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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Focus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffraction_limit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffraction_limit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Diffraction limit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffraction_limit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Chemical processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemical_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chemical processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chemical_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gelatin_silver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gelatin_silver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Gelatin silver</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gelatin_silver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daguerreotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daguerreotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Daguerreotypes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daguerreotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collodion_process_and_the_ambrotype" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collodion_process_and_the_ambrotype"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Collodion process and the ambrotype</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collodion_process_and_the_ambrotype-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyanotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Cyanotypes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platinum_and_palladium_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platinum_and_palladium_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Platinum and palladium processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platinum_and_palladium_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gum_bichromate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gum_bichromate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Gum bichromate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gum_bichromate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C-prints_and_color_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C-prints_and_color_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>C-prints and color film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C-prints_and_color_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_sensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_sensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Digital sensors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_sensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Practical applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practical_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practical applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practical_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law_of_reciprocity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_reciprocity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Law of reciprocity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_reciprocity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motion_blur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motion_blur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Motion blur</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motion_blur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_grain_resolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_grain_resolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Film grain resolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_grain_resolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contribution_to_noise_(grain)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contribution_to_noise_(grain)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Contribution to noise (grain)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contribution_to_noise_(grain)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contribution to noise (grain) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contribution_to_noise_(grain)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantum_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Quantum efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CCDs_and_other_photodiodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CCDs_and_other_photodiodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>CCDs and other photodiodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CCDs_and_other_photodiodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photomultiplier_tubes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photomultiplier_tubes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Photomultiplier tubes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photomultiplier_tubes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aliasing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aliasing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Aliasing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aliasing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Uses of science and technology in photography</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Science_of_photography" title="Special:EditPage/Science of photography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Science+of+photography%22">"Science of photography"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Science+of+photography%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Science+of+photography%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Science+of+photography%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Science+of+photography%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Science+of+photography%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>science of photography</b> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> in all aspects of <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>. This applies to the camera, its lenses, physical operation of the camera, electronic camera internals, and the process of developing <a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">film</a> in order to take and develop pictures properly.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optics">Optics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Optics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camera_obscura">Camera obscura</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Camera obscura"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinhole-camera.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An image of a tree projected into a box through a pinhole." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Pinhole-camera.png/220px-Pinhole-camera.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Pinhole-camera.png/330px-Pinhole-camera.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Pinhole-camera.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption>Light enters a dark box through a small hole and creates an inverted image on the wall opposite the hole.<sup id="cite_ref-physics_worldview_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physics_worldview-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The fundamental technology of most photography, whether digital or analog, is the camera obscura effect and its ability to transform of a three dimensional scene into a two dimensional image. At its most basic, a camera obscura consists of a darkened box, with a very small hole in one side, which projects an image from the outside world onto the opposite side. This form is often referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole camera</a>. </p><p>When aided by a lens, the hole in the camera doesn't have to be tiny to create a sharp and distinct image, and the exposure time can be decreased, which allows cameras to be handheld. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lenses">Lenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Lenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photographic_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic lens">Photographic lens</a></div> <p>A photographic lens is usually composed of several <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens elements</a>, which combine to reduce the effects of <a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">chromatic aberration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma_(optics)" title="Coma (optics)">coma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spherical_aberration" title="Spherical aberration">spherical aberration</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberration in optical systems">aberrations</a>. A simple example is the three-element <a href="/wiki/Cooke_triplet" title="Cooke triplet">Cooke triplet</a>, still in use over a century after it was first designed, but many current photographic lenses are much more complex. </p><p>Using a smaller aperture can reduce most, but not all aberrations. They can also be reduced dramatically by using an <a href="/wiki/Aspheric_lens" title="Aspheric lens">aspheric element</a>, but these are more complex to grind than spherical or cylindrical lenses. However, with modern manufacturing techniques the extra cost of manufacturing aspherical lenses is decreasing, and small aspherical lenses can now be made by molding, allowing their use in inexpensive consumer cameras. <a href="/wiki/Fresnel_lens" title="Fresnel lens">Fresnel lenses</a> are not common in photography are used in some cases due to their very low weight.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recently developed Fiber-coupled monocentric lens consists of spheres constructed of concentric hemispherical shells of different glasses tied to the focal plane by bundles of optical fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monocentric lenses are also not used in cameras because the technology was just debuted in October 2013 at the Frontiers in Optics Conference in Orlando, Florida. </p><p>All lens design is a compromise between numerous factors, not excluding cost. <a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">Zoom lenses</a> (i.e. lenses of variable focal length) involve additional compromises and therefore normally do not match the performance of <a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime lenses</a>. </p><p>When a camera lens is focused to project an object some distance away onto the film or detector, the objects that are closer in distance, relative to the distant object, are also <i>approximately</i> in focus. The range of distances that are nearly in focus is called the <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>. Depth of field generally increases with decreasing aperture diameter (increasing f-number). The unfocused blur outside the depth of field is sometimes used for artistic effect in photography. The subjective appearance of this blur is known as <a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">bokeh</a>. </p><p>If the camera lens is focused at or beyond its <a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>, then the depth of field becomes large, covering everything from half the hyperfocal distance to <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a>. This effect is used to make "<a href="/wiki/Focus_free_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Focus free lens">focus free</a>" or fixed-focus cameras. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aberration">Aberration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aberration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberration in optical systems">Aberration in optical systems</a></div> <p>Aberrations are the blurring and distorting properties of an <a href="/wiki/Optical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical system">optical system</a>. A high quality lens will produce a smaller amount of aberrations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spherical_aberration" title="Spherical aberration">Spherical aberration</a> occurs due to the increased <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> of light rays that occurs when rays strike a lens, or a reflection of light rays that occurs when rays strike a mirror near its edge in comparison with those that strike nearer the center. This is dependent on the focal length of a spherical lens and the distance from its center. It is compensated by designing a multi-lens system or by using an <a href="/wiki/Aspheric_lens" title="Aspheric lens">aspheric lens</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a> is caused by a lens having a different <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> for different <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> and the dependence of the optical properties on <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">color</a>. Blue light will generally bend more than red light. There are higher order chromatic aberrations, such as the dependence of magnification on color. Chromatic aberration is compensated by using a lens made out of materials carefully designed to cancel out chromatic aberrations. </p><p>Curved focal surface is the dependence of the first order focus on the position on the film or CCD. This can be compensated with a multiple lens optical design, but curving the film has also been used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Focus">Focus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Focus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg/220px-Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg/330px-Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg/440px-Vendeuse_d%27arachides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2843" data-file-height="1889" /></a><figcaption>This subject is in sharp focus while the distant background is unfocused</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></div><p><a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">Focus</a> is the tendency for light rays to reach the same place on the <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensor</a> or film, independent of where they pass through the lens. For clear pictures, the focus is adjusted for distance, because at a different object distance the rays reach different parts of the lens with different angles. In modern photography, focusing is often accomplished automatically. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Autofocus" title="Autofocus">autofocus</a> system in modern <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLRs</a> use a <a href="/wiki/Detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Detector">sensor</a> in the mirrorbox to measure contrast. The sensor's signal is analyzed by an <a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC), and the ASIC tries to maximize the contrast pattern by moving lens elements. The ASICs in modern cameras also have special <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> for predicting motion, and other advanced features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffraction_limit">Diffraction limit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Diffraction limit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since light <a href="/wiki/Wave_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave propagation">propagates</a> as waves, the patterns it produces on the film are subject to the wave phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, which limits the image resolution to features on the order of several times the wavelength of light. Diffraction is the main effect limiting the sharpness of optical images from lenses that are stopped down to small apertures (high f-numbers), while aberrations are the limiting effect at large apertures (low f-numbers). Since diffraction cannot be eliminated, the best possible lens for a given operating condition (aperture setting) is one that produces an image whose quality is limited only by diffraction. Such a lens is said to be <i>diffraction limited</i>. </p><p>The diffraction-limited optical spot size on the CCD or film is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-number</a> (about equal to the f-number times the wavelength of light, which is near 0.0005 mm), making the overall detail in a photograph proportional to the size of the film, or CCD divided by the f-number. For a <a href="/wiki/135_film" title="135 film">35 mm</a> camera with <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1207775266">.mw-parser-output span.fnumber,.mw-parser-output .fnumber-fallback{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;width:max-content}.mw-parser-output span.fnumber::first-letter,.mw-parser-output .fnumber-fallback .first-letter{font-style:italic;font-family:Trebuchet MS,Candara,Georgia,Calibri,Corbel,serif}</style><span class="fnumber-fallback"><span class="first-letter">f</span>/11</span>, this limit corresponds to about 6,000 resolution elements across the width of the film (36 mm / (11 * 0.0005 mm) = 6,500. </p><p>The finite spot size caused by diffraction can also be expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Angular_resolution#The_Rayleigh_criterion" title="Angular resolution">criterion</a> for distinguishing distant objects: two distant point sources can only produce separate images on the film or sensor if their angular separation exceeds the wavelength of light divided by the width of the open aperture of the camera lens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_processes">Chemical processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chemical processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gelatin_silver">Gelatin silver</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gelatin silver"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></div> <p>The gelatin silver process is the most commonly used chemical process in black-and-white photography, and is the fundamental chemical process for modern analog color photography. As such, films and printing papers available for analog photography rarely rely on any other chemical process to record an image. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daguerreotypes">Daguerreotypes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Daguerreotypes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></div> <p><b>Daguerreotype</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span></span>(<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span></span>)<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-(<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span></span>)<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>-/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/1\/13\/Daguerreotype.wav\/Daguerreotype.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Daguerreotype.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/Daguerreotype.wav/Daguerreotype.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Daguerreotype.wav" title="File:Daguerreotype.wav">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">daguerréotype</i>) was the first publicly available <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photographic</a> process; it was widely used during the 1840s and 1850s. "Daguerreotype" also refers to an image created through this process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collodion_process_and_the_ambrotype">Collodion process and the ambrotype</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Collodion process and the ambrotype"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></div> <p>The collodion process is an early photographic process. The collodion process, mostly synonymous with the "collodion wet plate process", requires the photographic material to be coated, sensitized, exposed and developed within the span of about fifteen minutes, necessitating a portable darkroom for use in the field. Collodion is normally used in its wet form, but can also be used in dry form, at the cost of greatly increased exposure time. The latter made the dry form unsuitable for the usual portraiture work of most professional photographers of the 19th century. The use of the dry form was therefore mostly confined to landscape photography and other special applications where minutes-long exposure times were tolerable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyanotypes">Cyanotypes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cyanotypes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></div> <p>Cyanotype is a photographic printing process that produces a cyan-blue print. Engineers used the process well into the 20th century as a simple and low-cost process to produce copies of drawings, referred to as blueprints. The process uses two chemicals: ferric ammonium citrate and potassium ferricyanide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platinum_and_palladium_processes">Platinum and palladium processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Platinum and palladium processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Platinum_print" title="Platinum print">Platinum print</a></div> <p>Platinum prints, also called platinotypes, are photographic prints made by a monochrome printing process involving platinum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gum_bichromate">Gum bichromate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gum bichromate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gum_bichromate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gum bichromate">Gum bichromate</a></div><p>Gum bichromate is a 19th-century photographic printing process based on the light sensitivity of dichromates. It is capable of rendering painterly images from photographic negatives. Gum printing is traditionally a multi-layered printing process, but satisfactory results may be obtained from a single pass. Any color can be used for gum printing, so natural-color photographs are also possible by using this technique in layers. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C-prints_and_color_film">C-prints and color film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: C-prints and color film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></div> <p>A <b>chromogenic print</b>, also known as a <b>C-print</b> or <b>C-type print</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <b>silver halide print</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-kodakprints_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kodakprints-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a <b>dye coupler print</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-photoeye_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-photoeye-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">photographic print</a> made from a <a href="/wiki/Negative_(photography)" title="Negative (photography)">color negative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">transparency</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_image" title="Digital image">digital image</a>, and developed using a <a href="/wiki/Chromogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromogenic">chromogenic</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-parisphoto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parisphoto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are composed of three layers of gelatin, each containing an <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Silver_halide" title="Silver halide">silver halide</a>, which is used as a light-sensitive material, and a different <a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">dye coupler</a> of <a href="/wiki/Subtractive_color" title="Subtractive color">subtractive color</a> which together, when developed, form a full-color image.<sup id="cite_ref-photoeye_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-photoeye-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-parisphoto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parisphoto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital_sensors">Digital sensors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Digital sensors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">Digital imaging</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An image sensor or imager is a sensor that detects and conveys information used to make an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves (as they pass through or reflect off objects) into signals, small bursts of current that convey the information. The waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. Image sensors are used in electronic imaging devices of both analog and digital types, which include digital cameras, camera modules, camera phones, optical mouse devices,[1][2][3] medical imaging equipment, night vision equipment such as thermal imaging devices, radar, sonar, and others. As technology changes, electronic and digital imaging tends to replace chemical and analog imaging. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_applications">Practical applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Practical applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_of_reciprocity">Law of reciprocity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Law of reciprocity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity (photography)</a></div> <dl><dd>Exposure ∝ Aperture Area × Exposure Time × Scene Luminance</dd></dl> <p>The law of reciprocity describes how light intensity and duration trade off to make an exposure—it defines the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, for a given total <a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a>. Changes to any of these elements are often measured in units known as "stops"; a stop is equal to a factor of two. </p><p>Halving the amount light exposing the film can be achieved either by: </p> <ol><li>Closing the aperture by one stop</li> <li>Decreasing the shutter time (increasing the shutter speed) by one stop</li> <li>Cutting the scene lighting by half</li></ol> <p>Likewise, doubling the amount of light exposing the film can be achieved by the opposite of one of these operations. </p><p>The luminance of the scene, as measured on a reflected <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">light meter</a>, also affects the exposure proportionately. The amount of light required for proper exposure depends on the <a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">film speed</a>; which can be varied in stops or fractions of stops. With either of these changes, the aperture or shutter speed can be adjusted by an equal number of stops to get to a suitable exposure. </p><p>Light is most easily controlled through the use of the camera's aperture (measure in <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-stops</a>), but it can also be regulated by adjusting the <a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a>. Using faster or slower <a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">film</a> is not usually something that can be done quickly, at least using roll film. <a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">Large format</a> cameras use individual <a href="/wiki/Sheet_film" title="Sheet film">sheets of film</a> and each sheet could be a different speed. Also, if you're using a larger format camera with a polaroid back, you can switch between backs containing different speed polaroids. <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital cameras</a> can easily adjust the film speed they are simulating by adjusting the <a href="/wiki/Exposure_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure index">exposure index</a>, and many digital cameras can do so automatically in response to exposure measurements. </p><p>For example, starting with an exposure of 1/60 at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1207775266"><span class="fnumber-fallback"><span class="first-letter">f</span>/16</span>, the depth-of-field could be made shallower by opening up the aperture to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1207775266"><span class="fnumber-fallback"><span class="first-letter">f</span>/4</span>, an increase in exposure of 4 stops. To compensate, the shutter speed would need to be increased as well by 4 stops, that is, adjust exposure time down to 1/1000. Closing down the aperture limits the resolution due to the <a href="#Diffraction_limit">diffraction limit</a>. </p><p>The reciprocity law specifies the total exposure, but the response of a photographic material to a constant total exposure may not remain constant for very long exposures in very faint light, such as photographing a starry sky, or very short exposures in very bright light, such as photographing the sun. This is known as <i>reciprocity failure</i> of the material (film, paper, or sensor). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motion_blur">Motion blur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Motion blur"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Motion_blur" title="Motion blur">Motion blur</a> is caused when either the camera or the subject moves during the exposure. This causes a distinctive streaky appearance to the moving object or the entire picture (in the case of camera shake). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg/260px-Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg/390px-Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg/520px-Bl%C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Motion blur of a background while following the subject</figcaption></figure> <p>Motion blur can be used artistically to create the feeling of speed or motion, as with running water. An example of this is the technique of "<a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">panning</a>", where the camera is moved so it follows the subject, which is usually fast moving, such as a car. Done correctly, this will give an image of a clear subject, but the background will have motion blur, giving the feeling of movement. This is one of the more difficult photographic techniques to master, as the movement must be smooth, and at the correct speed. A subject that gets closer or further away from the camera may further cause focusing difficulties. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG/220px-Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG/330px-Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG/440px-Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4238" data-file-height="3192" /></a><figcaption>Light trails</figcaption></figure> <p>Light trails are another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of the effect.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs. </p><p>Generally, motion blur is something that is to be avoided, and this can be done in several different ways. The simplest way is to limit the shutter time so that there is very little movement of the image during the time the shutter is open. At longer <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a>, the same movement of the camera body will cause more motion of the image, so a shorter shutter time is needed. A commonly cited rule of thumb is that the shutter speed in seconds should be about the reciprocal of the <a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a> of the lens in millimeters. For example, a 50 mm lens should be used at a minimum speed of 1/50 sec, and a 300 mm lens at 1/300 of a second. This can cause difficulties when used in low light scenarios, since exposure also decreases with shutter time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg/260px-Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg/390px-Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg/520px-Exp_Gl%C3%BChlampe_Org.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1671" data-file-height="1114" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/High_speed_photography" class="mw-redirect" title="High speed photography">High speed photography</a> uses very short exposures to prevent blurring of fast moving subjects</figcaption></figure> <p>Motion blur due to subject movement can usually be prevented by using a faster shutter speed. The exact shutter speed will depend on the speed at which the subject is moving. For example, a very fast shutter speed will be needed to "freeze" the <a href="/wiki/Helicopter_rotor" title="Helicopter rotor">rotors</a> of a helicopter, whereas a slower shutter speed will be sufficient to freeze a runner. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">tripod</a> may be used to avoid motion blur due to camera shake. This will stabilize the camera during the exposure. A tripod is recommended for exposure times more than about 1/15 seconds. There are additional techniques which, in conjunction with use of a tripod, ensure that the camera remains very still. These may employ use of a remote actuator, such as a cable release or <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> remote switch to activate the shutter, so as to avoid the movement normally caused when the shutter release button is pressed directly. The use of a "self timer" (a timed release mechanism that automatically trips the shutter release after an interval of time) can serve the same purpose. Most modern <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">single-lens reflex camera</a> (SLR) have a <a href="/wiki/Mirror_lock-up" title="Mirror lock-up">mirror lock-up</a> feature that eliminates the small amount of shake produced by the mirror flipping up. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film_grain_resolution">Film grain resolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Film grain resolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg/220px-Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg/330px-Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Strong grain on ISO400 negative film, pushed to ISO1600.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Black-and-white film</a> has a "shiny" side and a "dull" side. The dull side is the <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a>, a gelatin that suspends an array of <a href="/wiki/Silver_halide" title="Silver halide">silver halide</a> crystals. These crystals contain silver grains that determine how sensitive the film is to light exposure, and how fine or grainy the negative the print will look. Larger grains mean faster exposure but a grainier appearance; smaller grains are finer looking but take more exposure to activate. The graininess of film is represented by its <a href="/wiki/ISO_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO (film)">ISO</a> factor; generally a multiple of 10 or 100. Lower numbers produce finer grain but slower film, and vice versa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contribution_to_noise_(grain)"><span id="Contribution_to_noise_.28grain.29"></span>Contribution to noise (grain)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Contribution to noise (grain)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_efficiency">Quantum efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Quantum efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Light comes in particles and the energy of a light-particle (the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>) is the frequency of the light times the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>. A fundamental property of any photographic method is how it collects the light on its <a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">photographic plate</a> or electronic detector. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CCDs_and_other_photodiodes">CCDs and other photodiodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: CCDs and other photodiodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Photodiodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Photodiodes">Photodiodes</a> are back-biased semiconductor diodes, in which an intrinsic layer with very few charge carriers prevents electric currents from flowing. Depending on the material, photons have enough energy to raise one <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> from the upper full band to the lowest empty band. The electron and the "hole", or the empty space where it was, are then free to move in the electric field and carry current, which can be measured. The fraction of incident photons that produce carrier pairs depends largely on the semiconductor material. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photomultiplier_tubes">Photomultiplier tubes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Photomultiplier tubes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier" title="Photomultiplier">Photomultiplier</a> tubes are vacuum <a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">phototubes</a> that amplify light by accelerating the photoelectrons to knock more electrons free from a series of electrodes. They are among the most sensitive light detectors but are not well suited to photography. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aliasing">Aliasing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Aliasing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aliasing" title="Aliasing">Aliasing</a> can occur in optical and chemical processing, but it is more common and easily understood in digital processing. It occurs whenever an optical or digital image is sampled or re-sampled at a rate which is too low for its resolution. Some digital cameras and scanners have <a href="/wiki/Anti-aliasing_filter" title="Anti-aliasing filter">anti-aliasing filters</a> to reduce aliasing by intentionally blurring the image to match the sampling rate. It is common for film developing equipment used to make prints of different sizes to increase the graininess of the smaller size prints by aliasing. </p><p>It is usually desirable to suppress both noises such as grain and details of the real object that are too small to be represented at the sampling rate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_bromide" title="Silver bromide">Silver bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_editing" title="Image editing">Image editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlight_headroom" title="Highlight headroom">Highlight headroom</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080213073916/http://www.photography.com:80/topics/science-of-photography/">"Science of Photography"</a>. <i>Photography.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.photography.com/topics/science-of-photography/">the original</a> on Feb 13, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Photography.com&rft.atitle=Science+of+Photography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.photography.com%2Ftopics%2Fscience-of-photography%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physics_worldview-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physics_worldview_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkpatrickFrancis2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_D._Kirkpatrick" title="Larry D. 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Belmont, California: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01088-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01088-3"><bdi>978-0-495-01088-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Light&rft.btitle=Physics%3A+A+World+View&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=339&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-01088-3&rft.aulast=Kirkpatrick&rft.aufirst=Larry+D.&rft.au=Francis%2C+Gregory+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nikonusa.com/en/learn-and-explore/a/ideas-and-inspiration/phase-fresnel-from-wildlife-photography-to-portraiture.html">"Phase Fresnel: From Wildlife Photography to Portraiture | Nikon"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phase+Fresnel%3A+From+Wildlife+Photography+to+Portraiture+%26%23124%3B+Nikon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nikonusa.com%2Fen%2Flearn-and-explore%2Fa%2Fideas-and-inspiration%2Fphase-fresnel-from-wildlife-photography-to-portraiture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pietrzyk.us/ieee-spectrum-shows-off-new-lens-technology-2/">"Logitech Software"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Logitech+Software&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpietrzyk.us%2Fieee-spectrum-shows-off-new-lens-technology-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2003) [1917]. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definitions+of+Print+Processes+-+Chromogenic+Print&rft.place=Santa+Fe%2C+New+Mexico&rft.pub=Photo-Eye+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.photoeye.com%2FGALLERY%2FDefinitions.cfm%23ChromogenicPrint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-parisphoto-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parisphoto_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-parisphoto_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parisphoto.com/en/Glossary/chromogenic-prints/">"Chromogenic prints"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 12,</span> 2017</span> – via Paris Photo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chromogenic+prints&rft.pub=L%E2%80%99Atelier+de+Restauration+et+de+Conservation+des+Photographies+de+la+Ville+de+Paris&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parisphoto.com%2Fen%2FGlossary%2Fchromogenic-prints%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenstermaker2017" class="citation web cs1">Fenstermaker, Will (April 27, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/collecting-101/whats-a-chromogenic-pigment-or-gelatin-print-the-ultimate-guide-to-digital-and-chemical-photo-54752">"From C-Print to Silver Gelatin: The Ultimate Guide to Photo Prints"</a>. <i>Artspace</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 13,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Artspace&rft.atitle=From+C-Print+to+Silver+Gelatin%3A+The+Ultimate+Guide+to+Photo+Prints&rft.date=2017-04-27&rft.aulast=Fenstermaker&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.artspace.com%2Fmagazine%2Fart_101%2Fcollecting-101%2Fwhats-a-chromogenic-pigment-or-gelatin-print-the-ultimate-guide-to-digital-and-chemical-photo-54752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treklens.com/gallery/Africa/South_Africa/photo102894.htm">"TrekLens – JoBurg Skyline and Light Trails Photo"</a>. <i>treklens.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=treklens.com&rft.atitle=TrekLens+%E2%80%93+JoBurg+Skyline+and+Light+Trails+Photo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treklens.com%2Fgallery%2FAfrica%2FSouth_Africa%2Fphoto102894.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+of+photography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Photography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photography" title="Template:Photography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photography" title="Template talk:Photography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic<br />processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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