Development of Agriculture in Prehistoric Mesoamerica: The Linguistic Evidence

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Brown","affiliation":[{"name":"Northern Illinois University","address":{"name":"Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"Average Elevation, Chili Pepper, Average Altitude, Before Present, General Elevation","description":"This study uses linguistic data to reconstruct the prehistory of agriculture in Mesoamerica, a cultural and linguistic area of Mexico and northern Central America. Evidence is assembled indicating when, where, and for whom 41 cultivated and protected plants native to the New World became significant to peoples of the region in prehistoric times. The study of prehistoric agriculture has traditionally been the purview of archeologists interested in paleoethnobotany. Nevertheless, this investigation intentionally avoids reference to archeological findings and other nonlinguistic results that may or may not complement those presented here. 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srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-1-4419-0471-3?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title ">Pre-Columbian Foodways</span> </a> <span class="app-article-masthead__conference-info"></span> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="js-main-column u-serif c-chapter-body" data-track-component="chapter"> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <div class="app-overview-section"> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Cecil_H_-Brown" data-author-popup="auth-Cecil_H_-Brown">Cecil H. Brown</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1_3">3</a></sup> </li></ul> <div class="app-overview-section__separator" data-test="article-metrics"> <div id="altmetric-container"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset" data-test="article-metrics"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>3577 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-citations-medium"></use> </svg>19 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label"> <a href="http://citations.springer.com/item?doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0471-3_3" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Visit Springer Citations for full citation details" data-track="click" data-track-action="Citation count" data-track-label="link">Citations</a> </span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>3 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label"> <a href="https://link.altmetric.com/details/14948254" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Visit Altmetric for full social mention details" data-track="click" data-track-action="Social mentions" data-track-label="link">Altmetric</a> </span></p> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="chapter body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1_3" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1_3-section"><h2 id="Abs1_3" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1_3-content"><p>This study uses linguistic data to reconstruct the prehistory of agriculture in Mesoamerica, a cultural and linguistic area of Mexico and northern Central America. Evidence is assembled indicating when, where, and for whom 41 cultivated and protected plants native to the New World became significant to peoples of the region in prehistoric times. The study of prehistoric agriculture has traditionally been the purview of archeologists interested in paleoethnobotany. Nevertheless, this investigation intentionally avoids reference to archeological findings and other nonlinguistic results that may or may not complement those presented here. All conclusions presented in this study are solely on the basis of linguistic data.</p><p>Specific goals of this study are (1) determination of the earliest date by which each of the 41 plants developed significance for people in Mesoamerica, (2) location of the general areas in the region where each plant initially became important to human groups, (3) determination of which of the 41 plants became important to what groups of prehistoric people, and (4) determination of when these plants became important. The comparative approach of historical linguistics is employed, with use of lexical reconstruction and glottochronology. The comparative method facilitates determination of which of the 41 plants were named by speakers of specific ancestral languages. Glottochronology determines approximately when ancestral languages were <i>last</i> spoken. 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class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Chapter</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">© 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1740788368, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <section data-title="Notes" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="notes-section"><h2 id="notes" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Notes</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="notes-content"><ol class="c-article-footnote c-article-footnote--listed"><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn1_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">1.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Mesoamerica is situated in southern Mexico and northern Central America and comprises both a culture area (Kirchhoff <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1943" title="Kirchhoff, P. (1943). Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales. Acta Americana 1(1): 92–107." href="#ref-CR19_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e330">1943</a>) and a linguistic area (Campbell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Campbell, L., Kaufman, T., and Smith-Stark, T. C. (1986). Meso-America as a Linguistic Area. Language 62.3: 530–558." href="#ref-CR9_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e333">1986</a>). In this paper, the concept of Mesoamerica is somewhat broadened to encompass some northern areas of Mexico.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn2_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">2.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>By referring to “protected plants,” I follow Berlin et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1973a" title="Berlin, B., Breedlove, D. E., Laughlin, R, M., and Raven, P. H. (1973). Cultural Significance and Lexical Retention in Tzeltal-Tzotzil Ethnobotany. In Meaning in Mayan Languages, edited by Munro S. Edmonson, pp. 143–164. Mouton, The Hague." href="#ref-CR1_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e342">1973a</a>) who define them as those plants “which may be cultivated in small numbers or which, while not cultivated, would not be as abundant without the intervention of man” (p. 146). Cultivated/protected plants are also referred to as “managed” plants in this study.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn3_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">3.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Lexical similarities involving words for plants can be rated with respect to how likely these are due to cognation, as opposed to chance resemblance or similarity because of borrowing. I judge lexical similarities as either (1) definitive with respect to cognation, (2) probable with respect to cognation, (3) ambiguous, or (4) because of either chance or diffusion. Only similarities pertaining to (1) and (2) are regarded as indicating cognation and, hence, the presence of a plant term in a proto-language. In addition, even when phonological similarity indicates word cognation, the underlying word in a proto-language may have designated something other than the target plant. Careful comparative analysis can usually resolve such semantic ambiguity.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn4_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">4.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>However, there are some differences. For example, I disagree with Kaufman’s (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Kaufman, T. S. (1990). Early Otomanguean Homelands and Cultures: Some Premature Hypotheses. University of Pittsburgh Working Papers in Linguistics 1:91–136" href="#ref-CR16_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e5894">1990</a>) conclusion that comparative evidence indicates that a term for common bean pertained to Proto-Otomanguean (see Brown <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006a" title="Brown, C. H. (2006a). Glottochronology and the Chronology of Maize in the Americas. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize edited by J. E. Staller, R. H. Tykot, and B. F. Benz, pp. 647–663. Elsevier, San Diego." href="#ref-CR4_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e5897">2006a</a>:512).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn5_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">5.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>For a full description of this method, see Swadesh (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Swadesh, M. (1960). Estudios sobre Lengua y Cultura. Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico, D.F" href="#ref-CR26_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e5953">1960</a>), translated from Spanish to English by Joel Sherzer in Swadesh (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Swadesh, M. (1971). The Origin and Diversification of Language. Aldine Atherton, Chicago." href="#ref-CR28_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e5956">1971</a>:271–284).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn6_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">6.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>For information on ASJP (Automated Similarity Judgment Program), including names of consortium members, consult the project’s home page: <a href="http://email.eva.mpg.de/%E2%88%BCwichmann/ASJPHomePage.htm">http://email.eva.mpg.de/∼wichmann/ASJPHomePage.htm</a>.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn7_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">7.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>These languages include most, if not all, recorded languages of Mesoamerica. Word lists for all languages in the database were extracted from hundreds of different sources. References to sources for each language are provided via a link to the ASJP home page (see above).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn8_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">8.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Most stable referents are those whose names tend most strongly to remain unchanged over time.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn9_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">9.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>2,881,200+ pairs.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn10_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">10.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Calculation of the constant is on the basis of historical, epigraphic, and archeological information calibrated with recorded events in language development.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn11_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">11.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>These include common purslane thought by some to be only Old World in origin, while others have proposed that it is native to both New and Old Worlds. Linguistic evidence assembled here indicates that the plant has considerable chronological depth in the New World.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn12_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">12.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Most commonly, Mexican Spanish <i>tomate</i> designates <i>Physalis philadelphica</i> and <i>jitomate</i> denotes <i>Solanum lycopersicum</i>. The common English name for <i>S. lycopersicum</i> is <i>tomato</i>, and common English names for <i>P. philadelphica</i> are <i>tomatillo</i> and <i>husk tomato</i>.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn13_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">13.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>For example, Totonac (Xicotepec): <i>paklhcha</i> ‘<i>Solanum lycopersicum</i>’ and <i>xako’xkaa’ paklhcha</i> ‘<i>Physalis philadelphica.’</i> </p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn14_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">14.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Kaufman (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Kaufman, T. S. (1990). Early Otomanguean Homelands and Cultures: Some Premature Hypotheses. University of Pittsburgh Working Papers in Linguistics 1:91–136" href="#ref-CR16_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e6194">1990</a>) proposes that a word for sweet potato also pertained to Proto-Otomanguean. He points to possible cognates in two Otomanguean language groups, Tlapanec and Zapotecan. For example, Tlapanec and Chatino (Zapotecan) have very similar terms for the plant, respectively <i>gohon</i> and <i>kuun</i>. Other Zapotecan-language terms for the plant are not as similar to the Tlapanec word as is the Chatino term, e.g., Zapotec (Mixtepec) <i>gu</i> and Zapotec (Quiavini) <i>guhuh</i>. Tlapanec and Chatino are both spoken today in towns that are relatively close to one another in a highland area near to the Pacific coastal plain of southwestern Mexico. My interpretation is that the similarity of words for sweet potato in these two languages is due to diffusion of the word from Chatino to Tlapanec rather than to cognation.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn15_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">15.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>There are a number of different reasons why average elevations for some of the 41 plants are not given. For example, in some cases so few specimens of a species were represented in the online sample that an average elevation obtained for them would not have constituted an accurate average elevation for the species. (All average elevations for plants listed are on the basis of at least 43 specimens, with the vast majority based on 100+.) Also, average elevations were not calculated for designations such as chili pepper, squash, nopal, copal tree, cuajinicuil, and tomate because these names are typically associated with more than a single species (see Appendix 3). (However, in the case of hog plum to which two species are pertinent, i.e., <i>Spondias purpurea</i> and <i>S. mombin</i>, an average elevation can be obtained as the average elevations of specimens for both species are almost identical.) An average elevation for maize (<i>Zea mays</i>) is not used as this species in Mesoamerica is cultivated at all elevations inhabited by humans, no doubt because of the many thousands of years that Mesoamericans have been involved in selection of maize varieties.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn16_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">16.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>The MAPA for Proto-Totonacan-Mixe-Zoquean based on only three plants is 779. This MAPA, if it were accurate, would indicate a highland homeland for the ancestral language (see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="#Tab4_3">4</a>).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn17_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">17.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>The presence of terms for these five plants in Proto-Otomanguean does not necessarily mean that they were domesticated. Terms for wild botanical species may have often been extended to their domesticated versions as these have developed. Nevertheless, the fact that names for these five plants are reconstructed for Proto-Otomanguean clearly indicates that they were of substantial significance to speakers of the language even if possibly not domesticated. (With this observation, I do not mean to suggest that maize may have evolved from wild <i>Zea mays</i>. L</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn18_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">18.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>I do not mean to imply that all 16 of these plants were familiar to speakers of all of these ancestral languages, but only that each of the 16 plants was named in at least one Mesoamerican language by circa 3200 BP. For inventories of plants named in individual proto-languages, see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="#Tab1_3">1</a>.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn19_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">19.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p> Perhaps several 100 years before 3200 BP.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn20_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">20.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>A nonconventional, but nonetheless empirically motivated proposal is that speakers of Proto-Mayan were the bearers or among the bearers of the New World’s earliest civilization, Olmec. Olmec culture thrived on the Gulf coastal plain of the northern part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) from 3200 to 2400 BP. The LD date for Proto-Mayan, 2400 BP, indicates that the language was spoken during a time period coinciding with the Olmec era. The large size of Proto-Mayan’s plant-name inventory suggests the high degree of cultural complexity to be expected for bearers of a civilization. Furthermore, the determination here that Proto-Mayan was a lowland language, contrary to an earlier proposal (Kaufman <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Kaufman, T. S. (1976). Archaeological and Linguistic Correlations in Mayaland and Associated Areas of Meso-America. World Archaeology 8:101–118." href="#ref-CR15_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e10332">1976</a>, see footnote 22) dovetails with the fact that Olmec civilization developed in a lowland environment. A similar argument might be made as well that speakers of Proto-Chinantecan were among the bearers of Olmec civilization.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn21_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">21.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Another Mayan ancestral language, Proto-Huastecan, is the immediate parent of two other Mayan languages, Huastec (a lowland language of northern Veracruz, Mexico and abutting areas) and Chicomuceltec (a highland language of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico). Unfortunately, only a fragmentary lexicon exists for Chicomuceltec, a now extinct language, so that a full reconstruction of names for the 41 cultivated/protected plants is not possible for Proto-Huastecan. I have been able to calculate a MAPA (717.8) for Proto-Huastecan on the basis of partial plant-name reconstruction, but, unfortunately, it is indeterminate with respect to the language’s general elevation.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn22_3"><span class="c-article-footnote--listed__index">22.</span><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>The historical linguist Terrence Kaufman (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Kaufman, T. S. (1976). Archaeological and Linguistic Correlations in Mayaland and Associated Areas of Meso-America. World Archaeology 8:101–118." href="#ref-CR15_3" id="ref-link-section-d25343561e10383">1976</a>:105), in an archeological journal, speculates that Proto-Mayan was spoken in a highland zone bordering on the lowlands. He presents very little evidence in support of this proposal, none of which is systematic. He also glottochronologically dates Proto-Mayan to 4200 BP which is 1,800 years older than the LD date for the language (2400 BP). Kaufman’s dubious location of the Proto-Mayan homeland in the highlands and his much older date for the language have informed more than a generation of archeologists and others interested in the prehistory of Mesoamerica. Most archeologists who have cited these proposals have uncritically accepted them as being well-established facts, which they clearly are not.</p></div></li></ol></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextChapterBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1_3" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1_3-section"><h2 id="Bib1_3" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1_3-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1_3">Berlin, B., Breedlove, D. E., Laughlin, R, M., and Raven, P. H. (1973). Cultural Significance and Lexical Retention in Tzeltal-Tzotzil Ethnobotany. In Meaning in Mayan Languages, edited by Munro S. 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Unpublished manuscript.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print" id="ref-CR30_3-links"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=Wichmann%2C%20S.%2C%20Velupillai%2C%20V.%2C%20M%C3%BCller%2C%20A.%2C%20Bakker%2C%20D.%2C%20and%20Grant%2C%20A.%20%282008%29.%20A%20Universal%20Law%20of%20Language%20Taxonomics.%20Unpublished%20manuscript."> Google Scholar</a> </p></li></ul><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/978-1-4419-0471-3_3?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgments" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 id="Ack1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Acknowledgments</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content"><p>I would like to thank the ASJP Consortium for granting permission to use ASJP-produced LD dates for Mesoamerican ancestral languages. In addition, Karen Adams, Eugene Anderson, Daniel F. Austin, Brent Berlin, Pamela Brown, Lyle Campbell, Charles R. Clement, Geo Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, Albert Davletshin, Pattie Epps, Gary Feinman, Charles Heiser, Jane Hill, Eric Holman, Eugene Hunn, Susan Kung, Andrew Leitch, Richard Manshardt, Joyce Marcus, Deborah M. Pearsall, Renata Rivera, Bruce Smith, Brian Stross, and Søren Wichmann all aided this study in important ways for which I am very grateful. This acknowledgement should not be taken as indicating agreement with conclusions drawn here of any of those thanked.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 id="author-information" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1_3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, 60115, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Cecil H. Brown</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Cecil_H_-Brown"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Cecil H. Brown</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Cecil%20H.%20Brown" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Cecil%20H.%20Brown" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Cecil%20H.%20Brown%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="editor-information" data-title="Editor information"><div class="c-article-section" id="editor-information-section"><h2 id="editor-information" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Editor information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="editor-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="editor-affiliations">Editors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="AffID1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Dept. Anthropology, Field Museum, S. Lake Shore Dr. 1400, Chicago, 60605-2496, U.S.A.</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">John Staller </p></li><li id="AffID2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Florida State University, Tallahassee, 32306, U.S.A.</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Michael Carrasco </p></li></ol></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="appendices"><div class="c-article-section" id="appendices-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="appendices">Appendices</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="appendices-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Appendix 1</h3><p>Thirty Mesoamerican proto-languages are organized according to ancestor-descendant relationship, indicated through indentation. Languages are descendants of those languages under which their names are indented. LD dates in parentheses are given for each proto-language. The 68 modern languages used in this study (see Appendix 2) are given with indication of their affiliation with proto-languages, or under “Language Isolates” when they have no such affiliation. Names for modern languages are italicized and each language is assigned an identification number (in parentheses). Sixty-eight languages are also roughly located by identification number on a topographic map of southern Mexico and northern Central America.</p><div class="c-article-table-container"><div class="c-article-table-border c-table-scroll-wrapper"><div class="c-table-scroll-wrapper__content" data-component-scroll-wrapper=""><table class="data last-table"><tbody><tr><td><p>Proto-Otomanguean (7034 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Amuzgo-Mixtecan (4868 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Amuzgo (1)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mixtecan (3612 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Cuicatec (2)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Trique (3)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mixtec (1968 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mixtec (Alcozauca) (4)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mixtec (San Miguel) (5)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mixtec (Yosondúa) (6)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Zapotecan (3350 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chatino (7)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Zapotec (2179 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Atapec) (8)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Isthmus) (9)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Mitla) (10)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Mixtepec) (11)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Quiaviní) (12)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Yatzachi) (13)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zapotec (Zoogocho) (14)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Otopamean (3208 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mazahua (15)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Otomian (675 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Otomí (Mexquititlán) (16)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Otomí (Mezquital) (17)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Popolocan (2659 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chocho (18)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Ixcatec (19)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mazatec (20)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoloca (Atzingo) (21)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoloca (Coyotepec) (22)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoloca (Metzontla) (23)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Chinantecan (2455 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chinantec (Comaltepec) (24)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chinantec (Lealao) (25)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chinantec (Ojitlán) (26)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chinantec (Tlatepuzco) (27)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chinantec (Usila) (28)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Subtiaba-Tlapanec (1927 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tlapanec (29)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Totonacan-Mixe-Zoquean (4387 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mixe-Zoquean (3071 BP)*:</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tapachultec*</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Core Mixe-Zoquean (1492 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Zoque (1081 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chimilapa (San Miguel) (30)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoluca (Soteapan) (31)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoluca (Texistepec) (32)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zoque (Copainalá) (33)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zoque (Francisco Léon) (34)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Zoque (Rayón) (35)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mixe (967 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoluca (Oluta) (36)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Popoluca (Sayula) (37)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Oaxacan Mixean (848 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mixe (Coatlán) (38)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Mixe (Totontepec) (39)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Totonacan (1598 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tepehua (40)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Totonac (1081 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Totonac (Papantla) (41)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Totonac (Xicotepec) (42)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Totonac (Zapotitlán) (43)</i> </p></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div class="c-article-table-footer"><ol> <li>*Proto-Mixe-Zoquean is not included among the 30 ancestral languages for which inventories of cultivated/protected plants are reconstructed because its immediate daughter language, Tapachultec, a now extinct language, is inadequately documented. Thus, at present it is impossible to make an accurate assessment of the inventory of cultivated/protected plants pertaining to Proto-Mixe-Zoquean.</li> </ol></div></div> <div class="c-article-table-container"><div class="c-article-table-border c-table-scroll-wrapper"><div class="c-table-scroll-wrapper__content" data-component-scroll-wrapper=""><table class="data last-table"><tbody><tr><td><p>Proto-Uto-Aztecan (3712 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Southern Uto-Aztecan (3503 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-General Aztec (1720 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Acaxochitlán) (44)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Mecayapan) (45)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Naupan) (46)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Pajapan) (47)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Tetelcingo) (48)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Xalita) (49)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Nahuatl (Zacapoaxtla) (50)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Pipil (51)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mayan (2400 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Huastec (52)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Eastern Mayan (1614 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Mamean (1450 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Ixil (Chajul) (53)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-K’ichee’an (1342 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Kaqchikel (54)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Q’eqchi’ (55)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tz’utujil (56)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Greater Tzeltalan (1565 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Cholan (1223 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chol (Tila) (57)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Chontal (Tabasco) (58)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Tzeltalan (795 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tzeltal (Bachajón) (59)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tzeltal (Tenejapa) (60)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tzotzil (San Andrés) (61)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tzotzil (Zinacantán) (62)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Greater Q’anjob’alan (1406 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tojolabal (63)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Proto-Yucatecan (972 BP):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Itzaj (64)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Yucatec (65)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Language isolates:</p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Huave (66)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Phorhépecha (67)</i> </p></td></tr><tr><td><p> <i>Tequistlatec (68)</i> </p></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-a_3" data-title="Map 1 Mesoamerican Language Groups"><figure><figcaption><b id="Figa_3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Map 1 Mesoamerican Language Groups</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-0471-3_3/figures/a_3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0471-3_3/MediaObjects/978-1-4419-0471-3_3_Figa_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figa_3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0471-3_3/MediaObjects/978-1-4419-0471-3_3_Figa_HTML.jpg" alt="figure a_3" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-a_3-desc"><p>Topographic map of southern Mexico and northern Central America on which the 68 surveyed languages are roughly located by identification number (see above)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-0471-3_3/figures/a_3" data-track-dest="link:Figurea_3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure a_3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Appendix 2</h3><p>Sources for names of the 41 cultivated/protected plants in 68 languages and dialects of Mesoamerica. </p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.</span> <p>Amuzgo: Cloyd Stewart and Ruth D. Stewart. 2000. Diccionario Amuzgo de San Pedro Amuzgos, Oaxaca. Coyoacán, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">2.</span> <p>Chatino: Kitty Pride and Leslie Pride. 2004. Diccionario Chatino de la Zona Alta Panixtlahuaca, Oaxaca y otros Pueblos. Tlalpan, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">3.</span> <p>Chimilapa (San Miguel): Heidi A. Johnson. no date. Mesoamerican Languages Documentation Project, Dictionary Query, Language: San Miguel Chimalapa Soke. <a href="http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/mig.html">http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/mig.html</a>.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">4.</span> <p>Chinantec (Comaltepec): Gary John Martin. 1996. Comparative Ethnobotany of the Chinantec and Mixe of the Sierra Norte, Oaxaca, Mexico. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.</span> <p>Chinantec (Lealao): Jaime Rupp and Nadine de Rupp. 1996. Diccionario Chinanteco de San Juan Lealao, Oaxaca. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.</span> <p>Chinantec (Ojitlán): Pablo Smith and Dorotea Smith. 1955. Vocabulario Chinanteco (Dialecto de Ojitlán, Oaxaca. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">7.</span> <p>Chinantec (Tlatepuzco): William R. Merrifield and Alfred E. Anderson. 1999. Diccionario Chinanteco de la Diáspora del Pueblo Antiguo de San Pedro Tlatepuzco, Oaxaca. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">8.</span> <p>Chinantec (Usila): Leonard E. Skinner and Marlene B. Skinner. 2000. Diccionario Chinanteco de San Felipe Usila, Oaxaca. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">9.</span> <p>Chocho: Carol Mock. 1977. Chocho, Santa Catarina Ocotlán, Oaxaca. San Angel, México, D.F.: Centro de Investigación para la Intgegración Social.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">10.</span> <p>Chol (Tila): (1) Otto Schumann G. 1973. La Lengua Chol, de Tila (Chiapas). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. (2) H. Wilbur Aulie and Evelyn W. de Aulie. 1998. Diccionario Ch’ol de Tumbalá, Chiapas, con Variaciones Dialectales de Tila y Sabanilla. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">11.</span> <p>Chontal (Tabasco): Kathryn C. Keller and Plácido Luciano G. 1997. Diccionario Chontal Tabasco. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">12.</span> <p>Cuicatec: E. Richard Anderson and Hilario Concepción Roque. 1983. Diccionario Cuicateco. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">13.</span> <p>Huastec: Janis B. Alcorn. 1984. Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">14.</span> <p>Huave: Glenn Albert Stairs Kreger and Emily Florence Scharfe de Stairs. 1981. Diccionario Huave de San Mateo del Mar. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">15.</span> <p>Itzaj: Charles Andrew Hofling and Félix Fernando Tesucún. 1997. Itzaj Maya-Spanish-English Dictionary. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">16.</span> <p>Ixcatec: Ma. Teresa Fernández de Miranda. 1961. Diccionaro Ixcateco. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">17.</span> <p>Ixil (Chajul): Dwight David Jewet and Marcos Willis. 1996. Diccionario Ixil de Chajul-Español Español-Ixil de Chajul. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">18.</span> <p>Kaqchikel: (1) Déborah Ruyán Canú and Rafael Coyote Tum. 1991. Diccionario Cachiquel Central y Español. Guatemala, C.A.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. (2) Narciso Cojti Macario, Martin Chacach Cutzal, and Marcos Armando Cali. 1998. Diccionario Kaqchikel. La Antigua, Guatemala: Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">19.</span> <p>Mazahua: Mario Colín. 1975. Vocabulario Mazahua-Español y Español-Mazahua. México: Biblioteca Enciclopédica del Estado de México.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">20.</span> <p>Mazatec: Carole Jamieson Capen. 1996. Diccionario Mazateco de Chiquihuitlán. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">21.</span> <p>Mixe (Coatlán): Searle Hoogshagen Noordsy and Hilda Halloran de Hoogshagen. 1993. Diccionario Mixe de Coatlán, Oaxaca. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">22.</span> <p>Mixe (Totontepec): (1) Alvin Schoenhals and Louise C. Schoenhals. 1965. Vocabulario Mixe de Totontepec.México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. (2) Gary John Martin. 1996. Compartive Ethnobotany of the Chinantec and Mixe of the Sierra Norte, Oaxaca, Mexico. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">23.</span> <p>Mixtec (Alcozauca): Alejandro Casas, Juan Luis Viveros, and Javier Cabellero. 1994. Etnobotánica Mixteca. México, D.F.: Instituto Nacional Indigenista.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">24.</span> <p>Mixtec (San Miguel): Anne Dyk and Betty Stoudt. 1973. Vocabulario Mixteco de San Miguel el Grande. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">25.</span> <p>Mixtec (Yosondúa): Kathryn Beaty de Farris. 2002. Diccionario Básico del Mixteco de Yosondúa, Oaxaca. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">26.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Acaxochitlán): Gloria Ruiz de Bravo Ahuja. 1980. Náhuatl Acaxochitlán, Hidalgo. México, D.F.: Centro de Investigación Social.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">27.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Mecayapan): (1) Joseph Carl Wolgemuth Walters, Marilyn Minter de Wolgemuth, Plácido Hernández Pérez, Esteban Pérez Ramírez, and Christopher Hurst Upton. 2000. Diccionario Náhuatl de los Municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. (2) Carl Wolgemuth. 1981. Gramatica Nahuatl de Mecayapan. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">28.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Naupan): Earl Brockway, Trudy Hershey de Brockway, and Leodegario Santos Valdés. 2000. Diccionario Náhuatl del Norte del Estado de Puebla. México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">29.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Pajapan): Antonio García de León. 1976. Pajapan: Un Dialecto Mexicano del Golfo. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">30.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Tetelcingo): Forrest Brewer and Jean G. Brewer. 1971. Vocabulario Mexicano de Tetelcingo, Morelos. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">31.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Xalita): Cleofas Ramírez de Alejandro and Karen Dakin. 1979. Vocabulario Náhuatl de Xalita, Guerrero. Centro de Investigaciones Superiores del INAH.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">32.</span> <p>Nahuatl (Zacapoaxtla): Harold Key and Mary Ritchie de Key. 1953. Vocabulario Mejicano de la Sierra de Zacapoaxtla, Puebla. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">33.</span> <p>Otomí (Mexquititlán): Ewald Hekking and Severiano Andrés de Jesús. Diccionario Español-Otomí de Santiago Mexquititlán. Campanas, Querétaro: Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">34.</span> <p>34.Otomí (Mezquital): (1) Ethel E. Wallis and Nancy Lanier. 1956. Diccionario Castellano-Otomí, Otomí-Castellano. Itzmiquilpan, México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. (2) Luis Hernández Cruz, Moisés Victoria Torquemada, and Donaldo Sinclair Crawford. 2004. Diccionario del Hñäñu (Otomí) del Valle del Mezquital, Estado de Hidalgo.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">35.</span> <p>Phorhépecha: (1) Pablo Veláquez Gallardo. 1978. Diccionario de la Lengua Phorhépecha. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. (2) Alberto Medina Pérez and Jesús Alveano Hernández. 2000. Vocabulario Español-P’urhépecha P’urhépecha-Español. México, D.F.: Plaza y Valdés Editores.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">36.</span> <p>Pipil: Lyle Campbell. 1985. The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Berlin: Mouton Publishers.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">37.</span> <p>Popoloca (Atzingo): Jeanne Autin Krumholz, Marjorie Kalstrom Dolson, and Miguel Hernández Ayuso. 1995. Diccionario Popoloca de San Juan Atzingo, Puebla. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">38.</span> <p>Popoloca (Coyotepec): Bartolo Barrera and Karen Dakin. 1978. Vocabulario Popoloca de San Vicente Coyotepec. Centro de Investigaciónes Superiores del INAH.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">39.</span> <p>Popoloca (Metzontla). Annette Veerman-Leichsenring. 1991. Gramatica del Popoloca de Metzontla. Amsterdam: Rodopi.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">40.</span> <p>Popoluca (Oluta): Lawrence E. Clark. 1981. Diccionario Popoluca de Oluta. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">41.</span> <p>Popoluca (Sayula): Lawrence E. Clark. 1995. Vocabulario Popoluca de Sayula Veracruz, México. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">42.</span> <p>Popoluca (Soteapan): Benjamin F. Elson and Donaciano Gutiérrez G. 1999. Diccionaro Popoluca de la Sierra Veracruz. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">43.</span> <p>Popoluca (Texistepec). Søren Wichmann. 2002. Diccionario Analítico del Popoluca de Texistepec. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">44.</span> <p>Q’eqchi’: Michael R. Wilson. 1988. Ethnobotany of the Maya-K’ekchi’. Unpublished manuscript in possession of the author.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">45.</span> <p>Tepehua: Susan Kung, personal communication. James Watters, personal communication.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">46.</span> <p>Tequistlatec: Paul Turner and Shirley Turner. 1971. Dictionary Chontal to Spanish-English Spanish to Chontal. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">47.</span> <p>Tlapanec: Jorge A. Suárez. 1983. La Lengua Tlapaneca de Malinaltepec. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">48.</span> <p>Tojolabal: (1) Carlos Lenkersdorf. 1979. Diccionario Tojolabal-Español, Volumen Uno. México, D.F.: Editorial Nuestro Tiempo. (2) Carlos Lenkersdorf. 1996. Diccionario Español Tojolabal. México, D.F. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">49.</span> <p>Totonac (Papantla): Herman P. Aschmann. 1973. Diccionario Totonaco de Papantla, Veracruz. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">50.</span> <p>Totonac (Xicotepec): Aileen A. Reid and Ruth G. Bishop. 1974. Diccionario Totonacan de Xicotepec de Juárez, Puebla. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">51.</span> <p>Totonac (Zapotitlán): Herman P. Aschmann. 1973. Castellano-Totonaco Totonaco-Castellano: Dialecto de la Sierra. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">52.</span> <p>Trique: Claude Good. 1978. Diccionario Triqui de Chicahuaxtla. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">53.</span> <p>Tzeltal (Bachajón): Marianna C. Slocum, Florencia L. Gerdel, and Manuel Cruz Aguilar. 1999. Diccionario Tzeltal de Bachajón, Chiapas. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">54.</span> <p>Tzeltal (Tenejapa): Brent Berlin, Dennis E. Breedlove, and Peter H. Raven. 1973. Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification. New York: Academic Press.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">55.</span> <p>Tzotzil (San Andrés): Alfa Hurley Vda. de Delgaty and Agustín Ruíz Sánchez. 1978. Dicctionario Tzotzil de San Andrés con Variaciones Dialectales. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">56.</span> <p>Tzotzil (Zinacantán): Dennis E. Breedlove and Robert M. Laughlin. 1993. The Flowering of Man: A Tzotzil Botany of Zinacantán. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">57.</span> <p>Tz’utujil: Francisco Pérez Mendoza and Miguel Hernández Mendoza. 1996. Diccionario Tz’utujil. La Antigua, Guatemala: Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">58.</span> <p>Yucatec: (1) E. N. Anderson. 2003. Those Who Bring the Flowers: Maya Ethnobotany in Quintana Roo, Mexico. San Cristóbal de las Cases, Chiapas: El Colegio de la Frontera Sur Carretera Panamericana y Periférico Sur. (2) Victoria Bricker, Eleuterio Po7ot Yah, and Ofelia Dzul de Po7ot. 1998. A Dictionary of the Maya Language as Spoken in Hocabá, Yucatán. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press. (3) Alfredo Barrera Marin, Alfredo Barrera Vazquez, and Rosa Maria Lopez Franco. 1976. Nomenclatura Etnobotanica Maya: Una Interpretación Taxonómica. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. (4) Ralph L. Roys. 1931. The Ethno-Botany of the Maya. New Orleans, Louisiana: The Tulane University of Louisiana.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">59.</span> <p>Zapotec (Atapec): Neil Nellis and Jane Goodner de Nellis. 1983. Diccionario Zapoteco de Juarez. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">60.</span> <p>Zapotec (Isthmus): Velma Pickett. 1973. Vocabulario Zapoteco del Istmo. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">61.</span> <p>Zapotec (Mitla): (1) Ellen Messer. 1978. Zapotec Plant Knowledge: Classification, Uses, and Communication about Plants in Mitla, Oaxaca, Mexico. In, Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Kent V. Flannery and Richard E. Blanton, eds., pp. 1-133. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. (2) Morris Stubblefield and Carol Miller de Stubblefield. 1991. Diccionario Zapoteco de Mitla, Oaxaca. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">62.</span> <p>Zapotec (Mixtepec): (1) Eugene Hunn, personal communication. (2) Rober Reeck. 1991. A Trilingual Dictionary in Zapotec, English and Spanish. Unpublished Masters thesis, Universidad de las Americas-Puebla.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">63.</span> <p>Zapotec (Quiaviní). Pamela Munro and Felipe H. Lopez. 1999. San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec Dictionary. Los Angeles, California: Chicano Studies Research Center.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">64.</span> <p>Zapotec (Yatzachi). Inez M. Butler H. 1997. Dictionario Zapoteco de Yatzachi. Tucson, Arizona: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">65.</span> <p>Zapotec (Zoogocho). Rebecca Long C., and Sofonio Cruz M. 1999. Dicctionario Zapoteco de San Bartolomé Zoogocho, Oaxaca. Coyoacán, D.F., México: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">66.</span> <p>Zoque (Copainalá): Roy Harrison, Margaret Harrison, and Cástulo García H. 1981.Diccionario Zoque de Copainalá. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">67.</span> <p>Zoque (Francisco Léon): Ralph Engel and Mary Allhiser de Engel. 1987. Diccionario Zoque de Francisco Léon. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">68.</span> <p>Zoque (Rayón): Roy Harrison and Margaret B. de Harrison. 1984. Vocabulario Zoque de Rayon. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.</p> </li> </ol> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Appendix 3</h3><p>Presentation of the 41 cultivated/protected plants, listing the plants in alphabetical order by most well-known common name (either from English or Spanish), with scientific identification, and, when found, other common names for the plants in Spanish (as spoken in Mesoamerica) and/or English, and, if available, average elevation in meters. When plants can only be scientifically identified to genus, names are given for individual species of the genus that are ordinarily designated by native terms in Mesoamerican languages. Also given is the earliest LD date found for each plant and the proto-language with which the date is associated.</p><div class="c-article-table-container"><div class="c-article-table-border c-table-scroll-wrapper"><div class="c-table-scroll-wrapper__content" data-component-scroll-wrapper=""><table class="data last-table"><thead class="c-article-table-head"><tr><th><p>Most well-known common name (English or Spanish)</p></th><th><p>Latin name</p></th><th><p>English common name(s)</p></th><th><p>Spanish common name(s)</p></th><th><p>Average elevation in meters (if available)</p></th><th><p>Earliest LD date (and associated proto-language)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Achiote</p></td><td><p> <i>Bixa orellana</i> </p></td><td><p>Annatto</p></td><td> </td><td><p>437</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Annual sunflower</p></td><td><p> <i>Helianthus annuus</i> </p></td><td><p>Common Sunflower, Sunflower</p></td><td><p>Girasol, Mirasol</p></td><td><p>985</p></td><td><p>(term not found in any proto-language)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Anona</p></td><td><p> <i>Annona</i> spp. [<i>cherimola, , muricata, squamosa</i> + others]</p></td><td><p>Cherimoya (<i>A. cherimola</i>), Guanábana (<i>A. muricata</i>), Sugar Apple (<i>A. squamosa</i>), Soursop (<i>A. muricata</i>), Sweetsop (<i>A. squamosa</i>)</p></td><td><p>Chirimoya (<i>A. cherimola</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Avocado</p></td><td><p> <i>Persea americana</i> </p></td><td><p>Alligator Pear</p></td><td><p>Aguacate</p></td><td><p>979</p></td><td><p>7034 BP (Proto-Otomanguean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Black sapote</p></td><td><p> <i>Diospyros digyna</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Zapote Negro, Zapote Prieto</p></td><td><p>529</p></td><td><p>3350 BP (Proto-Zapotecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Cacao</p></td><td><p> <i>Theobroma cacao</i> </p></td><td><p>Chocolate</p></td><td> </td><td><p>339</p></td><td><p>3350 BP (Proto-Zapotecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Chayote</p></td><td><p> <i>Sechium edule</i> </p></td><td><p>Vegetable Pear, Merliton, Christophine</p></td><td><p>Guispil, Huispil</p></td><td><p>1,137</p></td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Chicozapote</p></td><td><p> <i>Manilkara achras</i> </p></td><td><p>Chewing Gum Tree, Marmalade Plum</p></td><td><p>Sapodilla, Nispero</p></td><td><p>218</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Chili pepper</p></td><td><p> <i>Capsicum</i> spp. [<i>annuum, frutescens, pubescens</i>]</p></td><td> </td><td><p>Chile</p></td><td> </td><td><p>4868 BP (Proto-Amuzgo-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Chipilin</p></td><td><p> <i>Crotalaria longirostrata</i> </p></td><td><p>Longbeak Rattlebox</p></td><td> </td><td><p>1,129</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Common bean</p></td><td><p> <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i> </p></td><td><p>Bean</p></td><td><p>Frijol</p></td><td><p>1,447</p></td><td><p>3350 BP (Proto-Zapotecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Common purslane</p></td><td><p> <i>Portulaca oleracea</i> </p></td><td><p>Purslane, Little Hogweed</p></td><td><p>Verdolaga</p></td><td><p>401</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Copal tree</p></td><td><p> <i>Bursera</i> spp. [<i>excelsa, graveolens, simaruba,</i> + others]</p></td><td><p>Gumbolimbo (<i>B. simaruba</i>)</p></td><td><p>Palo Mulato (<i>B. simaruba)</i>, Palo Santo (<i>B. graveolens</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Cotton</p></td><td><p> <i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Algodón</p></td><td><p>354</p></td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Coyol palm</p></td><td><p> <i>Acrocomia mexicana</i> </p></td><td><p>Feather Palm</p></td><td><p>Coyol</p></td><td><p>354</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Most well-known common name (English or Spanish)</p></td><td><p>Latin name</p></td><td><p>English common name(s)</p></td><td><p>Spanish common name(s)</p></td><td><p>Average elevation in meters (if available)</p></td><td><p>Earliest LD date (and associated proto-language)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Cuajinicuil</p></td><td><p> <i>Inga</i> spp. [<i>edulis, jinicuil, spuria,</i> + others]</p></td><td><p>River Koko (<i>I. spuria</i>), Ice-cream Bean (<i>I. edulis</i>)</p></td><td><p>Paterno (<i>I. jinicuil</i>), Chalahuite (<i>I. spuria</i> and <i>edulis</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td><p>2455 BP (Proto-Chinantecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Epazote</p></td><td><p> <i>Chenopodium ambrosioides</i> </p></td><td><p>Wormseed</p></td><td> </td><td><p>1,695</p></td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Guacimo</p></td><td><p> <i>Guazuma ulmifolia</i> </p></td><td><p>Bay Cedar</p></td><td><p>Guácima, Guázima</p></td><td><p>395</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Guava</p></td><td><p> <i>Psidium guajava</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Guayaba</p></td><td><p>603</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Hog plum</p></td><td><p> <i>Spondias</i> spp. [<i>mombin, purpurea</i>]</p></td><td><p>Red Mombin, Yellow Mombin</p></td><td><p>Ciruela, Jocote, Jobo</p></td><td><p>344</p></td><td><p>2455 BP (Proto-Chinantecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Jonote</p></td><td><p> <i>Heliocarpus donnell-smithii</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Jolocín</p></td><td><p>534</p></td><td><p>2455 BP (Proto-Chinantecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Lima bean</p></td><td><p> <i>Phaseolus lunatus</i> </p></td><td><p>Butter Bean</p></td><td><p>Frijol Blanco</p></td><td><p>538</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Maguey</p></td><td><p> <i>Agave</i> spp. [<i>americana, brachystachys, chiapensis, sisalana, fourcroydes,</i> + others]</p></td><td><p>Century Plant (<i>A. americana</i>), Henequen (<i>A. fourcroydes</i>), Sisal (<i>A. sisalana</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td> </td><td><p>7034 BP (Proto-Otomanguean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Maize</p></td><td><p> <i>Zea mays</i> </p></td><td><p>Corn, Indian Corn</p></td><td><p>Maíz</p></td><td> </td><td><p>7034 BP (Proto-Otomanguean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Mamey</p></td><td><p> <i>Pouteria mammosa</i> (syn<i>. P. sapota</i>)</p></td><td><p>Mammee Apple</p></td><td><p>Zapote Colorado</p></td><td><p>354</p></td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Manioc</p></td><td><p> <i>Manihot esculenta</i> </p></td><td><p>Cassava</p></td><td><p>Yuca</p></td><td><p>475</p></td><td><p>4387 BP (Proto-Totonacan-Mixe-Zoquean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Nanche</p></td><td><p> <i>Byrsonima crassifolia</i> </p></td><td><p>Nance</p></td><td><p>Nance, Nantzin</p></td><td><p>796</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Nopal</p></td><td><p> <i>Opuntia</i> spp. [<i>dilleni, ficus-indica, guatemalensis, pubescens, stricta</i> + others]</p></td><td><p>Prickly Pear (<i>O. dillenii</i>), Indian Fig Opuntia (<i>O. ficus-indica</i>), Teen Cactus (<i>O. pubescens</i>), Erect Prickly Pear (<i>O. stricta</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td> </td><td><p>7034 BP (Proto-Otomanguean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Pacaya</p></td><td><p> <i>Chamaedorea tepejilote</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Tepejilote, Pacaya</p></td><td><p>454</p></td><td><p>2455 BP (Proto-Chinantecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Papaya</p></td><td><p> <i>Carica papaya</i> </p></td><td> </td><td> </td><td><p>366</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Pineapple</p></td><td><p> <i>Ananas comosus</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Piña</p></td><td><p>516</p></td><td><p>2455 BP (Proto-Chinantecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Pitahaya</p></td><td><p> <i>Hylocereus undatus</i> </p></td><td><p>Red Pitaya, Dragonfruit, Strawberry Pear</p></td><td> </td><td><p>700</p></td><td><p>2659 BP (Proto-Popolocan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Quintonil</p></td><td><p> <i>Amaranthus hybridus</i> </p></td><td><p>Green Amaranth, Pigweed</p></td><td> </td><td><p>1,177</p></td><td><p>4387 BP (Proto-Totonacan-Mixe-Zoquean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Ramon</p></td><td><p> <i>Brosimum alicastrum</i> </p></td><td><p>Breadnut</p></td><td><p>Ojite, Ojoche</p></td><td><p>198</p></td><td><p>2400 BP (Proto-Mayan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Squash</p></td><td><p> <i>Cucurbita</i> spp. [<i>argyrosperma, ficifolia, moschata, maxima, pepo</i>]</p></td><td><p>Cushaw (<i>C. argyrosperma</i>), Fig Leaf Squash (<i>C. ficifolia</i>), Musky Squash (<i>C. moschata</i>), Winter Squash (<i>C. maxima</i>), Summer Squash (<i>C. pepo</i>)</p></td><td><p>Calabaza</p></td><td> </td><td><p>7034 BP (Proto-Otomanguean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Sweet potato</p></td><td><p> <i>Ipomoea batatas</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Camote</p></td><td><p>685</p></td><td><p>4387 BP (Proto-Totonacan-Mixe-Zoquean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Tejocote</p></td><td><p> <i>Crataegus pubescens</i> </p></td><td><p>Mexican Hawthorn</p></td><td> </td><td><p>2,094</p></td><td><p>3208 BP (Proto-Otopamean)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Tobacco</p></td><td><p> <i>Nicotiana tabacum</i> </p></td><td> </td><td><p>Tabaco</p></td><td><p>1,252</p></td><td><p>3712 BP (Proto-Uto-Aztecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Tomate</p></td><td><p> <i>Solanum lycopersicum, Physalis philadelphica</i> </p></td><td><p>Tomato (<i>S. lycopersicum</i>), Tomatillo, Husk Tomato (<i>P. philadelphica</i>)</p></td><td><p>Jitomate (<i>S. lycopersicum</i>), Miltomate, Tomate de Cáscara (<i>P. philadelphica</i>)</p></td><td> </td><td><p>3350 BP (Proto-Zapotecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>White sapote</p></td><td><p> <i>Casimiroa edulis</i> </p></td><td><p>Mexican Apple</p></td><td><p>Matasano, Zapote Blanco</p></td><td><p>1,297</p></td><td><p>3612 BP (Proto-Mixtecan)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Zapote amarillo</p></td><td><p> <i>Licania platypus</i> </p></td><td><p>Sansapote</p></td><td><p>Sonza</p></td><td><p>224</p></td><td><p>1968 BP (Proto-Mixtec)</p></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> </div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 id="rightslink" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item">Rights and 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