-Khidamat">Maktab al-Khidamat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Khalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-e Islami Khalis">Hezb-e Islami Khalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity Party of Afghanistan">Hezb-e Wahdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Dawah_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan">Ittehad i-Islami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ali_Mazari" title="Abdul Ali Mazari">Abdul Ali Mazari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam" title="Abdullah Yusuf Azzam">Abdullah Yusuf Azzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Haq_(Afghan_leader)" title="Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)">Abdul Haq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Wardak" title="Abdul Rahim Wardak">Abdul Rahim Wardak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events by year</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_Afghanistan" title="1979 in Afghanistan">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_Afghanistan" title="1980 in Afghanistan">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_Afghanistan" title="1981 in Afghanistan">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_Afghanistan" title="1982 in Afghanistan">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_in_Afghanistan" title="1983 in Afghanistan">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_Afghanistan" title="1984 in Afghanistan">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_Afghanistan" title="1985 in Afghanistan">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_Afghanistan" title="1986 in Afghanistan">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_Afghanistan" title="1987 in Afghanistan">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_Afghanistan" title="1988 in Afghanistan">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_Afghanistan" title="1989 in Afghanistan">1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Storm-333">Operation Storm-333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjshir_offensives" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjshir offensives">Panjshir offensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Urgun" title="Siege of Urgun">Siege of Urgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maravar_Pass" title="Battle of Maravar Pass">Battle of Maravar Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badaber_uprising" title="Badaber uprising">Badaber uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Zhawar" title="Battles of Zhawar">Battles of Zhawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaji" title="Battle of Jaji">Battle of Jaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arghandab_(1987)" title="Battle of Arghandab (1987)">Battle of Arghandab (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Magistral" title="Operation Magistral">Operation Magistral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Hill_3234" title="Battle for Hill 3234">Battle for Hill 3234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Arrow" title="Operation Arrow">Operation Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian protests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3_Hoot_uprising" title="3 Hoot uprising">3 Hoot uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_student_protests_in_Kabul" title="1980 student protests in Kabul">Kabul students' uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_aircraft_losses_during_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet aircraft losses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_in_popular_culture" title="Soviet–Afghan War in popular culture">War in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_Mujahideen_during_Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military equipment used by Mujahideen during Soviet-Afghan War">Military equipment used by Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_War_Memorial,_Kyiv" title="Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv">Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films about war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_films" title="List of Soviet–Afghan War films">List of films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_9th_Company" title="The 9th Company">The 9th Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Breakdown" title="Afghan Breakdown">Afghan Breakdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghantsi" title="Afghantsi">Afghantsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_Costs_Paid" title="All Costs Paid">All Costs Paid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(1988_film)" title="The Beast (1988 film)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_200_(film)" title="Cargo 200 (film)">Cargo 200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wilson%27s_War_(film)" title="Charlie Wilson's War (film)">Charlie Wilson's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kite_Runner_(film)" title="The Kite Runner (film)">The Kite Runner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Living_Daylights" title="The Living Daylights">The Living Daylights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Mountain_(2015_film)" title="The Magic Mountain (2015 film)">The Magic Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshavar_Waltz" title="Peshavar Waltz">Peshavar Waltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rambo_III" title="Rambo III">Rambo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictures_from_Afghanistan" title="Pictures from Afghanistan">Pictures from Afghanistan (documentary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitter_Lake_(film)" title="Bitter Lake (film)">Bitter Lake (documentary)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Template:Nagorno-Karabakh conflict"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Template talk:Nagorno-Karabakh conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nagorno-Karabakh conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="History of Nagorno-Karabakh">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Azerbaijanis_from_Armenia" title="Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia">Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karabakh_movement" title="Karabakh movement">Karabakh movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miatsum" title="Miatsum">Miatsum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Azerbaijan" title="Armenians in Azerbaijan">Armenians in Azerbaijan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Baku" title="Armenians in Baku">Armenians in Baku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Armenia" title="Azerbaijanis in Armenia">Azerbaijanis in Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan">Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Azerbaijan_relations" title="Armenia–Azerbaijan relations">Armenia–Azerbaijan relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First war</a> (1988–1994)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%87ardaql%C4%B1,_Shamkir#Deportation_of_the_Armenian_population" title="Çardaqlı, Shamkir">Çardaqlı clash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askeran_clash" title="Askeran clash">Askeran clash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumgait_pogrom" title="Sumgait pogrom">Sumgait pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gugark_pogrom" title="Gugark pogrom">Gugark pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zvartnots_Airport_clash" title="Zvartnots Airport clash">Zvartnots Airport clash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_violence_in_Shusha_and_Stepanakert" title="1988 violence in Shusha and Stepanakert">Shusha and Stepanakert pogroms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirovabad_pogrom" title="Kirovabad pogrom">Kirovabad pogrom</a></li> <li>Il-76 crash near Leninakan (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baku_pogrom" title="Baku pogrom">Baku pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%C4%9Fanis_Ayrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bağanis Ayrum">Bağanis Ayrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Tbilisi%E2%80%93Agdam_bus_bombing" title="1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing">1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ring" title="Operation Ring">Operation Ring</a></li> <li>Voskepar massacre</li> <li>Battle of Togh</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_Mil_Mi-8_shootdown" title="1991 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown">1991 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_on_Abolishment_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast">Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Stepanakert" title="Siege of Stepanakert">Siege of Stepanakert</a></li> <li>Operation Dashalty</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Azerbaijani_Mil_Mi-8_shootdown" title="1992 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown">1992 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Gushchular_and_Malibeyli" title="Capture of Gushchular and Malibeyli">Capture of Gushchular and Malibeyli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Garadaghly" title="Capture of Garadaghly">Capture of Garadaghly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojaly_massacre" title="Khojaly massacre">Khojaly massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraga_massacre" title="Maraga massacre">Maraga massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shusha_(1992)" title="Battle of Shusha (1992)">Capture of Shusha</a></li> <li>Capture of Artsvashen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Goranboy" title="Operation Goranboy">Operation Goranboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mardakert_and_Martuni_Offensives" title="Mardakert and Martuni Offensives">Mardakert and Martuni Offensives</a></li> <li>Operation Həsənqaya</li> <li>Battle of Lachin</li> <li>Operation Qazançı</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Azerbaijani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1993 Azerbaijani coup d'état">1993 Azerbaijani coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kalbajar" title="Battle of Kalbajar">Battle of Kalbajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aghdam" title="Battle of Aghdam">Battle of Aghdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Summer_Offensives" title="1993 Summer Offensives">1993 Summer Offensives</a></li> <li>Operation Geghamasar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Horadiz" title="Operation Horadiz">Operation Horadiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kalbajar" title="Operation Kalbajar">Operation Kalbajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Baku_Metro_bombings" title="1994 Baku Metro bombings">1994 Baku Metro bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Iranian_Air_Force_C-130_shootdown" title="1994 Iranian Air Force C-130 shootdown">1994 Iranian Air Force C-130 shootdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Bagratashen_bombing" title="1994 Bagratashen bombing">1994 Bagratashen bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Azerbaijan" title="Refugees in Azerbaijan">Refugees in Azerbaijan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interwar clashes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Mardakert_clashes" title="2008 Mardakert clashes">2008 Mardakert clashes</a></li> <li>January 2009 Agdam military incident</li> <li>September 2009 Agdam military incident</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes" title="2010 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes">2010 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Mardakert_clashes" title="2010 Mardakert clashes">2010 Mardakert clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_border_clashes" title="2012 Armenian–Azerbaijani border clashes">2012 Armenian–Azerbaijani border clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="2014 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">2014 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Armenian_Mil_Mi-24_shootdown" title="2014 Armenian Mil Mi-24 shootdown">2014 Armenian Mil Mi-24 shootdown</a></li> <li>2016 Odundağ clashes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a></li> <li>2017 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_shelling_of_Alxanl%C4%B1" title="2017 shelling of Alxanlı">Shelling of Alxanlı</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="2018 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">2018 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a></li> <li>2019 clash near Chinari</li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incidents_during_the_July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="Incidents during the July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">Incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Azerbaijani_protests" title="2020 Azerbaijani protests">Protests in Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" class="mw-redirect" title="International reactions to the July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">Reactions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Second war</a> (2020)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Timeline of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Casualties of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="International reactions to the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">International reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_third-party_involvement_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Allegations of third-party involvement in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Allegations of third-party involvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagiz_offensive" title="Madagiz offensive">Madagiz offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aras_Valley_campaign" title="Aras Valley campaign">Aras Valley campaign</a></li> <li>Bombardments (<a href="/wiki/2020_Barda_missile_attacks" title="2020 Barda missile attacks">Barda</a>, <a href="/wiki/2020_Ganja_missile_attacks" title="2020 Ganja missile attacks">Ganja</a>, <a href="/wiki/2020_Ghazanchetsots_Cathedral_shelling" title="2020 Ghazanchetsots Cathedral shelling">Ghazanchetsots Cathedral</a>, <a href="/wiki/2020_bombardment_of_Martuni" title="2020 bombardment of Martuni">Martuni</a>, <a href="/wiki/2020_bombardment_of_Stepanakert" title="2020 bombardment of Stepanakert">Stepanakert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tartar" title="Bombardment of Tartar">Tartar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hadrut" title="Battle of Hadrut">Battle of Hadrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachin_offensive" title="Lachin offensive">Lachin offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shusha_(2020)" title="Battle of Shusha (2020)">Battle of Shusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Russian_Mil_Mi-24_shootdown" title="2020 Russian Mil Mi-24 shootdown">Russian Mil Mi-24 shootdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="War crimes in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">War crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_prisoners_of_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Armenian prisoners of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Treatment of Armenian POWs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-ceasefire events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan%27s_construction_in_areas_gained_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Azerbaijan's construction in areas gained in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Azerbaijan's construction in gained areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Armenian_protests" title="2020–2021 Armenian protests">2020–2021 Armenian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping_operations_in_Nagorno-Karabakh#2020" title="Peacekeeping operations in Nagorno-Karabakh">Chaylaggala and Hin Tagher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Azerbaijan_border_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis">Border crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/September_2022_Armenia%E2%80%93Azerbaijan_clashes" title="September 2022 Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes">September 2022 escalation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susuzluq_explosion" title="Susuzluq explosion">Susuzluq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping_operations_in_Nagorno-Karabakh#2021" title="Peacekeeping operations in Nagorno-Karabakh">Shusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farukh#History" title="Farukh">Farukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Armenian_protests" title="2022 Armenian protests">2022 Armenian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh">Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Azerbaijani_offensive_in_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh">2023 Azerbaijani offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2023_Armenian_protests" title="2023 Armenian protests">Protests in Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Armenians" title="Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians">Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkadzor_fuel_depot_explosion" title="Berkadzor fuel depot explosion">Berkadzor fuel depot explosion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Administrative divisions of the Republic of Artsakh">Administrative divisions of the Republic of Artsakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepanakert" title="Stepanakert">Stepanakert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askeran_Province" title="Askeran Province">Askeran Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrut_Province" title="Hadrut Province">Hadrut Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashatagh_Province" title="Kashatagh Province">Kashatagh Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martakert_Province" title="Martakert Province">Martakert Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martuni_Province" title="Martuni Province">Martuni Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahumyan_Province" title="Shahumyan Province">Shahumyan Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shushi_Province" title="Shushi Province">Shushi Province</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian-occupied_territories_surrounding_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh">Armenian-occupied territories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aghdam_District" title="Aghdam District">Aghdam District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzuli_District" title="Fuzuli District">Fuzuli District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabrayil_District" title="Jabrayil District">Jabrayil District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalbajar_District" title="Kalbajar District">Kalbajar District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachin_District" title="Lachin District">Lachin District</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lachin_corridor" title="Lachin corridor">Lachin corridor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubadli_District" title="Qubadli District">Qubadli District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangilan_District" title="Zangilan District">Zangilan District</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levon_Ter-Petrosyan" title="Levon Ter-Petrosyan">Levon Ter-Petrosyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kocharyan" title="Robert Kocharyan">Robert Kocharyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serzh_Sargsyan" title="Serzh Sargsyan">Serzh Sargsyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikol_Pashinyan" title="Nikol Pashinyan">Nikol Pashinyan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Republic of Artsakh">Republic of Artsakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Mkrtchyan" title="Artur Mkrtchyan">Artur Mkrtchyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kocharyan" title="Robert Kocharyan">Robert Kocharyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Petrosyan" title="Leonard Petrosyan">Leonard Petrosyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkadi_Ghukasyan" title="Arkadi Ghukasyan">Arkadi Ghukasyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bako_Sahakyan" title="Bako Sahakyan">Bako Sahakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arayik_Harutyunyan" title="Arayik Harutyunyan">Arayik Harutyunyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samvel_Shahramanyan" title="Samvel Shahramanyan">Samvel Shahramanyan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayaz_Mutallibov" title="Ayaz Mutallibov">Ayaz Mutallibov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abulfaz_Elchibey" title="Abulfaz Elchibey">Abulfaz Elchibey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev" title="Ilham Aliyev">Ilham Aliyev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Community_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Azerbaijani Community of Nagorno-Karabakh">Azerbaijani Community of Nagorno-Karabakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayram_Safarov" title="Bayram Safarov">Bayram Safarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizami_Bahmanov" title="Nizami Bahmanov">Nizami Bahmanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tural_Ganjaliyev" title="Tural Ganjaliyev">Tural Ganjaliyev</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turgut_%C3%96zal" title="Turgut Özal">Turgut Özal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vazgen_Sargsyan" title="Vazgen Sargsyan">Vazgen Sargsyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurgen_Dalibaltayan" title="Gurgen Dalibaltayan">Gurgen Dalibaltayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norat_Ter-Grigoryants" title="Norat Ter-Grigoryants">Norat Ter-Grigoryants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirair_Sefilian" title="Jirair Sefilian">Jirair Sefilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiran_Khachatryan" title="Tiran Khachatryan">Tiran Khachatryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyran_Ohanyan" title="Seyran Ohanyan">Seyran Ohanyan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Republic of Artsakh">Republic of Artsakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samvel_Babayan" title="Samvel Babayan">Samvel Babayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristapor_Ivanyan" title="Kristapor Ivanyan">Kristapor Ivanyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkady_Ter-Tadevosyan" title="Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan">Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Melkonian" title="Monte Melkonian">Monte Melkonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_Harutyunyan" title="Jalal Harutyunyan">Jalal Harutyunyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikael_Arzumanyan" title="Mikael Arzumanyan">Mikael Arzumanyan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isgandar_Hamidov" title="Isgandar Hamidov">Isgandar Hamidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahim_Gaziyev" title="Rahim Gaziyev">Rahim Gaziyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surat_Huseynov" title="Surat Huseynov">Surat Huseynov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeh_Barshadly" title="Valeh Barshadly">Valeh Barshadly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mais_Barkhudarov" title="Mais Barkhudarov">Mais Barkhudarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_Mirzayev" title="Hikmat Mirzayev">Hikmat Mirzayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_Hasanov" title="Hikmat Hasanov">Hikmat Hasanov</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Polyanichko" title="Viktor Polyanichko">Viktor Polyanichko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Grachev" title="Pavel Grachev">Pavel Grachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustam_Muradov" title="Rustam Muradov">Rustam Muradov</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria" title="Chechen Republic of Ichkeria">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shamil_Basayev" title="Shamil Basayev">Shamil Basayev</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace process</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baker_rules" title="Baker rules">Baker rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol" title="Bishkek Protocol">Bishkek Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Tehran Communiqué">Tehran Communiqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheleznovodsk_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Zheleznovodsk Communiqué">Zheleznovodsk Communiqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSCE_Minsk_Group" title="OSCE Minsk Group">OSCE Minsk Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Process_(Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_negotiations)" title="Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations)">Prague Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Principles" title="Madrid Principles">Madrid Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_ceasefire_agreement" title="2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement">2020 ceasefire agreement</a></li> <li>2020–2024 monitoring and peacekeeping <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping_operations_in_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Peacekeeping operations in Nagorno-Karabakh">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSCE_Needs_Assessment_Team_in_Armenia" title="OSCE Needs Assessment Team in Armenia">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU">EU</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Monitoring_Capacity_to_Armenia" title="European Union Monitoring Capacity to Armenia">EUMCAP Oct–Dec 2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU_Planning_Assistance_Team_in_Armenia" title="EU Planning Assistance Team in Armenia">EUPAT Dec 2022–Jan 2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Mission_in_Armenia" title="European Union Mission in Armenia">EUMA Feb 2023–present</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nagorno-Karabakh_ceasefire_agreement" title="2023 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement">2023 ceasefire agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Declaration" title="Astrakhan Declaration">Astrakhan Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_Declaration" title="Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration">Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_Lisbon_Summit_Declaration" title="NATO Lisbon Summit Declaration">NATO Lisbon Summit Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11" title="OIC Resolution 10/11">OIC Resolution 10/11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37" title="OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37">OIC Resolution 10/37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly_Resolution_1416_(2005)" title="Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1416 (2005)">PACE Resolution 1416</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly_Resolution_2085_(2016)" title="Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 2085 (2016)">PACE Resolution 2085</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_48/114" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 48/114">UNGA Resolution 48/114</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_60/285" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 60/285">UNGA Resolution 60/285</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_62/243" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 62/243">UNGA Resolution 62/243</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_on_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">UNSC resolutions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_822" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 822">822</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_853" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 853">853</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_874" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 874">874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_884" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 884">884</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Refusenik_movement_and_1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Refusenik_movement_and_1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="Template:Refusenik movement and 1990s post-Soviet aliyah"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Refusenik_movement_and_1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="Template talk:Refusenik movement and 1990s post-Soviet aliyah"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Refusenik_movement_and_1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Refusenik movement and 1990s post-Soviet aliyah"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Refusenik_movement_and_1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Refusenik" title="Refusenik">Refusenik</a> movement and <a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1970 – 2000)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sl%C3%A1nsk%C3%BD_trial" title="Slánský trial">Slánský trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-cosmopolitan_campaign" title="Anti-cosmopolitan campaign">Anti-cosmopolitan campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dymshits%E2%80%93Kuznetsov_hijacking_affair" title="Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair">Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970s_Soviet_Union_aliyah" title="1970s Soviet Union aliyah">1970s aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment" title="Jackson–Vanik amendment">Jackson–Vanik amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Accords" title="Helsinki Accords">Helsinki Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Sunday_for_Soviet_Jews" title="Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews">Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Solomon" title="Operation Solomon">Operation Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Pro-government</a>/<a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">antisemitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dragunsky" title="David Dragunsky">David Dragunsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Moiseevich_Fishman" title="Yakov Moiseevich Fishman">Yakov Fishman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Shayevich" title="Adolf Shayevich">Adolf Shayevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emomali_Rahmon" title="Emomali Rahmon">Emomali Rahmon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Jewry_movement" title="Soviet Jewry movement">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Nudel" title="Ida Nudel">Ida Nudel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natan_Sharansky" title="Natan Sharansky">Natan Sharansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuli_Edelstein" title="Yuli Edelstein">Yuli Edelstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Kuznetsov_(dissident)" title="Eduard Kuznetsov (dissident)">Eduard Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iosif_Begun" title="Iosif Begun">Iosif Begun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Jackson" title="Henry M. Jackson">Henry M. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Vanik" title="Charles Vanik">Charles Vanik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meir_Kahane" title="Meir Kahane">Meir Kahane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golda_Meir" title="Golda Meir">Golda Meir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir" title="Yitzhak Shamir">Yitzhak Shamir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simcha_Dinitz" title="Simcha Dinitz">Simcha Dinitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Burg" title="Avraham Burg">Avraham Burg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_Levanon" title="Nehemiah Levanon">Nehemiah Levanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Lapidot" title="Yehuda Lapidot">Yehuda Lapidot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-Soviet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania"><img alt="Socialist Republic of Romania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Romania_%281965%E2%80%931989%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Communist Party of the Russian Federation">Communist Party of the Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionist_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Public" title="Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public">Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Helsinki_Group" title="Moscow Helsinki Group">Moscow Helsinki Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamyat" title="Pamyat">Pamyat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Defense_League" title="Jewish Defense League">Jewish Defense League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Joint_Distribution_Committee" title="American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee">American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Councils_for_Soviet_Jews" title="Union of Councils for Soviet Jews">Union of Councils for Soviet Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Coalition_Supporting_Soviet_Jewry" title="National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry">National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativ_(Liaison_Bureau)" title="Nativ (Liaison Bureau)">Nativ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel" title="Jewish Agency for Israel">Jewish Agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Jews_in_Israel" title="Russian Jews in Israel">Russian Jews in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yisrael_BaAliyah" title="Yisrael BaAliyah">Yisrael BaAliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_9_(Israel)" title="Channel 9 (Israel)">Channel 9</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template talk:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_Person_of_the_Year" title="Time Person of the Year">Time Persons of the Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1927–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Chrysler" title="Walter Chrysler">Walter Chrysler</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_D._Young" title="Owen D. Young">Owen D. Young</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Johnson" title="Hugh S. Johnson">Hugh S. Johnson</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">The American Fighting-Man</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II </a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Curtice" title="Harlow Curtice">Harlow Curtice</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Freedom Fighters</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1959)</li> <li> U.S. Scientists: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper" title="Charles Stark Draper">Charles Draper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Purcell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Rabi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Allen" title="James Van Allen">James Van Allen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">The Generation Twenty-Five and Under</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1967)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">The Apollo 8 Astronauts</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(United_States)" title="Middle America (United States)">The Middle Americans</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sirica" title="John Sirica">John Sirica</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">King Faisal</a> (1974)</li> <li> American Women: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Byerly" title="Kathleen Byerly">Kathleen Byerly</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alison_Cheek" title="Alison Cheek">Alison Cheek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jill_Ker_Conway" title="Jill Ker Conway">Jill Conway</a> / <a href="/wiki/Betty_Ford" title="Betty Ford">Betty Ford</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ella_Grasso" title="Ella Grasso">Ella Grasso</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carla_Anderson_Hills" title="Carla Anderson Hills">Carla Hills</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a> / <a href="/wiki/Susie_Sharp" title="Susie Sharp">Susie Sharp</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_Sutton_(journalist)" title="Carol Sutton (journalist)">Carol Sutton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Addie_L._Wyatt" title="Addie L. Wyatt">Addie Wyatt</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">The Computer</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ueberroth" title="Peter Ueberroth">Peter Ueberroth</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> (1986)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">The Endangered Earth</a> (1988)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1992)</li> <li> The Peacemakers: <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ho" title="David Ho">David Ho</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudolph Giuliani</a> (2001)</li> <li> The Whistleblowers: <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Cooper_(accountant)" title="Cynthia Cooper (accountant)">Cynthia Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coleen_Rowley" title="Coleen Rowley">Coleen Rowley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sherron_Watkins" title="Sherron Watkins">Sherron Watkins</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">The American Soldier</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2004)</li> <li> The Good Samaritans: <a href="/wiki/Bono" title="Bono">Bono</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melinda_French_Gates" title="Melinda French Gates">Melinda Gates</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/You_(Time_Person_of_the_Year)" title="You (Time Person of the Year)">You</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">The Protester</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> (2013)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Responses_to_the_West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" title="Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic">Ebola Fighters</a>: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kent_Brantly" title="Kent Brantly">Kent Brantly</a> / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / <a href="/wiki/Salome_Karwah" title="Salome Karwah">Salome Karwah</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">The Silence Breakers</a> (2017)</li> <li> The Guardians: <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wa_Lone" title="Wa Lone">Wa Lone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kyaw_Soe_Oo" title="Kyaw Soe Oo">Kyaw Soe Oo</a> / Staff of <a href="/wiki/Capital_Gazette_shooting" title="Capital Gazette shooting">The Capital</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Spirit of Ukraine</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#cedff2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" title="Template:Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" title="Template talk:Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children" title="Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children">Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cedff2;;width:1%">1993–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Hepburn%27s_Enchanted_Tales" title="Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales">Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales</a> – <a href="/wiki/Audrey_Hepburn" title="Audrey Hepburn">Audrey Hepburn</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lion_King" title="The Lion King">The Lion King Read-Along</a> – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guillaume" title="Robert Guillaume">Robert Guillaume</a> & Various Artists (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_and_the_Wolf" title="Peter and the Wolf">Prokofiev: Peter and the Wolf</a> – <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Stewart" title="Patrick Stewart">Patrick Stewart</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellaluna" title="Stellaluna">Stellaluna</a> – <a href="/wiki/David_Holt_(musician)" title="David Holt (musician)">David Holt</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh_(book)" title="Winnie-the-Pooh (book)">Winnie-the-Pooh</a> – <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kuralt" title="Charles Kuralt">Charles Kuralt</a> (1997)</li> <li>The Children's Shakespeare – Various Artists (1998)</li> <li>Listen to the Storyteller – <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene_(actor)" title="Graham Greene (actor)">Graham Greene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wynton_Marsalis" title="Wynton Marsalis">Wynton Marsalis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kate_Winslet" title="Kate Winslet">Kate Winslet</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Goblet_of_Fire" title="Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire">Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire</a> – <a href="/wiki/Jim_Dale" title="Jim Dale">Jim Dale</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cedff2;;width:1%">2001–2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mama Don't Allow – <a href="/wiki/Tom_Chapin" title="Tom Chapin">Tom Chapin</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/There_Was_an_Old_Lady_Who_Swallowed_a_Fly" title="There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly">There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tom_Chapin" title="Tom Chapin">Tom Chapin</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Tracks_and_Peter_and_the_Wolf" title="Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf">Prokofiev: Peter and the Wolf/Beintus: Wolf Tracks</a> – <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Loren" title="Sophia Loren">Sophia Loren</a> (2003)</li> <li>The Train They Call the City of New Orleans – <a href="/wiki/Tom_Chapin" title="Tom Chapin">Tom Chapin</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlo_Thomas_and_Friends:_Thanks_%26_Giving_All_Year_Long" title="Marlo Thomas and Friends: Thanks & Giving All Year Long">Marlo Thomas and Friends: Thanks & Giving All Year Long</a> – <a href="/wiki/Marlo_Thomas" title="Marlo Thomas">Marlo Thomas</a> & Various Artists (2005)</li> <li>Blah Blah Blah: Stories About Clams, Swamp Monsters, Pirates and Dogs – <a href="/wiki/Bill_Harley" title="Bill Harley">Bill Harley</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Deathly_Hallows" title="Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows">Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows</a> – <a href="/wiki/Jim_Dale" title="Jim Dale">Jim Dale</a> (2007)</li> <li>Yes to Running! Bill Harley Live – <a href="/wiki/Bill_Harley" title="Bill Harley">Bill Harley</a> (2008)</li> <li>Aaaaah! Spooky, Scary Stories & Songs – <a href="/wiki/Steve_Vaus" title="Steve Vaus">Buck Howdy</a> (2009)</li> <li>Julie Andrews' Collection of Poems, Songs, and Lullabies – <a href="/wiki/Julie_Andrews" title="Julie Andrews">Julie Andrews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emma_Walton_Hamilton" title="Emma Walton Hamilton">Emma Walton Hamilton</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#cedff2;"><div>In 2011, the category was merged back into <a href="/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Children%27s_Album" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammy Award for Best Children's Album">Best Children's Album</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Peace_Prize" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="Template:Nobel Peace Prize laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="Template talk:Nobel Peace Prize laureates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Peace Prize laureates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Peace_Prize" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1901_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1901 Nobel Peace Prize">1901</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dunant" title="Henry Dunant">Henry Dunant</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Passy" title="Frédéric Passy">Frédéric Passy</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Ducommun" title="Élie Ducommun">Élie Ducommun</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_Gobat" title="Charles Albert Gobat">Charles Gobat</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Randal_Cremer" title="Randal Cremer">Randal Cremer</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_Droit_International" title="Institut de Droit International">Institut de Droit International</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Bertha_von_Suttner" title="Bertha von Suttner">Bertha von Suttner</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Teodoro_Moneta" title="Ernesto Teodoro Moneta">Ernesto Moneta</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Renault_(jurist)" title="Louis Renault (jurist)">Louis Renault</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Klas_Pontus_Arnoldson" title="Klas Pontus Arnoldson">Klas Arnoldson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Bajer" title="Fredrik Bajer">Fredrik Bajer</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Beernaert" title="Auguste Beernaert">A. M. F. Beernaert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Henri_Balluet_d%27Estournelles_de_Constant" title="Paul Henri Balluet d'Estournelles de Constant">Paul Estournelles de Constant</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/International_Peace_Bureau" title="International Peace Bureau">International Peace Bureau</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Asser" title="Tobias Asser">Tobias Asser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hermann_Fried" title="Alfred Hermann Fried">Alfred Fried</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Henri_La_Fontaine" title="Henri La Fontaine">Henri La Fontaine</a></li> <li>1914</li> <li>1915</li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a></li> <li>1918</li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Bourgeois" title="Léon Bourgeois">Léon Bourgeois</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Branting" title="Hjalmar Branting">Hjalmar Branting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_Lous_Lange" title="Christian Lous Lange">Christian Lange</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a></li> <li>1923</li> <li>1924</li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/Austen_Chamberlain" title="Austen Chamberlain">Austen Chamberlain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles Dawes</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Aristide_Briand" title="Aristide Briand">Aristide Briand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson" title="Ferdinand Buisson">Ferdinand Buisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Quidde" title="Ludwig Quidde">Ludwig Quidde</a></li> <li>1928</li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Kellogg" title="Frank B. Kellogg">Frank B. Kellogg</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Nathan_S%C3%B6derblom" title="Nathan Söderblom">Nathan Söderblom</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Nicholas Butler</a></li> <li>1932</li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Angell" title="Norman Angell">Norman Angell</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson" title="Arthur Henderson">Arthur Henderson</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Ossietzky" title="Carl von Ossietzky">Carl von Ossietzky</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Saavedra_Lamas" title="Carlos Saavedra Lamas">Carlos Saavedra Lamas</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood" title="Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood">Robert Cecil</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Nansen_International_Office_for_Refugees" title="Nansen International Office for Refugees">Nansen International Office for Refugees</a></li> <li>1939</li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943</li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Emily_Greene_Balch" title="Emily Greene Balch">Emily Balch</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Mott" title="John Mott">John Mott</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Quaker_Peace_and_Social_Witness" title="Quaker Peace and Social Witness">Friends Service Council</a> / <a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li> <li>1948</li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Jouhaux" title="Léon Jouhaux">Léon Jouhaux</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George C. Marshall</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a></li> <li>1955</li> <li>1956</li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Lester B. Pearson</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Pire" title="Dominique Pire">Georges Pire</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Philip_Noel-Baker" title="Philip Noel-Baker">Philip Noel-Baker</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Luthuli" title="Albert Luthuli">Albert Luthuli</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> / <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Societies" title="International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies">League of Red Cross Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1964 Nobel Peace Prize">1964</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1965 Nobel Peace Prize">1965</a>: <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1966 Nobel Peace Prize">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1967 Nobel Peace Prize">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1968 Nobel Peace Prize">1968</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cassin" title="René Cassin">René Cassin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1969 Nobel Peace Prize">1969</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1970 Nobel Peace Prize">1970</a>: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1971 Nobel Peace Prize">1971</a>: <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a></li> <li>1972</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1973 Nobel Peace Prize">1973</a>: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_Th%E1%BB%8D" title="Lê Đức Thọ">Lê Đức Thọ</a> (declined award) / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_MacBride" title="Seán MacBride">Seán MacBride</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eisaku_Sat%C5%8D" title="Eisaku Satō">Eisaku Satō</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Betty_Williams" title="Betty Williams">Betty Williams</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mairead_Maguire" title="Mairead Maguire">Mairead Corrigan</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_P%C3%A9rez_Esquivel" title="Adolfo Pérez Esquivel">Adolfo Pérez Esquivel</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Alva_Myrdal" title="Alva Myrdal">Alva Myrdal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Garc%C3%ADa_Robles" title="Alfonso García Robles">Alfonso García Robles</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War">International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Elie Wiesel</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Arias" title="Óscar Arias">Óscar Arias</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">UN Peacekeeping Forces</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama)</a></li> <li>1990: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Rigoberta_Mench%C3%BA" title="Rigoberta Menchú">Rigoberta Menchú</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs" title="Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs">Pugwash Conferences</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Filipe_Ximenes_Belo" title="Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo">Carlos Belo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ramos-Horta" title="José Ramos-Horta">José Ramos-Horta</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Ban_Landmines" title="International Campaign to Ban Landmines">International Campaign to Ban Landmines</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jody_Williams" title="Jody Williams">Jody Williams</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/John_Hume" title="John Hume">John Hume</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_Trimble" title="David Trimble">David Trimble</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Médecins Sans Frontières</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung" title="Kim Dae-jung">Kim Dae-jung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2001_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2001 Nobel Peace Prize">2001</a>: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2002 Nobel Peace Prize">2002</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2003 Nobel Peace Prize">2003</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shirin_Ebadi" title="Shirin Ebadi">Shirin Ebadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Nobel Peace Prize">2004</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wangari_Maathai" class="mw-redirect" title="Wangari Maathai">Wangari Maathai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2005 Nobel Peace Prize">2005</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_ElBaradei" title="Mohamed ElBaradei">Mohamed ElBaradei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2006 Nobel Peace Prize">2006</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grameen_Bank" title="Grameen Bank">Grameen Bank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yunus" title="Muhammad Yunus">Muhammad Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2007 Nobel Peace Prize">2007</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Nobel Peace Prize">2008</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martti_Ahtisaari" title="Martti Ahtisaari">Martti Ahtisaari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2009 Nobel Peace Prize">2009</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2010 Nobel Peace Prize">2010</a>: <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaobo" title="Liu Xiaobo">Liu Xiaobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2011 Nobel Peace Prize">2011</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Johnson_Sirleaf" title="Ellen Johnson Sirleaf">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leymah_Gbowee" title="Leymah Gbowee">Leymah Gbowee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tawakkol_Karman" title="Tawakkol Karman">Tawakkol Karman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2012 Nobel Peace Prize">2012</a>: <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2013 Nobel Peace Prize">2013</a>: <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2014 Nobel Peace Prize">2014</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kailash_Satyarthi" title="Kailash Satyarthi">Kailash Satyarthi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Malala_Yousafzai" title="Malala Yousafzai">Malala Yousafzai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2015 Nobel Peace Prize">2015</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_National_Dialogue_Quartet" title="Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet">Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2016 Nobel Peace Prize">2016</a>: <a href="/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Santos" title="Juan Manuel Santos">Juan Manuel Santos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2017 Nobel Peace Prize">2017</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Abolish_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons">International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2018 Nobel Peace Prize">2018</a>: <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mukwege" title="Denis Mukwege">Denis Mukwege</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nadia_Murad" title="Nadia Murad">Nadia Murad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2019 Nobel Peace Prize">2019</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abiy_Ahmed" title="Abiy Ahmed">Abiy Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2020 Nobel Peace Prize">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2021 Nobel Peace Prize">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Muratov" title="Dmitry Muratov">Dmitry Muratov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2022 Nobel Peace Prize">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ales_Bialiatski" title="Ales Bialiatski">Ales Bialiatski</a> / <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Civil_Liberties_(human_rights_organization)" title="Center for Civil Liberties (human rights organization)">Center for Civil Liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2023 Nobel Peace Prize">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Narges_Mohammadi" title="Narges Mohammadi">Narges Mohammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2024 Nobel Peace Prize">2024</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nihon_Hidankyo" title="Nihon Hidankyo">Nihon Hidankyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/1990_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1990 Nobel Prize in Literature">1990</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz" title="Octavio Paz">Octavio Paz</a> (Mexico)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (Soviet Union)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Jerome I. Friedman</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">Richard E. Taylor</a> (Canada)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph E. Murray</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Economic Sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Markowitz" title="Harry Markowitz">Harry Markowitz</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merton_Miller" title="Merton Miller">Merton Miller</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Sharpe" title="William F. Sharpe">William F. Sharpe</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1985_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1985 Nobel Prize winners">1985</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1986_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1986 Nobel Prize winners">1986</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1987_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1987 Nobel Prize winners">1987</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1988_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1988 Nobel Prize winners">1988</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1989_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1989 Nobel Prize winners">1989</a></dd> <dd>1990 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1991_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1991 Nobel Prize winners">1991</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1992_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1992 Nobel Prize winners">1992</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1993_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1993 Nobel Prize winners">1993</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1994_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1994 Nobel Prize winners">1994</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1995_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1995 Nobel Prize winners">1995</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Prince_or_Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#99d6ff;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" title="Template:Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" title="Template talk:Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Prince_or_Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Laureates of the <a href="/wiki/Princess_of_Asturias_Awards" title="Princess of Asturias Awards">Prince or Princess of Asturias Award</a> for International Cooperation</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#addeff;"><div id="Prince_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_L%C3%B3pez_Portillo" title="José López Portillo">José López Portillo</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Enrique_V._Iglesias" title="Enrique V. Iglesias">Enrique V. Iglesias</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Belisario_Betancur" title="Belisario Betancur">Belisario Betancur</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Contadora_group" title="Contadora group">Contadora group</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Alfons%C3%ADn" title="Raúl Alfonsín">Raúl Alfonsín</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salamanca" title="University of Salamanca">University of Salamanca</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Javier_P%C3%A9rez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Javier Pérez de Cuéllar">Javier Pérez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Arias" title="Óscar Arias">Óscar Arias</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Delors" title="Jacques Delors">Jacques Delors</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Hans-Dietrich_Genscher" title="Hans-Dietrich Genscher">Hans-Dietrich Genscher</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR)</li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">Frederik W. de Klerk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Protection_Force" title="United Nations Protection Force">United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Soares" title="Mário Soares">Mário Soares</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Guatemala">Government of Guatemala</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Revolutionary_Unity" title="Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity">Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Emma_Bonino" title="Emma Bonino">Emma Bonino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olayinka_Koso-Thomas" title="Olayinka Koso-Thomas">Olayinka Koso-Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gra%C3%A7a_Machel" title="Graça Machel">Graça Machel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatiha_Boudiaf" title="Fatiha Boudiaf">Fatiha Boudiaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rigoberta_Mench%C3%BA" title="Rigoberta Menchú">Rigoberta Menchú</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fatana_Ishaq_Gailani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fatana Ishaq Gailani (page does not exist)">Fatana Ishaq Gailani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somaly_Mam" title="Somaly Mam">Somaly Mam</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Duque" title="Pedro Duque">Pedro Duque</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiaki_Mukai" title="Chiaki Mukai">Chiaki Mukai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Valeri_Polyakov" title="Valeri Polyakov">Valeri Polyakov</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Henrique_Cardoso" title="Fernando Henrique Cardoso">Fernando Henrique Cardoso</a></li> <li>2001: <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li>2002: The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Committee_on_Antarctic_Research" title="Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research">Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</a></li> <li>2004: The European Union's <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Programme" title="Erasmus Programme">Erasmus Programme</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Simone_Veil" title="Simone Veil">Simone Veil</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation" title="Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation">Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manhi%C3%A7a_Centre_of_Health_Research&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manhiça Centre of Health Research (page does not exist)">Manhiça Centre of Health Research</a> (Mozambique), <a href="/wiki/Ifakara_Health_Institute" title="Ifakara Health Institute">Ifakara Health Institute</a> (Tanzania), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria_Research_and_Training_Centre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malaria Research and Training Centre (page does not exist)">Malaria Research and Training Centre</a> (Mali), and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kintampo_Health_Research_Centre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kintampo Health Research Centre (page does not exist)">Kintampo Health Research Centre</a> (Ghana)</li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Transplantation_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Transplantation Society (page does not exist)">The Transplantation Society</a> and the Spanish <a href="/wiki/National_Transplant_Organization" title="National Transplant Organization">National Transplant Organization</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Drayton" title="Bill Drayton">Bill Drayton</a></li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> for the Advancement of Science</li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Fulbright_Program" title="Fulbright Program">Fulbright Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#addeff;"><div id="Princess_of_Asturias_Award_for_International_Cooperation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a></li> <li>2017: The <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_Society_of_America" title="Hispanic Society of America">Hispanic Society of America</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Amref_Health_Africa" title="Amref Health Africa">Amref Health Africa</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Sal_Khan" title="Sal Khan">Salman Khan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a></li> <li>2020: <a href="/wiki/GAVI" title="GAVI">Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance</a></li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Camfed" title="Camfed">Camfed, Campaign for Female Education</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Ellen_MacArthur" title="Ellen MacArthur">Ellen MacArthur</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/Drugs_for_Neglected_Diseases_Initiative" title="Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative">Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative</a> (DNDi)</li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ibero-American_States" title="Organization of Ibero-American States">Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture</a> (OEI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Candidates_in_the_1996_Russian_presidential_election" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Candidates_in_the_Russian_presidential_election,_1996" title="Template:Candidates in the Russian presidential election, 1996"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Candidates_in_the_Russian_presidential_election,_1996" title="Template talk:Candidates in the Russian presidential election, 1996"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Candidates_in_the_Russian_presidential_election,_1996" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Candidates in the Russian presidential election, 1996"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Candidates_in_the_1996_Russian_presidential_election" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Candidates_in_the_1996_Russian_presidential_election" title="Candidates in the 1996 Russian presidential election">Candidates</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1996_Russian_presidential_election" title="1996 Russian presidential election">1996 Russian presidential election</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Winner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> Independent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Boris Yeltsin 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost in <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">runoff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Zyuganov" title="Gennady Zyuganov">Gennady Zyuganov</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Communist Party of the Russian Federation">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Zyuganov_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Gennady Zyuganov 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lebed" title="Alexander Lebed">Alexander Lebed</a> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Russian_Communities" title="Congress of Russian Communities">KRO</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lebed_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Alexander Lebed 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky" title="Grigory Yavlinsky">Grigory Yavlinsky</a> <a href="/wiki/Yabloko" title="Yabloko">Yabloko</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Grigory Yavlinsky 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Vladimir Zhirinovsky</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Russia" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Russia">LDPR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svyatoslav_Fyodorov" title="Svyatoslav Fyodorov">Svyatoslav Fyodorov</a> <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Workers%27_Self-Government" title="Party of Workers' Self-Government">PST</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> Independent (<a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign">campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Shakkum" title="Martin Shakkum">Martin Shakkum</a> Independent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yury_Vlasov" title="Yury Vlasov">Yury Vlasov</a> Independent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bryntsalov" title="Vladimir Bryntsalov">Vladimir Bryntsalov</a> Independent</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Withdrew</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aman_Tuleyev" title="Aman Tuleyev">Aman Tuleyev</a> Independent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chechevatov" title="Viktor Chechevatov">Viktor Chechevatov</a> Independent</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Time 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst" title="Emmeline Pankhurst">Emmeline Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9" title="Pelé">Pelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_W." title="Bill W.">Bill W.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/21px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/42px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Mikhail Gorbachev at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Mikhail Gorbachev">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Mikhail Gorbachev">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="extiw" title="q:Mikhail Gorbachev">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Mikhail Gorbachev">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30487" class="extiw" title="d:Q30487">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30487#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30487#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30487#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000120966951">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/97859168">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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[\"CITEREFEllyatt2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaleotti1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooding1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorbachev\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorbachev2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGray2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaynes2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeintz2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosking1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKangarooo2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulishDempsey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatypova2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLjunggren2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCauley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedvedev1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusgrave2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaina2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdynova2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO’Sullivan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPitney\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlokhy,_S.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlummer2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoche2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavranskayaBlantonZubok2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharkov2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteele1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarschys1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuminez2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWojnar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorley2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZemlianichenko2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFВишнева2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFЕрохина2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFРодионов2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFСарджвеладзе2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFСокол2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"1990 Nobel Prize winners\"] = 1,\n [\"25th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"26th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"27th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"28th Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Awrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Big\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Br entries\"] = 1,\n [\"Candidates in the Russian presidential election, 1996\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite Merriam-Webster\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite 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