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Indian enslavement of Blacks in the American Southeast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_enslavement_of_Blacks_in_the_American_Southeast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Native_American_territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Native_American_territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Slavery in Native American territory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Native_American_territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Five_Civilized_Tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Five_Civilized_Tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Five Civilized Tribes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Five_Civilized_Tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cherokee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cherokee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Cherokee </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Responses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 In Mesoamerica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Wild_Coast_of_South_America_and_subsequent_Guianas_and_North_Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Wild_Coast_of_South_America_and_subsequent_Guianas_and_North_Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 In the Wild Coast of South America and subsequent Guianas and North Brazil </div> </a> <ul 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Native_American_slave_ownership&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ownership of enslaved Africans and Amerindians by Amerindians</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For Pre-Colonial slavery in the Americas, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Slavery in Pre-Columbian America</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The ownership of enslaved people by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> extended throughout the colonial period up to the abolition of slavery. Indigenous people enslaved Amerindians, Africans, and—occasionally—Europeans. In North America, <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">waves of European colonization</a> brought Amerindian dislocation and modern weapons which enabled the industrialization of Amerindian slave-raiding of Amerindians for about a century. Soon afterwards, as an accelerating <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> brought enslaved Africans to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, many indigenous tribes acquired more Africans as slaves and traded them among themselves and to the colonists. Many prominent people from the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" purchased slaves and became members of the <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter class</a>. A number of Indian nations of the time are considered "slave societies", comparable to the canonical models of Greece, Rome, Portuguese America, and others. The 1863 <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> only applied to States in rebellion, and did not legally affect slavery in Native American areas that fought for the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>. Upon ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a>, slaves in the US were emancipated in 1865.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> In practice, slavery continued in some Native American territories. The <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a> negotiated new treaties in 1866, in which they agreed to end slavery.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Northwest_North_America_and_subsequent_Canada">In Northwest North America and subsequent Canada</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In Northwest North America and subsequent Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a>.</div> Slavery in territories that would become today's Canada may have begun as far back as 1500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Among <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">indigenous peoples of Canada</a>, children of slaves could inherit the condition of enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a> In some tribes in the Pacific Northwest, about a quarter of the population consisted of enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Enslavement of white people, while not common, took place until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sufferings-7">[7]</a> Slavery in <a href="/wiki/The_Canadas" title="The Canadas">the Canadas</a> was abolished in 1833.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_British_North_America_and_subsequent_United_States">In British North America and subsequent United States</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In British North America and subsequent United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></div> Holding humans in slavery was not a new concept to indigenous American peoples - in inter-Native American conflict tribes often kept <a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoner-of-war">prisoners-of-war</a>, and these captives often replaced slain tribe-members.<a href="#cite_note-laubchap1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-10">[10]</a> Furthermore, an indigenous person could gamble away the rights to his own person, and thus become the slave of another,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> or they could inherit enslavement, and thus be born slaves.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a> Intra-indigenous slavery also occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> where it persisted until the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Because of their different historical and cultural background, Indigenous perspectives on the enslavement differed from more industrial European paradigms of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-14">[14]</a> Non-indigenous slaves and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> to be held and work in slavery;<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> records of Indian <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ortiz_(captive)" title="Juan Ortiz (captive)">enslavement of Europeans</a> begin in 1528.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> By the 18th century, the holding of Africans in slavery by and with Native Americans became substantial in colonial America;<a href="#cite_note-National_Archives-17">[17]</a> furthermore, indigenous Indians created well-structured networks to trade black slaves among themselves and with the colonists.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Native Americans and Africans had many interactions as parallel oppressed communities.<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> Some European settlers enslaved many Native Americans, and major European-held colonies such as <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> enslaved thousands (30,000–53,000) of Native Americans in the late 1600s through the 1700s with the occurrence of enslavement continuing into the 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-laubchap1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-ism-20">[20]</a> As many as 147,000 to 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in English colonies.<a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, "Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried."<a href="#cite_note-afrna-22">[22]</a> Many tribes encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier children from the unions.<a href="#cite_note-nadis-23">[23]</a> However, Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> Because of European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans, the colonists encouraged hostility between the ethnic groups: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests."<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In 1751, South Carolina law stated: <blockquote> "The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided."<a href="#cite_note-hid-26">[26]</a></blockquote> In addition, in 1758 the governor of South Carolina James Glen wrote: <blockquote> it has always been the policy of this government to create an aversion in them Indians to Negroes.<a href="#cite_note-afch-27">[27]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/220px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/330px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/440px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3366" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldiers</a>, 1890. The nickname was given to the "Black Cavalry" by the Native American tribes they fought.</figcaption></figure> Even though Indians kept and worked black slaves,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Red,_White_pg._99-29">[29]</a> The "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader."<a href="#cite_note-Red,_White_pg._99-29">[29]</a> To gain favor with Europeans, the Cherokee exhibited the strongest color-prejudice of all Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Native Americans were rewarded if they returned people who had escaped from slavery, and African-Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-cherslav-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-infr-32">[32]</a> Africans held in slavery replaced Native American enslavement and eventually many Native Americans were pushed off their land and forced to move westward. There are many examples of this forced removal, but one of the most famous was the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1830s and 1840s) that forced people of the Cherokee nation and other tribes to move to present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee took their black slaves on the Trail, or shipped their slaves by boat.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_slavers_of_Indians">Indian slavers of Indians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indian slavers of Indians">edit</a>]</div> Large-scale Indian slaving with modern weapons —in which Indians would raid other Indians to capture slaves— took place for around a century, from about 1620 to 1720. The main slavers were the Occaneechees, Westos, Chiscas, Chickasaws, and Iroquois; these have been defined as "militaristic slaving societies". Their territory was Eastern North America. The consequences of their slave raiding included "widespread dislocation, migration, amalgamation, and, in some cases, extinction of Native peoples".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The Comanche and a few other Indian nations are considered "slave societies" with slaves constituting over 20% of the population, comparable to Rome, Greece, Portuguese America, and others.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_enslavement_of_Blacks_in_the_American_Southeast">Indian enslavement of Blacks in the American Southeast</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Indian enslavement of Blacks in the American Southeast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans in the United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trails_of_Tears_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/339px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png" decoding="async" width="339" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/509px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/678px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1547" /></a><figcaption>A map illustrating the relative territorial locations of the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" in 19th-century North America. Represented are the Seminole, the Cherokee, the Creek, the Chickasaw, and the Choctaw.</figcaption></figure> There are conflicting theories as to what caused the shift between traditional Native American servitude, to the oppressive racialized enslavement adopted by the Five Civilized tribes. One theory is the civilized tribes adopted slavery as means to defend themselves from federal pressure, believing that it would help them maintain their southern lands. In this effort to avoid removal, some Native American tribes attempted to assimilate into white European society through strategies such as formal schooling, adopting Christianity, moving off the reservation, or even owning slaves. They were the most receptive to white pressures to adopt European cultures. In the 19th century, European Americans began to migrate west from the coastal areas, and encroach on tribal lands, sometimes in violation of existing treaties.<a href="#cite_note-laubchap1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-10">[10]</a> Bands along the frontier, in closer contact with traders and settlers, tended to become more assimilated, often led by chiefs who believed they needed to change to accommodate a new society; indeed, some chiefs were mixed-race and were related to elected American officials.<a href="#cite_note-katover-36">[36]</a> Other chiefs had been educated in American schools, and had learned American language and culture.<a href="#cite_note-katover-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-37">[37]</a> Educated individuals mixed with European heritage were the most likely to become slaveholders and adopt other European practices.<a href="#cite_note-katover-36">[36]</a> Others of their people, often located at more of a distance, held to more traditional practices, and such cultural divisions were the cause of conflict, for instance the <a href="/wiki/Creek_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek Wars">Creek Wars</a> (1812–1813) and similar tensions suffered by other Southeast tribes.<a href="#cite_note-katover-36">[36]</a> Another narrative postulates that Native Americans began to feed into the European belief that Africans were somehow inferior to whites and themselves.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Some indigenous nations such as the Chickasaws and the Choctaws began to embrace the concept that African bodies were property, and equated blackness to hereditary inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In either case "The system of racial classification and hierarchy took shape as Europeans and Euro-Americans sought to subordinate and exploit Native Americans' and Africans' land, bodies, and labor. Whether strategically or racially motivated the trade of humans promoted interactions between the "Five Civilized Tribes" and Africans held in slavery which led to new power relations among Native societies, elevating groups such as the Five Civilized Tribes to power and serving, ironically, to preserve native order.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The writer <a href="/wiki/William_Loren_Katz" title="William Loren Katz">William Loren Katz</a> suggests that Native Americans treated the people they held in slavery better than European Americans in the Southeast.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Travelers reported enslaved Africans "in as good circumstances as their masters."<a href="#cite_note-wil-42">[42]</a> A white Indian Agent, Douglas Cooper, upset by the Native Americans failure to practice a harsher form of bondage, insisted that Native Americans invite white men to live in their villages and "control matters".<a href="#cite_note-wil-42">[42]</a> One observer in the early 1840s wrote, "The full-blood Indian rarely works himself and but few of them make their slaves work. A slave among wild Indians is almost as free as his owner." <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> stated in 1850, "the slave finds more of the milk of human kindness in the bosom of the savage Indian, than in the heart of his Christian master.<a href="#cite_note-ism-20">[20]</a> But references to indigenous peoples' kindness were generally to the sanctuary offered by underground railroads operated by non-slaveholding Native Americans -- not to Native Americans who kept people in slavery.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In contrast to whites who profited from keeping people enslaved for labor, Native Americans who enslaved people did not use justifications for slavery nor maintain a fictional view of seeing the enslaved people they held captive as part of the family.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> However, the status of enslaved individuals could change if captors adopted or married an enslaved African American, but enslaved people as a whole had always been linked to their lack of kin ties.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or <a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave">runaway</a> African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> Records show that many Native American women "bought" captive African men but, unknown to the European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> When African men married or had children by a Native American woman, their children were born free, because the mother was free (according to the principle of partus sequitur ventrum, which the colonists incorporated into law.)<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> In the 1790s, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a> was assigned as the US agent to the southeastern tribes. He encouraged the major Southeast tribes to adopt <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel</a> slavery in order to have labor for plantations and large-scale agricultural production, as part of their <a href="/wiki/Americanization_(of_Native_Americans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanization (of Native Americans)">assimilation</a> of European-American ways.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> He thought their traditional form of slavery, which had looser conditions, was less efficient than <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel</a> slavery.<a href="#cite_note-afch-27">[27]</a> However, the adoption and adaptation of Euro-American institutions did nothing to shield Native Americans from US domination and created divisions within the tribes themselves. The pressures from European Americans and the US government to assimilate as well as the economic shift of furs and deerskins led to them adopting an economy based on agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> Katz thought that enslaving humans for profit contributed to divisiveness among tribes of the Southeast and promoted a class hierarchy based on "white blood". Some historians believe that <a href="/wiki/Class_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Class division">class division</a> was related more to the fact that several of the leadership clans accepted mixed-race chiefs, who were first and foremost on these tribes, and promoting assimilation or accommodation. The Choctaw and Chickasaw nations were also exceptions to the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations; as these tribes abolished slavery immediately after the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> the Chickasaw and Choctaw did not free all of the people they held in slavery until 1866. Tensions varied between African American and Native Americans in the South. By the early 1800s, sanctuary for people who escaped slavery changed. Sometimes people who had escaped slavery had a 50% chance that Native Americans may capture them and return them to the white people who enslaved them or even re-enslave them.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> Though some Native Americans had a strong dislike of slavery they lacked political power and a paternalist culture that pervaded the non-native south; as white men were seen as absolute masters in their households.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> It is unclear if Native American slaveholders sympathized with African American slaves as fellow people of color, class more than race may be a more useful prism through which to view masters of color.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> Christianity emerged as an important fault line separating some Native Americans and African Americans as most African Americans by the early 1800s had accepted the teachings of missionaries while few Native Americans particularly the Choctaw and Chickasaw in the south converted and still practiced traditional spiritual beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Many Native Americans saw the attempts of missionization as a part US expansion.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> European colonists often required the return of <a href="/wiki/Runaway_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slaves">runaway slaves</a>—people who escaped those who held them in slavery—to be included as a provision in treaties with Native Americans. In 1726, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_New_York" title="List of colonial governors of New York">governor of New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Burnet_(colonial_administrator)" title="William Burnet (colonial administrator)">William Burnet</a>, exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all people who had escaped their captors.<a href="#cite_note-Katz-47">[47]</a> In the mid-1760s, the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies">colonial government</a> of New York requested the <a href="/wiki/Huron_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Huron tribe">Huron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Delaware tribe">Delaware</a> to return those people who had managed to escape slavery, but there was no record of those people having been returned.<a href="#cite_note-Katzs-48">[48]</a> Colonists placed ads about "runaway slaves". While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and enslaved them, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, paying to "own" and use captive African American people for profit, especially the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek)">Creek</a>. Though less than 3% of Native Americans kept others in slavery, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery.<a href="#cite_note-wil-42">[42]</a> Among the Cherokee, records show that those in the tribe who held people in slavery were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-cherslav-31">[31]</a> As European colonists took the people they enslaved into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures interacted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-24">[24]</a> Native Americans in the South shared some experiences with Africans, especially during the period, primarily in the 17th and 18th centuries, when both were enslaved. The colonists along the Atlantic Coast had begun enslaving Native Americans to ensure a source of labor. At one time the trade of people held captive for profit was so extensive that it caused increasing tensions with the various <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> tribes, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquois Confederacy">Iroquois Confederacy</a>. Based in New York and Pennsylvania, they had threatened to attack colonists on behalf of the related <a href="/wiki/Iroquoian" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquoian">Iroquoian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_people" title="Tuscarora people">Tuscarora</a> before they migrated out of the South in the early 1700s.<a href="#cite_note-afrna-22">[22]</a> In the 19th century, some members of these tribes who were more closely associated with settlers, began to purchase African American slaves for workers. They adopted some European-American ways to benefit their people. Among the <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>, mixed-race slaveholders were generally part of an elite hierarchy, often based on their mothers' clan status, as the societies had <a href="/wiki/Matrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrilineal">matrilineal</a> systems. As did Benjamin Hawkins, European fur traders and colonial officials tended to marry high-status women, in strategic alliances seen to benefit both sides. The women's sons gained their status from their mother's families; they were part of hereditary leadership lines who exercised power and accumulated personal wealth in their changing Native American societies. The chiefs of the tribes believed that some of the new generation of mixed-race, bilingual chiefs would lead their people into the future and be better able to adapt to new conditions influenced by European Americans. Slaveholding, as an element of such status-seeking, beyond merely securing direct wealth, was also intended to raise the stature of Five Civilized Tribes members with European colonizers in order assimilate and to avoid displacement by the Europeans (a strategy which ultimately failed).<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_Native_American_territory">Slavery in Native American territory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slavery in Native American territory">edit</a>]</div> With the US increasing pressure for <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a>, tensions became higher. Some chiefs believed removal was inevitable and wanted to negotiate the best terms possible to preserve tribal rights, such as the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_LeFlore" title="Greenwood LeFlore">Greenwood LeFlore</a>. Others believed they should resist losing ancestral lands.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> For instance, members of the Cherokee Treaty Party, who believed removal was coming, negotiated cessions of land which the rest of the tribe repudiated.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> This conflict was carried to Native American territory, where opponents assassinated some of the signatories of the land cession treaty, for alienating communal land. The tensions among the Native Americans of the Southeast was principally about land and assimilation rather than slavery. Most chiefs agreed that armed resistance was futile.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a> took African Americans they held in slavery with them to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (present-day Oklahoma) when they were removed from the American Southeast by the US government.<a href="#cite_note-katover-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Missionaries and supporters of the <a href="/wiki/American_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="American Board">American Board</a> vociferously denounced Indian removal as cruel, oppressive, and feared such actions would push Native Americans away from converting.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In 1850, the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Law</a> was adopted, further dividing Native Americans. The fate of runaway slaves in native territory was debated between Native Americans and the US government. Many Native Americans felt US lawmakers were overstepping their boundaries and overreaching federal authority in dictating the disposition of runaway slaves in indigenous lands. Not all African Americans in Native American territory were held in slavery, as some were free.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma">Choctaw Nation</a> was home to diverse communities that included free African Americans as well as people of mixed African-Choctaw descent.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> In Native American territory. such communities were frequent and this complicated census taking commissioned by the US government.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> In 1832, US census takers in Creek country struggled to categorize the diverse group of people who resided there; unsure how to count African American wives of Creek men, and how to classify people of mixed African-Native descent.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Five_Civilized_Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Five Civilized Tribes">edit</a>]</div> The "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>", centered in Georgia, had acquired African Americans for use in slavery as plunder from Patriot slave owners during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>, which was allowed by their British allies.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> The Five Civilized Tribes, coached by <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">Indian agent</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a>, acquired additional enslaved workers and became <a href="/wiki/Planters" title="Planters">planters</a>, like their white neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The federal government's expulsion of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek (Muscogee) tribes opened the door to the rapid growth of plantation slavery across the "Deep South", but Indian removal also pushed chattel slavery westward, setting the stage for more conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> Unlike other tribes that were physically forced to move out of the "Deep South" the government actively sought to have the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations forcefully unified governmentally.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Choctaw and Chickasaw saw each other as different people and were bitter enemies in the 1700s, but in 1837 a treaty was made unifying the two tribes.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The two tribes agreed to the union but a treaty made in 1855 allowed the two tribes to separate as different governments.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> Native Americans and African Americans had mostly positive interactions through the centuries. This positive interaction was not the case in post-Civil War Indian Territory.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> Racial antagonism, intensified by the abolition of slavery among the Five Civilized Tribes and the new pressures brought on by the influx of land-hungry white settlers, combined to create bitter hostility and in a few instances violent conflicts between the two peoples who had previously lived in relative harmony.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> The evolution of this changing Native American and African American relationship can be traced to the American Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation had a major impact on the Five Civilized Tribes even though the tribes were individually allowed to decide on the fate of their Freedmen.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cherokee">Cherokee</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cherokee">edit</a>]</div> The Cherokee was the tribe that held the most people in slavery. In 1809, they held nearly 600 enslaved Africans.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> This number increased to almost 1,600 in 1835, and to around 4,000 by 1860, after they had removed to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> Cherokee populations for these dates are: 12,400 in 1809; 16,400 in 1835; and 21,000 in 1860.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> The proportion of Cherokee families who held others in slavery did not exceed ten percent, and was comparable to the percentage among white families across the South, where an "elite" group of people held most of the people who were enslaved for labor and profit.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> In the 1835 census, only eight percent of Cherokee households contained people in slavery, and only three Cherokee owned more than 50 people held in slavery.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vann" title="Joseph Vann">Joseph Vann</a> had the most, owning 110 like other major planters.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> Of the Cherokee who held people in slavery, 83 percent held fewer than 10 people in slavery.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> Of the families who held people in slavery, 78 percent claimed some white ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> In 1827, the Cherokee developed a constitution, which was part of their acculturation. It prohibited those held in slavery and their descendants (including mixed-race) from owning property, selling goods or produce to earn money, and marrying Cherokee or European Americans. It imposed heavy fines on those holding people in slavery if the people they enslaved consumed <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> No African Americans, even if free and of partial Cherokee heritage, could vote in the tribe.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> If a mother was of partial African descent, her children could not vote in the tribe, regardless of the father's heritage; the Cherokee also prohibited any person of Negro or mulatto parentage from holding an office in the Cherokee government.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-chermarria-53">[53]</a> Such laws reflected state slavery laws in the Southeast, but Cherokee laws did not impose as many restrictions on those enslaved nor were they strictly enforced.<a href="#cite_note-amslav-49">[49]</a> However the narrative that the Cherokee practiced a less harsh form of slavery has increasingly been challenged, with historians such as Dr. Arica L. Coleman going so far as to call it "demolished" by recent scholarship showing "slavery in the Indian Territory became a mirror-image of slavery in the White South."<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In the Cherokee constitution, the Cherokee council made strong efforts to regulate the marrying of Cherokee women to white men, but made little effort to control whom Cherokee men chose to marry or have a union with.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> It was not uncommon for Cherokee men, like white men, to have unions with African American women who were held in slavery, but there was little incentive for them to legalize the union as children born to captive enslaved women or any woman of African descent were not seen as Cherokee citizens at the time due to the rule of the Cherokee Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-chermarria-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> Some sexual relationships between Cherokee men and African-American women were also informal, so prohibitions on marriage would not affect them.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> The lack of legal prohibitions on such unions points to the unwillingness of lawmakers, many of whom belonged to families holding people in slavery, to infringe on the prerogatives of those who held people in slavery over the people they held captive or to constrain the sexual behavior of men in the tribe.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> The Cherokee government in the majority of cases did not recognize marriages between African Americans and Cherokee citizens and declared people of African descent as forbidden marriage partners in an effort to discourage unions, and also to attempt to keep a divide between the two racial groups.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> Though a few cases on record indicate such unions did occur; in 1854 a Cherokee named Cricket was charged with taking a colored wife, and for unclear reasons the Cherokee courts tried him and acquitted him.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> It is speculated that maybe the court was attempting to express disapproval, the relationship may have been considered less formal, or etc.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> The "1855 Act" made no room for formal relationships between African Americans and Cherokee citizens and was partially derived from the "1839 Act" preventing amalgamation with colored persons, which was still in effect but did not prevent such unions from occurring.<a href="#cite_note-cherolaw-55">[55]</a> By 1860, the population held in slavery in the Cherokee nation made up 18% of the entire population of the nation with most people enslaved being culturally Cherokee, only spoke the Cherokee language, and were immersed in Cherokee traditions.<a href="#cite_note-chermarria-53">[53]</a> The Cherokee also had no laws on the manumission of those held in slavery; manumission was given for numerous reasons.<a href="#cite_note-CheRen-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-CheRen2-57">[57]</a> The Cherokee freed their slaves in 1863 in accordance to the Emancipation Proclamation; however, under the provisions of the post-war treaty only those Freedmen and free African Americans residing in the Cherokee nation before the war and who remained in 1866 were declared citizens and entitled to vote and hold office.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> All other Cherokee Freedmen wanting citizenship had to return to the nation within six months of the treaty signing.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> Consequently, a number of former Cherokee slaves who had fled during the Civil War but returned after 1867 were not allowed Cherokee citizenship, and this category of non-citizen "intruders" often included husbands, wives, and children of Cherokee citizens.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> Some tribal leaders such as Chief Lewis Downing, made legislative attempts to correct this enumeration mistake, however the National Council and the Cherokee national legislature disregarded these measures and called on federal authorities to eject those categorized as "intruders".<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chickasaw">edit</a>]</div> The Chickasaw also held similar laws mimicking the culture of the American south.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> After the Revolutionary War the Chickasaw like many other tribes were the targets of assimilation, they were pressed into giving up their trading of deerskins, and communal hunting grounds.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The secretary of war Henry Knox under <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> set two interrelated goals: peaceful land acquisitions and programs focused on assimilating Native Americans in the south.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Chickasaw became familiarized with chattel slavery through contact with European colonists, and began to adopt this form of slavery in the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The heavy decline of the <a href="/wiki/White-tailed_deer" title="White-tailed deer">white-tailed deer</a> population aided in the pressure for the Chickasaw to begin enslaving people for labor as "chattel", the Chickasaw conceded that they could no longer rely primarily on hunting.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> It is unclear when the Chickasaw began to think of themselves as potential slave owners of African and African Americans as people they could enslave as property.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The shift toward buying, selling, and exploiting slave labor for material gain accompanied broader, ongoing changes in the ways Chickasaw acquired and valued goods.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Chickasaw excelled in the production of cotton, corn, livestock, and poultry to not only feed their families, but to sell to American families.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> US Indian agents tracked Chickasaw acquisition of slaves and did not discourage it, as federal officials believed the exploiting of slave labor might enhance Native Americans' understandings of the dynamics of property ownership and commercial gain.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Chickasaw obtained many slaves born in Georgia, Tennessee, or Virginia .<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In 1790, Major John Doughty wrote to Henry Knox that Chickasaws owned a great many horses, and some families owned slaves and cattle.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> Among the Chickasaw who were slaveholders many had European heritage, mostly through a white father and a Chickasaw mother.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The continued assimilation came heavily through intermarriage as some assimilationists viewed intermarriage as another way to expedite natives' advancement toward civilization, and supported the underlying belief in white superiority.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> A number of Chickasaw with European heritage rose to prominence because they were related to already politically powerful members of the tribe, not because of racial makeup.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> Though the Chickasaw did not necessarily prize European American ancestry, they did embrace a racial hierarchy that degraded those with African heritage and associated it with enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> A further cultural change among the Chickasaw was to have enslaved men work in the fields along with enslaved women; within the Chickasaw tribe, agricultural duties traditionally belonged to the women.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> Chickasaw legislators would later condemn sexual relationships between Chickasaw and black people; Chickasaws were punished for publicly taking up with blacks held in slavery with fines, whippings, and ultimately expulsion from the nation.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> This legislation was also an attempt to keep boundaries between race and citizenship within the tribe.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Chickasaw were also unique among the other civilized tribes as they saw their control over enslaved people as a particular form of power that could and should be enacted through violence.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> In some cases, the Chickasaw also practiced the separation of families, which was not practiced among the other tribes.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Choctaw">Choctaw</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Choctaw">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw in the American Civil War</a></div> The Choctaw enslaved many people who were already enslaved in Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The Choctaw held laws in their constitution which also mirrored the "Deep South".<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Choctaw in Native American Territory did not allow anyone with African heritage to hold office even if they were of partial heritage.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> The Choctaw 1840 constitution also did not allow freed African Americans to settle in the Choctaw nation meaning they were not allowed to own or obtain land, but white men could get permission in writing from the Chief or the United States Agent to reside in the Choctaw nation.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The Choctaw nation further barred those of partial African heritage from being recognized as Choctaw citizens, but a white man married to a Choctaw woman would be eligible for naturalization.<a href="#cite_note-BK13ch1-51">[51]</a> In response to proslavery ideology in the Native American nations creating a climate of animosity toward free African Americans, the Choctaw General Council enacted legislation in October 1840 that mandated the expulsion of all free black people "unconnected with the Choctaw & Chickasaw blood" by March 1841.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Those who remained were at risk of being sold at an auction and enslaved for life.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Works Progress Administration (WPA) interviews conducted varied among formerly enslaved people of the Choctaw tribe, the formerly enslaved Edmond Flint asserted that his bondage by the Choctaw did not differ from being enslaved under a white household, but indicated that within the Choctaw there were humane and inhumane enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-slavpun-44">[44]</a> Choctaw who kept people in slavery and those who did not were a major focus for missionaries wanting to convert those who were not Christian.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> One Methodist newspaper in 1829 stated: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">What account will our people render to God if, through their neglect, this people, now ripe for the gospel, should be forced into the boundless wilds beyond the Mississippi, in their present state of ignorance?<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a></blockquote> The Choctaw did allow the people they enslaved to worship at Christian missions.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> For Africans rebuilding their religious lives in the Native American nations sustained a sense of connection to the kin and communities that had been left behind.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Missionaries were able to establish mission churches and school in the Choctaw lands with permission from the tribe's leaders, but the issues of slavery created aversion between the Choctaw and the missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The missionaries argued that human bondage did not reflect a Christian society, and believed it highlighted native people's laziness, cruelty, and resistance to "civilization".<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In the 1820s, a heated debate over whether to allow slaveholding Choctaw into mission churches occurred, but a final decision was made with missionaries not wanting to alienate slaveholding Native Americans as potential converts and so received them at prayer meetings and granted church membership with the hope of enlightening them through discussion and prayer.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> During this time, missionaries did see Choctaws and African Americans as racially and intellectually inferior; converted Africans were regarded as intellectually and morally sounder than non-Christian Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Kingsbury" title="Cyrus Kingsbury">Cyrus Kingsbury</a>, a leader of the American Board, believed that missionaries had brought civilization to the Choctaw whom he deemed as uncivilized people.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> A few Choctaw slaveholders believed that having their slaves learn how to read the Bible would cause them to become spoiled slaves, and this added to the persistent mistrust the Choctaw had for missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> One Choctaw slaveholder, Israel Folsom, informed Kingsbury that the Folsom family would no longer attend Kingsbury's church because of its antislavery position.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Tiring of the missionaries condescending attitudes or questioning their pedagogical approach toward both Native American pupils and African worshippers, the Choctaw withdrew their children, slaves, and financial support from the mission schools and churches.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The Choctaw masters, whether they converted to Christianity or not, did not rely on religion as a weapon of control in interactions with their slaves, but did regulate where enslaved peoples could have religious gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In 1850, the US Congress made its most dramatic legislative move against free African Americans in the United States with its approval of the Fugitive Slave Act, which added to the tensions free African Americans felt in the Choctaw Nation.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> However, even with Choctaw lawmakers determined measures to separate the Choctaw from free African Americans, some free African Americans remained in the nation undisturbed.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In 1842, Choctaw <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pitchlynn" title="Peter Pitchlynn">Peter Pitchlynn</a> wrote to the US Secretary of War, complaining about the "armed Texans" who charged into Choctaw country and kidnapped the Beams family; citing it as evidence of white American disregard for <a href="/wiki/Native_American_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American sovereignty">Native American sovereignty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The Beams family case went on from the 1830s to 1856 when the Choctaw court ruled that the family was indeed a free black family.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> In 1860, census takers from Arkansas documented several households in the Choctaw nation that were predominantly African American.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> The kidnappings of free African Americans by white men became a serious threat, even for those in Native American nations.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> Though paternalism sometimes motivated prominent Native Americans to protect freed black people, political leaders and enslavers generally viewed free African Americans as magnets for white thieves and thus a menace to people who kept slaves and national security.<a href="#cite_note-EPMS-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creek">Creek</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Creek">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Creek_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek tribe">Creek</a> society before the arrival of Europeans and Africans in Creek country, those held in slavery were simply war captives.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Noncombatant women and young children were enslaved and clans who had lost members on the battlefield took the captives into their extended matrilineal households and most of these "slaves" eventually became part of the family unit.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> When trade between Europeans began the Creek's traditional ways of determining a war captive's fate drastically changed, and the Creek began to sell them to Europeans. The best-known victims of the Creeks in the trade of enslaved people were the Apalachee tribe.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> It is unclear when the Creek first met sub-Saharan Africans; during the colonial period Creek people primarily encountered Africans as refugees seeking protection from the oppression of slavery, as employees or servants of deerskin traders, or as laborers for white settlers.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> For the Creek, their most frequent contact with Africans came from day-to-day interactions with traders' slaves, but there were intermittent efforts by colonial and imperial authorities to limit the use of Africans in the deerskin trade though this policy was often ignored.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> White slaveholders attempted to deceive Africans held in slavery into believing the Creek would harm them to discourage them from trying to escape to the Creek.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The Creek often saw African men laboring at what was considered women's work in Creek culture; this reinforced the notion that African men were their inferiors, in the eyes of Creek warriors at least.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Creeks could, and often did visit the plantations of the white men; sometimes the Creek only came to look around the plantations, sometimes the Creek brought deerskins and fresh meat to trade with white people.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> White people would often make the Africans they enslaved cross over into Creek territory even when the boundaries were known, and the Creek would often complain that white people were encroaching on their hunting grounds.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> These conflicts lead to the Creek attacking white settlements on Creek territory, and lead to the enslavement of white women and children whose bondate was mostly sold back to government authorities.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> By the early 1700s, the Creek began to have more interracial relationships with runaway slaves, and the purchase of African slaves lead to interracial relationships.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> This led to mixed race children and children born to a Creek mother were considered Creek regardless of the father's race.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Prior to 1763, many slaves had hoped to find refuge in Native American communities, and in Georgia it did not take slaves long to find Creek settlements.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The obvious solution to this perceived threat was for white settlers from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">Southern Colonies</a> to reward Creek hunters for returning runaway slaves.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The Creek would sometimes return slaves to their white slaveholders, or enslave black men for themselves and absorb them into Creek society.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The population of Africans and African Americans drastically increased in Creek society during the American revolution.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Even after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> the Americans tried to continue the same awards for runaway slaves.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> This system did not always work exactly as planned, since many Creeks, for a variety of reasons, were hesitant to force slaves to return to their former masters.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> At times, traders and government officials attempted to capture runaway slaves who were seen "sculking" in various Creek towns which caused conflict between White Americans and the Creek.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> By the 1750s, most traders living in the Creek country had at least one person in slavery.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> By the 1770s, the far majority of Creeks did not own black slaves. In 1860, about 30 years after their removal to Native American territory from their home in the Southeast, and Creek citizens kept 1,532 people in slavery (10 percent of their total population). Enslaved African Americans were allowed more freedom than their counterparts enslaved by white people.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Furthermore, enslaved blacks were not housed in separate villages or communities but lived in close contact with the Creek who held them captive, and were often used as interpreters speaking both Creek and English.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins was very frustrated with the Creek because they would not practice slavery as "chattel" slavery—managing enslaved people as work animals rather than enslaved humans—even when he introduced new techniques and tools.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> Mixed-blood Creek (those with European heritage) from mostly the Upper Creek that held their white parent's economic and social values, including patrilineal descent, and private land ownership; soon began to have major conflicts with traditionalists whom had slaves participate in the communal subsistence-level horticulture that reflected Creek culture rather than <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> As a result, political upheaval, economic distress, and a spiritual awakening caused civil war among the Creeks in 1813 leading the <a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a>, and soon after the Creek would be forced down the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The Creek took the African Americans enslaved with them on the Trail of Tears into <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>, and some Creek remained in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida resisting removal or assimilating into American culture.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> The only option for the Creek to be successful in the southern states was to become a white person culturally; those who refused to do so were either murdered, removed, or enslaved themselves.<a href="#cite_note-creemusc-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seminoles">Seminoles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Seminoles">edit</a>]</div> The Seminoles took a unique path compared to the other four civilized tribes.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The Seminoles targeted and held African American in captivity, but did not codify racial slavery.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Instead they kept to their traditions to absorb outsiders. Drawing on the chiefly political organization of their ancestors, Seminoles welcomed African Americans, but this increasingly isolated the Seminoles from the rest of the South and even from other Native Americans leading to them being seen as major threats to the plantation economy.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The Seminoles were also unique because they absorbed the remaining Yuchis population.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> African Americans who escaped their captors began to seek refuge in Florida with the Seminoles in the 1790s.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> One plantation owner in Florida, Jesse Dupont, declared that the people he held in captivity began to escape around 1791, when two men ran away to Seminole country he also stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">An Indian Negro stole a wench and child and since she has been amongst the Indians she has had a Second.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a></blockquote> Seminole country quickly became the new locus of black freedom in the region.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> While the other major Southern Native American nations began to pursue black slavery, political centralization, and a new economy, Seminoles drew on culturally conservative elements of native culture and incorporated African Americans as valued members of their communities.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Together, they created a new society, one that increasingly isolated them from other southerners.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the extremet form of "chattel" slavery then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation since African Americans among the Seminole generally lived in their own communities. In exchange for paying an annual tribute of livestock and crops and hunting and war party obligations, black prisoners or enslaved people found sanctuary among the Seminoles. Seminoles, in turn, acquired an important strategic ally.<a href="#cite_note-Jennison2012-60">[60]</a> Like other Southern Native Americans, Seminoles accumulated private property, and elites passed down enslaved African Americans and their descendants to relatives. The Seminoles maintained traditional captivity practices longer than other Native Americans, and continued to capture white Americans.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The practice of capturing white Americans decreased in the early 19th century with the First Seminole War producing the regions last white captives.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Though later to do so than other Native Americans in the south, Seminoles too narrowed their captivity practices.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> They grew pessimistic about incorporating non-natives into their families as adoptees and almost exclusively targeted people of African descent during their 19th century wars against American expansion.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> When General Thomas Jesup enumerated the origins of African Americans among the Seminoles to the Secretary of War in 1841, he began with "descendants of negroes taken from citizens of Georgia by the Creek confederacy in former wars."<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> When a group of Seminole warriors pledged to join the British in the American Revolution, they stipulated that "Whatever horses or slaves or cattle we take we expect to be our own."<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Out of the sixty-eight documented captives in the Mikasuki War (1800–1802), 90% were African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The Seminoles repeatedly took up arms to defend their land.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> They fought in three major conflicts, the Patriot War, the First Seminole War, and the Second Seminole War and were in countless skirmishes with slave catchers.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The Seminoles were at war with the United States far longer than other Southern Native American nations, the Seminoles continued to take black captives, and encouraged African Americans to join them in their fight against the invading Americans.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The Seminoles continued to destroy and raid plantations.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> Throughout 1836, Seminole warriors continued to best US troops, but more alarming to white Americans was the relationship between Seminoles and African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> They feared that the alliance grew with each passing day, as the Seminoles captured slaves and enticed others to escape.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> After witnessing the unrest among Creeks forced to emigrate, General Thomas Jesup believed that the Second Seminole War could ignite the entire South in a general uprising, wherein people of color might destroy the region's plantation economy as well as their white oppressors.<a href="#cite_note-seminlaw-59">[59]</a> The traditional relationship between Seminole blacks and natives changed following the Second Seminole War when the Seminoles were relocated to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture. Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the Creek,<a href="#cite_note-DeloriaSalisbury2008-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-TriggerWashburn1996-62">[62]</a> who had a practice of chattel slavery. There was increasing pressure from both Creek and pro-Creek Seminole for the adoption of the Creek model of slavery for the Black Seminoles.<a href="#cite_note-Binder1987-63">[63]</a> Creek slavers and those from other native groups, and whites, began raiding the Black Seminole settlements to kidnap and enslave people. The Seminole leadership would become headed by a pro-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery. These threats led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Buchanan1955-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mulroy2007p79-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses">Responses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Responses">edit</a>]</div> Tensions varied between African American and Native Americans in the south, as each nation dealt with the ideology behind the enslavement of Africans differently.<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> In the late 1700s and 1800s, some Native American nations gave sanctuary to people who escaped enslavement while others were more likely to capture them and return them to their white captors or even re-enslave them. Others incorporated those who escaped into their societies, sometimes resulting in intermarriage between the Africans and the Native Americans, which was a commonplace among the Creek and Seminole.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-66">[66]</a> Although some Native Americans had a strong dislike of slavery, because they too were seen as a people of a subordinate race than white men of European descent, they lacked the political power to influence the racialistic culture that pervaded the non-native South.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> It is unclear if Native Americans who held slaves sympathized with African Americans as fellow people of color; class, more than race, may be a more useful prism through which to view masters of color.<a href="#cite_note-:1-67">[67]</a> Missionary work was an efficient method the United States used to persuade Native Americans to accept European methods of living.<a href="#cite_note-:1-67">[67]</a> Missionaries vociferously denounced Indian removal as cruel and oppressive, and feared such actions would push Native Americans away from converting.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Some Native Americans who were against slavery saw the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> as an opportunity to ultimately end the institution.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> Prior to 1861 anti-slavery Creeks and Seminoles allowed people who escaped slavery from surrounding states to take refuge on their lands and some Cherokees maintained the Keetoowah Society, a secret abolitionist organization.<a href="#cite_note-rbcwit-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Mesoamerica">In Mesoamerica</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In Mesoamerica">edit</a>]</div> Slavery was common for the <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a>, so their language included nouns, for example, for "slave merchant" and for "slave", and a verb for the "selling of people".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Their southern neighbors, the <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya</a>, captured and enslaved <a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniards</a> beginning in 1511;<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> some of the enslaved European women, forced to grind corn, died of overwork.<a href="#cite_note-Diaz-71">[71]</a>: 65  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_Wild_Coast_of_South_America_and_subsequent_Guianas_and_North_Brazil">In the Wild Coast of South America and subsequent Guianas and North Brazil</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In the Wild Coast of South America and subsequent Guianas and North Brazil">edit</a>]</div> The Amerindians of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonisation_of_the_Guianas" title="Dutch colonisation of the Guianas">Wild Coast</a>, also known as Dutch Guiana, which later became Suriname, French Guiana, <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, and part of Brazil, and who include the <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Caribs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waraos" class="mw-redirect" title="Waraos">Waraos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Akawaio_people" title="Akawaio people">Akawaio</a>, captured people from other tribes. Most males were executed, but some were enslaved or sold repeatedly, often across great distances. Women were forced into the capturing tribe, to perform sexual and domestic duties.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The Indians negotiated tribal treaties with the Dutch and became their long term hunters of escaped black slaves and of <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">maroons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The trade of humans was very profitable for the Caribs and other Amerindians.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Missionary priests from neighboring Spanish colonies interfered with Carib slave raiding of other Indians.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMilesKrauthamer2004" class="citation book cs1">Miles, Tiya; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Krauthamer, Barbara</a> (2004). "Africans and Native Americans". In Hornsby, Alton (ed.). A Companion to African American History. pp. 121–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fb.9780631230663.2004.00009.x">10.1111/b.9780631230663.2004.00009.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631230661" title="Special:BookSources/0631230661"><bdi>0631230661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Africans+and+Native+Americans&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+African+American+History&rft.pages=121-139&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fb.9780631230663.2004.00009.x&rft.isbn=0631230661&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Tiya&rft.au=Krauthamer%2C+Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeil_P._Chatelain2018" class="citation web cs1">Neil P. Chatelain (July 10, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emergingcivilwar.com/2018/07/10/beyond-the-13th-amendment-ending-slavery-in-the-indian-territory/">"Beyond the 13th Amendment: Ending Slavery in the Indian Territory"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+13th+Amendment%3A+Ending+Slavery+in+the+Indian+Territory&rft.date=2018-07-10&rft.au=Neil+P.+Chatelain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femergingcivilwar.com%2F2018%2F07%2F10%2Fbeyond-the-13th-amendment-ending-slavery-in-the-indian-territory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFAmes2001">Ames 2001</a>, p. 1)"Slavery plausibly developed during either of two periods: c 1500-500 BC or c. AD 500-1000” </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1">b</a> (<a href="#CITEREFAmes2001">Ames 2001</a>, p. 3)"the children of slaves in many areas were also slaves" </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080219082629/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/black_voices/voices_display.cfm?id=2">"University of Houston - Digital History"</a>. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/">the original</a> on 2008-02-19. <q>Among some Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest, nearly a quarter of the population consisted of slaves</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.atitle=University+of+Houston+-+Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFAmes2001">Ames 2001</a>, p. 3)"John Jewitt, who was enslaved by the Moachat chief Maquinna in 1804" </li> <li id="cite_note-Sufferings-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Sufferings_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Rodgers_Jewitt1987" class="citation book cs1">John Rodgers Jewitt (1987). Hilary Stewart (ed.). The Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt: Captive of Maquinna. University of Washington Press. p. 192.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Adventures+and+Sufferings+of+John+R.+Jewitt%3A+Captive+of+Maquinna&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.au=John+Rodgers+Jewitt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130214020850/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx">"Black History-From Slavery to Settlement"</a>. www.archives.gov.on.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/alvin_mccurdy/settlement.aspx">the original</a> on 2013-02-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archives.gov.on.ca&rft.atitle=Black+History-From+Slavery+to+Settlement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov.on.ca%2Fen%2Fexplore%2Fonline%2Falvin_mccurdy%2Fsettlement.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-laubchap1-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-laubchap1_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-laubchap1_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-laubchap1_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauber1913" class="citation book cs1">Lauber, Almon Wheeler (1913). Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of the United States Chapter 1: Enslavement by the Indians Themselves. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+Times+Within+the+Present+Limits+of+the+United+States+Chapter+1%3A+Enslavement+by+the+Indians+Themselves&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Lauber&rft.aufirst=Almon+Wheeler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-introcolonial-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallay,_Alan2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0803222009">"Introduction: Indian Slavery in Historical Context"</a>. In Gallay, Alan (ed.). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–32. Retrieved March 8, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Indian+Slavery+in+Historical+Context&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pages=1-32&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Gallay%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D0803222009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFPalmié1995">Palmié 1995</a>, p. 173)"War captives could be adopted or enslaved, and individuals could lose the rights in their person to another person by gambling" </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald2011" class="citation book cs1">Donald, Leland (2011). "Slavery in Indigenous North America". In Eltis, David; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Engerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley L. Engerman">Engerman, Stanley L.</a>; Bradley, Keith R.; Cartledge, Paul; <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Drescher" title="Seymour Drescher">Drescher, Seymour</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qp_3aL76isC">The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420-AD 1804</a>. Complete Cambridge histories online. General history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521840682" title="Special:BookSources/9780521840682"><bdi>9780521840682</bdi></a>. Retrieved 25 November 2019. <q>Northwest of the Alaska panhandle, the coastal strip is occupied by Eskimo- and Aleut-speaking peoples [...] these peoples also shared important aspects of their culture with the Northwest Coast, and slavery was an institution of some importance among them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Indigenous+North+America&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery%3A+Volume+3%2C+AD+1420-AD+1804&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Complete+Cambridge+histories+online.+General+history&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521840682&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=Leland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5qp_3aL76isC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2007" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Robert Bruce (2007). "Fontier Commerce". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GuNHnZfE3DcC">In Darkest Alaska: Travels and Empire Along the Inside Passage</a>. Nature and culture in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812240214" title="Special:BookSources/9780812240214"><bdi>9780812240214</bdi></a>. Retrieved 25 November 2019. <q>Along the Northwest coast slavery was practiced, though actively suppressed, until the late nineteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fontier+Commerce&rft.btitle=In+Darkest+Alaska%3A+Travels+and+Empire+Along+the+Inside+Passage&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Nature+and+culture+in+America&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780812240214&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Robert+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGuNHnZfE3DcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamilla_Townsend2021" class="citation web cs1">Camilla Townsend (September 9, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/slavery-in-precontact-america/090D3E244D8E3F465822F387EFED7122">"Chapter 23 - Slavery in Precontact America"</a>. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2023-12-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+23+-+Slavery+in+Precontact+America&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-09-09&rft.au=Camilla+Townsend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-world-history-of-slavery%2Fslavery-in-precontact-america%2F090D3E244D8E3F465822F387EFED7122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Muslims in American History: A Forgotten Legacy by Dr. Jerald F. Dirks. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59008-044-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-59008-044-0">1-59008-044-0</a> p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaczor1995" class="citation news cs1">Kaczor, Bill (July 16, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-07-16-mn-24587-story.html">"'Pocahontas' Tale Likened to Earlier Rescue of Spaniard in Florida: History: Long Before Capt. Smith reached the Colonies, the story was told of a chief's daughter who saved an explorer. Some scholars say Smith borrowed the tale"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. Retrieved October 8, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=%27Pocahontas%27+Tale+Likened+to+Earlier+Rescue+of+Spaniard+in+Florida%3A+History%3A+Long+Before+Capt.+Smith+reached+the+Colonies%2C+the+story+was+told+of+a+chief%27s+daughter+who+saved+an+explorer.+Some+scholars+say+Smith+borrowed+the+tale.&rft.date=1995-07-16&rft.aulast=Kaczor&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1995-07-16-mn-24587-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Archives-17"><a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_M._Rubenstein_Gallery" class="citation web cs1">David M. Rubenstein Gallery. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://recordsofrights.org/events/122/slavery-in-indian-territory">"Slavery in Indian Territory 1869"</a>. U.S. National Archives. Retrieved 2023-12-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Indian+Territory+1869&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Archives&rft.au=David+M.+Rubenstein+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frecordsofrights.org%2Fevents%2F122%2Fslavery-in-indian-territory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFPalmié1995">Palmié 1995</a>, p. 173)"eastern Indians had developed a well-organized network for trading black slaves within their tribes and to white slaveholders" </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeloriaSalisbury2004" class="citation book cs1">Deloria, Philip J.; Salisbury, Neal (2004). A Companion to American Indian History. pp. 339–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fb.9781405121316.2004.00020.x">10.1111/b.9781405121316.2004.00020.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405121316" title="Special:BookSources/9781405121316"><bdi>9781405121316</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+American+Indian+History&rft.pages=339-356&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fb.9781405121316.2004.00020.x&rft.isbn=9781405121316&rft.aulast=Deloria&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft.au=Salisbury%2C+Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ism-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ism_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarbrough2008" class="citation book cs1">Yarbrough, Fay A. (2008). "Indian Slavery and Memory: Interracial sex from the slaves' perspective". Race and the Cherokee Nation. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 112–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indian+Slavery+and+Memory%3A+Interracial+sex+from+the+slaves%27+perspective&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pages=112-123&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yarbrough&rft.aufirst=Fay+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-21"><a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReséndez2016" class="citation book cs1">Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8"><bdi>978-0-544-94710-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=324&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-544-94710-8&rft.aulast=Res%C3%A9ndez&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afrna-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afrna_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afrna_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Park_Service2009" class="citation web cs1">National Park Service (May 30, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/lowCountry_furthRdg1.htm">"African American Heritage and Ethnography: Work, Marriage, Christianity"</a>. National Park Service.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+American+Heritage+and+Ethnography%3A+Work%2C+Marriage%2C+Christianity&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=2009-05-30&rft.au=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fethnography%2Faah%2Faaheritage%2FlowCountry_furthRdg1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nadis-23"><a href="#cite_ref-nadis_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNomad_Winterhawk1997" class="citation web cs1">Nomad Winterhawk (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090714113317/http://www.djembe.dk/no/19/08biwapi.html">"Black Indians want a place in history"</a>. Djembe Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.djembe.dk/no/19/08biwapi.html">the original</a> on 2009-07-14. Retrieved 2009-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Indians+want+a+place+in+history&rft.pub=Djembe+Magazine&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Nomad+Winterhawk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.djembe.dk%2Fno%2F19%2F08biwapi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nawomen-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_24-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorothy_A._Mays2008" class="citation book cs1">Dorothy A. Mays (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UYWs-GQDiOkC&pg=PA214">Women in early America</a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-429-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-429-5"><bdi>978-1-85109-429-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2008-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+early+America&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-429-5&rft.au=Dorothy+A.+Mays&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUYWs-GQDiOkC%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Red, White, and Black, p. 105, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9">0-8203-0308-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-hid-26"><a href="#cite_ref-hid_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColorQ2009" class="citation web cs1">ColorQ (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=America&x=blackIndians">"Black Indians (Afro-Native Americans)"</a>. ColorQ. Retrieved 2009-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Indians+%28Afro-Native+Americans%29&rft.pub=ColorQ&rft.date=2009&rft.au=ColorQ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorq.org%2FMeltingPot%2Farticle.aspx%3Fd%3DAmerica%26x%3DblackIndians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afch-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afch_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afch_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiya_Miles2008" class="citation book cs1">Tiya Miles (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpusu6xQq6QC&q=afro+cherokee+smallpox&pg=PA33">Ties That Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520250024" title="Special:BookSources/9780520250024"><bdi>9780520250024</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2009-10-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ties+That+Bind%3A+The+Story+of+an+Afro-Cherokee+Family+in+Slavery+and+Freedom&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780520250024&rft.au=Tiya+Miles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxpusu6xQq6QC%26q%3Dafro%2Bcherokee%2Bsmallpox%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFPalmié1995">Palmié 1995</a>, p. 162)"Native Americans did enslave black people and made them work for them" </li> <li id="cite_note-Red,_White_pg._99-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Red,_White_pg._99_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Red,_White_pg._99_29-1">b</a> Red, White, and Black, p. 99. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9">0-8203-0308-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Red, White, and Black, p. 99, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-0308-9">0-8203-0308-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-cherslav-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cherslav_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherslav_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArt_T._Burton1996" class="citation web cs1">Art T. Burton (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090929002527/http://coax.net/people/lwf/SLAVE_RV.HTM">"CHEROKEE SLAVE REVOLT OF 1842"</a>. LWF COMMUNICATIONS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/SLAVE_RV.HTM">the original</a> on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2009-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CHEROKEE+SLAVE+REVOLT+OF+1842&rft.pub=LWF+COMMUNICATIONS&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Art+T.+Burton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coax.net%2Fpeople%2Flwf%2FSLAVE_RV.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-infr-32"><a href="#cite_ref-infr_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay_A._Yarbrough2007" class="citation book cs1">Fay A. Yarbrough (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sHJMNVV31T0C&pg=PA3">Race and the Cherokee Nation</a>. Univ of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4056-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4056-6"><bdi>978-0-8122-4056-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2009-05-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pub=Univ+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4056-6&rft.au=Fay+A.+Yarbrough&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsHJMNVV31T0C%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan_P._Smith2018" class="citation web cs1">Ryan P. Smith (March 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339">"How Native American Slaveholders Complicate the Trail of Tears Narrative"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2024-01-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Native+American+Slaveholders+Complicate+the+Trail+of+Tears+Narrative&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.date=2018-03-06&rft.au=Ryan+P.+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmithsonian-institution%2Fhow-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobbie_Ethridge2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robbie_Ethridge" title="Robbie Ethridge">Robbie Ethridge</a> (2006). "10. Creating the Shatter Zone: Indian Slave Traders and the Collapse of the Southeastern Chiefdoms". In <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Pluckhahn" title="Thomas J. Pluckhahn">Thomas J. Pluckhahn</a>; Robbie Ethridge (eds.). Light on the path : the anthropology and history of the southeastern Indians. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Alabama_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Alabama Press">The University of Alabama Press</a>. pp. 207–218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1500-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1500-9"><bdi>978-0-8173-1500-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.+Creating+the+Shatter+Zone%3A+Indian+Slave+Traders+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Southeastern+Chiefdoms&rft.btitle=Light+on+the+path+%3A+the+anthropology+and+history+of+the+southeastern+Indians&rft.pages=207-218&rft.pub=The+University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1500-9&rft.au=Robbie+Ethridge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFSnyder2018">Snyder 2018</a>, pp. 170, 188)""Slave Societies": they held at least 20 percent of their population in slavery […] Greece and Rome, and three modern American societies – Brazil, the Caribbean, and the American South […] A few Native nations met all of Finley’s criteria for "Slave Societies." Comanches, like other Native societies..." </li> <li id="cite_note-katover-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katover_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katover_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katover_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katover_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katover_36-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2012" class="citation book cs1">Katz, William Loren (3 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0XKBwAAQBAJ&q=black+indians">Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442446373" title="Special:BookSources/9781442446373"><bdi>9781442446373</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Indians%3A+A+Hidden+Heritage&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012-01-03&rft.isbn=9781442446373&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=William+Loren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0XKBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dblack%2Bindians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tperdue1-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue1979" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryevolution0000perd">Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540-1866</a>. University of Tennessee Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryevolution0000perd/page/207">207</a> pages. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870495304" title="Special:BookSources/9780870495304"><bdi>9780870495304</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 February 2019. <q>Perdue, Theda. Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540-1866.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Evolution+of+Cherokee+Society%2C+1540-1866&rft.pages=207+pages&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780870495304&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslaveryevolution0000perd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauthamer2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Krauthamer, Barbara</a> (2013). Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South. Chapel Hil: The University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469607108" title="Special:BookSources/9781469607108"><bdi>9781469607108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Slaves%2C+Indian+Masters%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation%2C+and+Citizenship+in+the+Native+American+South&rft.place=Chapel+Hil&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781469607108&rft.aulast=Krauthamer&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauthamer2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Krauthamer, Barbara</a> (2013). Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 17–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469607108" title="Special:BookSources/9781469607108"><bdi>9781469607108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Slaves%2C+Indian+Masters%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation%2C+and+Citizenship+in+the+Native+American+South&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=17-19&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781469607108&rft.aulast=Krauthamer&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBragdon2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bragdon, Kathleen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/447895">"Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (review)"</a>. Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 42 (2). Harvard University Press: 301–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2FJINH_r_00232">10.1162/JINH_r_00232</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141954638">141954638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Indian+Country%3A+The+Changing+Face+of+Captivity+in+Early+America+%28review%29&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=301-302&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FJINH_r_00232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141954638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bragdon&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F447895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Loren_Katz2008" class="citation web cs1">William Loren Katz (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070529122255/http://www.williamlkatz.com/Essays/History/AfricansIndians.php">"Africans and Indians: Only in America"</a>. William Loren Katz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.williamlkatz.com/Essays/History/AfricansIndians.php">the original</a> on 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2008-09-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africans+and+Indians%3A+Only+in+America&rft.pub=William+Loren+Katz&rft.date=2008&rft.au=William+Loren+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.williamlkatz.com%2FEssays%2FHistory%2FAfricansIndians.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wil-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wil_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wil_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wil_42-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Loren_Katz2008" class="citation web cs1">William Loren Katz (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513235755/http://www.williamlkatz.com/Essays/History/AfricansIndians.php">"Africans and Indians: Only in America"</a>. William Loren Katz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.williamlkatz.com/Essays/History/AfricansIndians.php">the original</a> on May 13, 2008. Retrieved 2009-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africans+and+Indians%3A+Only+in+America&rft.pub=William+Loren+Katz&rft.date=2008&rft.au=William+Loren+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.williamlkatz.com%2FEssays%2FHistory%2FAfricansIndians.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTirado_Bramen2017" class="citation book cs1">Tirado Bramen, Carrie (2017). American Niceness. Harvard University Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674976498" title="Special:BookSources/9780674976498"><bdi>9780674976498</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Niceness&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780674976498&rft.aulast=Tirado+Bramen&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-slavpun-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavpun_44-12">m</a> Snyder (2010), "Racial Slavery" [Ch. 7], in Slavery, pp. 182–212.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiya_Miles2008" class="citation book cs1">Tiya Miles (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpusu6xQq6QC&pg=PA33">Ties That Bind: The story of an Afro-Cherokee family in slavery and freedom</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520250024" title="Special:BookSources/9780520250024"><bdi>9780520250024</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2009-10-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ties+That+Bind%3A+The+story+of+an+Afro-Cherokee+family+in+slavery+and+freedom&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780520250024&rft.au=Tiya+Miles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxpusu6xQq6QC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPMS-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPMS_46-27">ab</a> Krauthamer (2013), "Enslaved People, Missionaries, and Slaveholders" [Ch. 2], in Black Slaves, pp. 46-76.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_47-0">^</a> Katz WL 1997 p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-Katzs-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Katzs_48-0">^</a> Katz WL 1997 p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-amslav-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amslav_49-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeybert,_Tony2004" class="citation web cs1">Seybert, Tony (4 August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040804001522/http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_indians_slavery.htm">"Slavery and Native Americans in British North America and the United States: 1600 to 1865"</a>. Slavery in America. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_indians_slavery.htm">the original</a> on 4 August 2004. Retrieved 14 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Native+Americans+in+British+North+America+and+the+United+States%3A+1600+to+1865&rft.pub=Slavery+in+America&rft.date=2004-08-04&rft.au=Seybert%2C+Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slaveryinamerica.org%2Fhistory%2Fhs_es_indians_slavery.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> As of 2006, Tony Seybert had <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://natchezpress.blogspot.com">described himself as having submitted a master's thesis</a> to the history department at <a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Northridge" title="California State University, Northridge">California State University, Northridge</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> A history of the descendants of the slaves of Cherokee can be found at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sturm, Circe (1998). "Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National Identity: The Trials and Tribulations of the Cherokee Freedmen". <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Quarterly" title="American Indian Quarterly">American Indian Quarterly</a>. 22 (1/2): 230–58. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1185118">1185118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Indian+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Blood+Politics%2C+Racial+Classification%2C+and+Cherokee+National+Identity%3A+The+Trials+and+Tribulations+of+the+Cherokee+Freedmen&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=230-58&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1185118%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Circe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> In 1835, 7.4% of Cherokee families held people in slavery. In comparison, nearly one-third of white families living in Confederate states held people in slavery in 1860. Further analysis of the 1835 federal Cherokee census can be found in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLoughlinConser1977" class="citation journal cs1">McLoughlin, W. G.; Conser, W. H. (1977). "The Cherokees in Transition: a Statistical Analysis of the Federal Cherokee Census of 1835". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a>. 64 (3): 678–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1887236">10.2307/1887236</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1887236">1887236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Cherokees+in+Transition%3A+a+Statistical+Analysis+of+the+Federal+Cherokee+Census+of+1835&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=678-703&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1887236&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1887236%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McLoughlin&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft.au=Conser%2C+W.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> A discussion on the total number of families who held people in slavery can be found in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2004" class="citation web cs1">Olsen, Otto H. (December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070720231457/http://www.southernhistory.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=9406&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0">"Historians and the extent of slave ownership in the Southern United States"</a>. Civil War History. Archived from the original on July 20, 2007. Retrieved June 8, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=Historians+and+the+extent+of+slave+ownership+in+the+Southern+United+States&rft.date=2004-12&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Otto+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southernhistory.net%2Fmodules.php%3Fop%3Dmodload%26name%3DNews%26file%3Darticle%26sid%3D9406%26mode%3Dthread%26order%3D0%26thold%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-BK13ch1-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BK13ch1_51-28">ac</a> Krauthamer (2013), "Black Slaves, Indian Masters" [Ch. 1], in Black Slaves, pp. 17–45.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-rbcwit-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rbcwit_52-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrindeTaylor1984" class="citation journal cs1">Grinde, Donald A.; <a href="/wiki/Quintard_Taylor" title="Quintard Taylor">Taylor, Quintard</a> (1984). "Red vs Black: Conflict and Accommodation in the Post Civil War Indian Territory, 1865-1907". American Indian Quarterly. 8 (3): 211–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1183929">10.2307/1183929</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1183929">1183929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Indian+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Red+vs+Black%3A+Conflict+and+Accommodation+in+the+Post+Civil+War+Indian+Territory%2C+1865-1907&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=211-229&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1183929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1183929%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grinde&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Quintard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chermarria-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chermarria_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chermarria_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chermarria_53-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay_A._Yarbrough2008" class="citation book cs1">Fay A. Yarbrough (2008). Race and the Cherokee Nation Chap. 3 The 1855 Marriage Law. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 40–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Cherokee+Nation+Chap.+3+The+1855+Marriage+Law&rft.pages=40-72&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Fay+A.+Yarbrough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://atlantablackstar.com/2018/03/17/contemporary-trail-tears-narrative-leaves-enslaved-africans-side-trail/">"Enslaved Black People: The Part of the Trail of Tears Narrative No One Told You About"</a>. 17 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Enslaved+Black+People%3A+The+Part+of+the+Trail+of+Tears+Narrative+No+One+Told+You+About&rft.date=2018-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fatlantablackstar.com%2F2018%2F03%2F17%2Fcontemporary-trail-tears-narrative-leaves-enslaved-africans-side-trail%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cherolaw-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cherolaw_55-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay_A._Yarbrough2008" class="citation book cs1">Fay A. Yarbrough (2008). Race and the Cherokee Nation Chap. 2 Racial Ideology in Transition. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 39–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Cherokee+Nation+Chap.+2+Racial+Ideology+in+Transition&rft.pages=39-55&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Fay+A.+Yarbrough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CheRen-56"><a href="#cite_ref-CheRen_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_G._McLoughlin1986" class="citation book cs1">William G. McLoughlin (1986). Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Renascence+in+the+New+Republic&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.au=William+G.+McLoughlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CheRen2-57"><a href="#cite_ref-CheRen2_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_G._McLoughlin1986" class="citation book cs1">William G. McLoughlin (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ii4mn9T9-LQC&q=Cherokee+manumission&pg=PA341">Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691006277" title="Special:BookSources/9780691006277"><bdi>9780691006277</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2016-01-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Renascence+in+the+New+Republic&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780691006277&rft.au=William+G.+McLoughlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dii4mn9T9-LQC%26q%3DCherokee%2Bmanumission%26pg%3DPA341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-creemusc-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-creemusc_58-26">aa</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraund1991" class="citation journal cs1">Braund, Kathryn E. Holland (1991). "The Creek Indians, Blacks, and Slavery". The Journal of Southern History. 57 (4): 601–636. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2210598">10.2307/2210598</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4642">0022-4642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2210598">2210598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Creek+Indians%2C+Blacks%2C+and+Slavery&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=601-636&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=0022-4642&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2210598%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2210598&rft.aulast=Braund&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+E.+Holland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-seminlaw-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seminlaw_59-22">w</a> Snyder (2010), "Seminoles and African Americans" [Ch. 8], in Slavery, pp. 213–248.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Jennison2012-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Jennison2012_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson_W._Jennison2012" class="citation book cs1">Watson W. Jennison (18 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ImNeFi-wt6IC&pg=PA132">Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750-1860</a>. University Press of Kentucky. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4021-6"><bdi>978-0-8131-4021-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultivating+Race%3A+The+Expansion+of+Slavery+in+Georgia%2C+1750-1860&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2012-01-18&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-4021-6&rft.au=Watson+W.+Jennison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DImNeFi-wt6IC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeloriaSalisbury2008-61"><a href="#cite_ref-DeloriaSalisbury2008_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_DeloriaNeal_Salisbury2008" class="citation book cs1">Philip Deloria; Neal Salisbury (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BMenL80QO0kC&pg=PA348">A Companion to American Indian History</a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 348–349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4378-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4378-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-4378-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+American+Indian+History&rft.pages=348-349&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4378-3&rft.au=Philip+Deloria&rft.au=Neal+Salisbury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBMenL80QO0kC%26pg%3DPA348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TriggerWashburn1996-62"><a href="#cite_ref-TriggerWashburn1996_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce_G._TriggerWilcomb_E._Washburn1996" class="citation book cs1">Bruce G. Trigger; Wilcomb E. Washburn (13 October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DRGVjLiyXEwC&pg=PA525">The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 525. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57392-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57392-4"><bdi>978-0-521-57392-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas&rft.pages=525&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996-10-13&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57392-4&rft.au=Bruce+G.+Trigger&rft.au=Wilcomb+E.+Washburn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDRGVjLiyXEwC%26pg%3DPA525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Binder1987-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Binder1987_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfgang_Binder1987" class="citation book cs1">Wolfgang Binder (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k7F1AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22">Westward Expansion in America (1803-1860)</a>. Palm & Enke. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7896-0171-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7896-0171-2"><bdi>978-3-7896-0171-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Westward+Expansion+in+America+%281803-1860%29&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Palm+%26+Enke&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-7896-0171-2&rft.au=Wolfgang+Binder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk7F1AAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Marcellus%2520Duval%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchanan1955-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Buchanan1955_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Shannon_Buchanan1955" class="citation book cs1">James Shannon Buchanan (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6i8UAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22">Chronicles of Oklahoma</a>. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 522.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=522&rft.pub=Oklahoma+Historical+Society.&rft.date=1955&rft.au=James+Shannon+Buchanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6i8UAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522Siah%2520Hardridge%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mulroy2007p79-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Mulroy2007p79_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Mulroy2007" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Mulroy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr">The Seminole Freedmen: A History</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79">79</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3865-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-3865-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seminole+Freedmen%3A+A+History&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3865-7&rft.au=Kevin+Mulroy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fseminolefreedmen0000mulr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-66"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoran1978" class="citation journal cs1">Doran, Michael (1978). "Negro Slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 68 (3). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, Ltd.: 342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x">10.1111/j.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561972">2561972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Negro+Slaves+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=342&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2561972%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Doran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoran1978" class="citation journal cs1">Doran, Michael (1978). "Negro Slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 68 (3). Taylor & Francis, Ltd: 335–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x">10.1111/j.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561972">2561972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Negro+Slaves+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=335-350&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2561972%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Doran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauthamer2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Krauthamer, Krauthamer</a> (2013). "Chapter Two: Enslaved People, Missionaries, and Slaveholders: Christianity, Colonialism, and Struggles over Slavery". Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 46–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469607108" title="Special:BookSources/9781469607108"><bdi>9781469607108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Two%3A+Enslaved+People%2C+Missionaries%2C+and+Slaveholders%3A+Christianity%2C+Colonialism%2C+and+Struggles+over+Slavery&rft.btitle=Black+Slaves%2C+Indian+Masters%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation%2C+and+Citizenship+in+the+Native+American+South&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=46-76&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781469607108&rft.aulast=Krauthamer&rft.aufirst=Krauthamer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Ward2001" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas Ward (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3251627">"Expanding Ethnicity in Sixteenth-Century Anahuac: Ideologies of Ethnicity and Gender in the Nation-Building Process"</a>. MLN (Modern Language Notes). 116 (2). <a href="/wiki/The_Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The Johns Hopkins University Press">The Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7910">0026-7910</a>. Retrieved 6 February 2024. <q>Nahuatl, had a noun tlacanamacac for the slave merchant, and a verb tlacanamaca, to sell people. Slaves themselves were called tlatlacotin</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MLN+%28Modern+Language+Notes%29&rft.atitle=Expanding+Ethnicity+in+Sixteenth-Century+Anahuac%3A+Ideologies+of+Ethnicity+and+Gender+in+the+Nation-Building+Process&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2001-03&rft.issn=0026-7910&rft.au=Thomas+Ward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3251627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh_Thomas1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas,_Baron_Thomas_of_Swynnerton" title="Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton">Hugh Thomas</a> (1993). Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico. Simon and Schuster. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-51104-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-51104-3"><bdi>978-0-671-51104-3</bdi></a>. <q>The Mayas captured the survivors, sacrificed Valdivia and four others, and ate their bodies at a fiesta. Aguilar and some others […] broke out of the cages and fled, being received by Xamanzana, another Maya chief. He sheltered them, but kept them as slaves.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest%3A+Montezuma%2C+Cort%C3%A9s%2C+and+the+Fall+of+Old+Mexico&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-671-51104-3&rft.au=Hugh+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diaz-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_71-0">^</a> Diaz, B., 1986 [1963], The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140441239" title="Special:BookSources/0140441239">0140441239</a>, «two women only recently of overwork, for they had been made to grind corn» </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKars2020">Kars 2020</a>, p. 37)"dominated by Arawaks [...] Caribs [...] Waraos [...] Akawaio [...] Native men added regularly to the population of their villages by capturing people [...] Women were forced to marry into the village to perform domestic and sexual duties [...] Male prisoners of war were more likely to be killed [...] Some captives became servants or slaves or they found themselves repeatedly traded, often across great distances" </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKars2020">Kars 2020</a>, p. 45)"Amerindians agreed to act as slave catchers and Maroon hunters […] over the next hundred years” </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKars2020">Kars 2020</a>, p. 45)"Caribs and other Indians profited by continuing the lucrative human trade" </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKars2020">Kars 2020</a>, p. 105)"Spanish priests also interfered in slave raiding, which undermined Carib power" </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmes2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ames, Kenneth M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/827885">"Slaves, chiefs and labour on the northern Northwest Coast"</a>. World Archaeology. The Archeology of Slavery. 33 (1). Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438240120047591">10.1080/00438240120047591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-8243">0043-8243</a>. Retrieved 12 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Slaves%2C+chiefs+and+labour+on+the+northern+Northwest+Coast&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438240120047591&rft.issn=0043-8243&rft.aulast=Ames&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F827885&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKars2020" class="citation book cs1">Kars, Marjoleine (2020). Blood on the River. New York: The New Press. p. 362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781620974599" title="Special:BookSources/9781620974599"><bdi>9781620974599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+on+the+River&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781620974599&rft.aulast=Kars&rft.aufirst=Marjoleine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmié1995" class="citation book cs1">Palmié, Stephan, ed. (1995). Slave Cultures and the Cultures of Slavery (2nd. printing [1997], 1st. ed.). Knoxville: <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Tennessee_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Tennessee Press">The University of Tennessee Press</a>. p. 283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+Cultures+and+the+Cultures+of+Slavery&rft.place=Knoxville&rft.pages=283&rft.edition=2nd.+printing+%5B1997%5D%2C+1st.&rft.pub=The+University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christina_Snyder" class="mw-redirect" title="Christina Snyder">Snyder, Christina</a> (2018). "6 - Native American Slavery in Global Context". In Noel Lenski; Catherine M. Cameron (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/what-is-a-slave-society/native-american-slavery-in-global-context/DF08E48C0D0B7B5B7700066E45361383">What Is a Slave Society? The Practice of Slavery in Global Perspective</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316534908.007">10.1017/9781316534908.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781316534908" title="Special:BookSources/9781316534908"><bdi>9781316534908</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6+-+Native+American+Slavery+in+Global+Context&rft.btitle=What+Is+a+Slave+Society%3F+The+Practice+of+Slavery+in+Global+Perspective&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316534908.007&rft.isbn=9781316534908&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fwhat-is-a-slave-society%2Fnative-american-slavery-in-global-context%2FDF08E48C0D0B7B5B7700066E45361383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerindian+slave+ownership" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Ablavsky, Gregory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1830592">"Making Indians 'White': The Judicial Abolition of Native Slavery in Revolutionary Virginia and its Racial Legacy."</a> University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 159, p. 1457, 2011, via Social Science Research Network.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cherokee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cherokee" title="Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cherokee" title="Template talk:Cherokee"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cherokee" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians">United Keetoowah Band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_society" title="Cherokee society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Holiday" title="Cherokee National Holiday">National holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_calendar" title="Cherokee calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_clans" title="Cherokee clans">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" title="List of Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadugi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadugi">Gadugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghigau" title="Ghigau">Ghigau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cherokee_language" title="History of the Cherokee language">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_(Unicode_block)" title="Cherokee (Unicode block)">Cherokee (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Supplement" title="Cherokee Supplement">Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Immersion_School" title="Cherokee Immersion School">Cherokee Immersion School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kituwah_Academy" title="New Kituwah Academy">New Kituwah Academy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_marbles" title="Cherokee marbles">Marbles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Spiritual beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanuchi" title="Kanuchi">Kanuchi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booger_dance" title="Booger dance">Booger dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="Flag of the Cherokee Nation">Flag of the Cherokee Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ani_Hyuntikwalaski" title="Ani Hyuntikwalaski">Ani Hyuntikwalaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_Woman" title="Deer Woman">Deer Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun%27Yunu%27Wi" title="Nun'Yunu'Wi">Nun'Yunu'Wi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BB%C3%B1n%C3%AB%27h%C3%AF" title="Nûñnë'hï">Nûñnë'hï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_Mocker" title="Raven Mocker">Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">U'tlun'ta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsul_%27Kalu" title="Tsul 'Kalu">Tsul 'Kalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cherokee_history" title="Timeline of Cherokee history">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_military_history" title="Cherokee military history">military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ani-kutani" title="Ani-kutani">Ani-kutani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiagusta" title="Skiagusta">skiagusta (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsidihi" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsidihi">outacite (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_of_Chota" title="Raven of Chota">Raven of Chota</a></li> <li>Wars <ul><li>Tribal Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taliwa" title="Battle of Taliwa">Battle of Taliwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Loudoun" title="Siege of Fort Loudoun">Siege of Fort Loudoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Echoee" title="Battle of Echoee">Battle of Echoee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_War_of_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee War of 1776">Cherokee War of 1776</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hightower" title="Battle of Hightower">Battle of Hightower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lindley%27s_Fort" title="Battle of Lindley's Fort">Battle of Lindley's Fort</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack_Expedition" title="Nickajack Expedition">Nickajack Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Cherokee_Mounted_Rifles" title="1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles">1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Cherokee treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkeytown" title="Treaty of Turkeytown">Treaty of Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dewitt%27s_Corner" title="Treaty of Dewitt's Corner">Treaty of Dewitt's Corner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hard_Labour" title="Treaty of Hard Labour">Treaty of Hard Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lochaber" title="Treaty of Lochaber">Treaty of Lochaber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hopewell" title="Treaty of Hopewell">Treaty of Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Holston" title="Treaty of Holston">Treaty of Holston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_and_McMinn_Treaty" title="Jackson and McMinn Treaty">Jackson and McMinn Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvania_Colony" title="Transylvania Colony">Transylvania Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_Cherokee" title="Chickamauga Cherokee">Chickamauga Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhill_Cherokee" title="Overhill Cherokee">Overhill Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Phoenix" title="Cherokee Phoenix">Cherokee Phoenix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_descent" title="Cherokee descent">Cherokee descent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Brown_Grant_Deeds" title="Jacob Brown Grant Deeds">Jacob Brown Grant Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Cherokees" title="Texas Cherokees">Texas Cherokees</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Heritage_Center" title="Cherokee Heritage Center">Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Preservation_Foundation" title="Cherokee Preservation Foundation">Cherokee Preservation Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Warriors_Society" title="Cherokee Nation Warriors Society">Warriors Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_Keetoowah_Society" title="Original Keetoowah Society">Original Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Nighthawk Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Youth_Choir" title="Cherokee National Youth Choir">Youth Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_heritage_groups" title="Cherokee heritage groups">Heritage groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Southwest_Township_(Albuquerque,_New_Mexico)" title="Cherokee Southwest Township (Albuquerque, New Mexico)">Cherokee Southwest Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_Indian_Village" title="Oconaluftee Indian Village">Oconaluftee Indian Village</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unto_These_Hills" title="Unto These Hills">Unto These Hills</a></li></ul></li> <li>Education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Female_Seminary" title="Cherokee Female Seminary">Female Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Male_Seminary" title="Cherokee Male Seminary">Male Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Central_Schools" title="Cherokee Central Schools">Cherokee Central Schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_High_School_(North_Carolina)" title="Cherokee High School (North Carolina)">Cherokee High School</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sequoyah Schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_High_School_(Cherokee_County,_Oklahoma)" title="Sequoyah High School (Cherokee County, Oklahoma)">Sequoyah High School</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Principal Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Law" title="Blood Law">Blood Law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Cherokee">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">1842 revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">freedmen controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cherokee_Tobacco" title="The Cherokee Tobacco">The Cherokee Tobacco</a> case (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_of_Oklahoma_v._Leavitt" title="Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma v. Leavitt">Cherokee Nation v. Leavitt</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Outlet" title="Cherokee Outlet">Cherokee Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Strip_(Kansas)" title="Cherokee Strip (Kansas)">in Kansas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_Constitutional_Convention" title="Sequoyah Constitutional Convention">Sequoyah Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Towns and villages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Cherokee_settlements" title="Historic Cherokee settlements">Cherokee Towns (pre-Removal)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Amoyeligunahita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brasstown,_North_Carolina" title="Brasstown, North Carolina">Brasstown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chatuga_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chatuga (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Chatuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilhowee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chilhowee (Cherokee town)">Chilhowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chota_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chota (Cherokee town)">Chota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conasauga,_Georgia" title="Conasauga, Georgia">Conasauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Too-Cowee" title="Too-Cowee">Cowee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coyotee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coyotee (page does not exist)">Coyotee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crowtown,_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crowtown, Alabama (page does not exist)">Crowtown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dirt_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dirt town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Dirt town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducktown,_Tennessee" title="Ducktown, Tennessee">Ducktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome,_Georgia" title="Rome, Georgia">Etowah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogtown_Creek" title="Frogtown Creek">Frogtown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hiwassee" title="Great Hiwassee">Hiwassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_Island" title="Hiwassee Island">Hiwassee Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Island_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Island town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Island town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isunigu" title="Isunigu">Isunigu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joara" title="Joara">Joara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keowee" title="Keowee">Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugartown" title="Sugartown">Kulsetsiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Swamp_Site" title="Long Swamp Site">Long Swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mialoquo_(Cherokee_town)" title="Mialoquo (Cherokee town)">Mialoquo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacoochee_Mound" title="Nacoochee Mound">Nacoochee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantahala,_North_Carolina" title="Nantahala, North Carolina">Nantahala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New</a><a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Georgia" title="New Town, Georgia">Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack" title="Nickajack">Nickajack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikwasi" title="Nikwasi">Nikwasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nununyi" title="Nununyi">Nununyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee,_Tennessee" title="Ocoee, Tennessee">Ocoee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconee_County,_South_Carolina" title="Oconee County, South Carolina">Oconee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oostanaula,_Georgia" title="Oostanaula, Georgia">Oostanaula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay,_Georgia" title="Red Clay, Georgia">Red Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citico_(Cherokee_town)" title="Citico (Cherokee town)">Settico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spikebuck_Town_Mound_and_Village_Site" title="Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site">Spike Bucktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallassee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tallassee (Cherokee town)">Talisi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Talulah_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talulah (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Talulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanasi" title="Tanasi">Tanasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tellico" title="Great Tellico">Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomassee_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomassee (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Tomassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotley" title="Tomotley">Tomotley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqua_(Tennessee)" title="Toqua (Tennessee)">Toqua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoway_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toxoway (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Toxoway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Elmo_Historic_District_(Chattanooga,_Tennessee)" title="St. Elmo Historic District (Chattanooga, Tennessee)">Tsatanugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee,_North_Carolina" title="Tuckasegee, North Carolina">Tuckasegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugaloo" title="Tugaloo">Tugaloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkeytown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Turkeytown (Cherokee town)">Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtletown,_Tennessee" title="Turtletown, Tennessee">Turtletown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tuskegee (Cherokee town)">Tuskegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteside,_Tennessee" title="Whiteside, Tennessee">Running Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willstown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Willstown (Cherokee town)">Titsohili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nations</a></li> <li>Western Cherokee Nation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlonteeskee, Oklahoma">Tahlonteeskee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee, North Carolina">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualla_Boundary" title="Qualla Boundary">Qualla Boundary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landmarks and memorial sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Capitol" title="Cherokee National Capitol">Cherokee National Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Removal_Memorial_Park" title="Cherokee Removal Memorial Park">Cherokee Removal Memorial Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chieftains_Museum" title="Chieftains Museum">Chieftains Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cherokee_Female_Seminary_Site" title="First Cherokee Female Seminary Site">First Cherokee Female Seminary Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaculla_Rock" title="Judaculla Rock">Judaculla Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Long Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_House_(Rossville,_Georgia)" title="John Ross House (Rossville, Georgia)">John Ross House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross%27s_Landing" title="Ross's Landing">Ross's Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah%27s_Cabin" title="Sequoyah's Cabin">Sequoyah's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellico_Blockhouse" title="Tellico Blockhouse">Tellico Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears_State_Park" title="Trail of Tears State Park">Trail of Tears State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainerd_Mission" title="Brainerd Mission">Brainerd Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake_Springs" title="Rattlesnake Springs">Rattlesnake Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay State Historic Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_Conrad_Cabin" title="Hair Conrad Cabin">Hair Conrad Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward_Tomb" title="Nancy Ward Tomb">Nancy Ward Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blythe_Ferry" title="Blythe Ferry">Blythe Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussell_Island" title="Bussell Island">Bussell Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Vann_House_Historic_Site" title="Chief Vann House Historic Site">Chief Vann House Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_Rock_Archeological_District" title="Mantle Rock Archeological District">Mantle Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Cherokee_People" title="Museum of the Cherokee People">Museum of the Cherokee People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asheville,_North_Carolina" title="Asheville, North Carolina">Untokiasdiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing</a> <a href="/wiki/Monterey,_Tennessee" title="Monterey, Tennessee">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_Ground,_Georgia" title="Ball Ground, Georgia">Stick Ball Grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullasaja_River" title="Cullasaja River">Cullasaja River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee_River" title="Tuckasegee River">Tuckasegee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_(Great_Smoky_Mountains)" title="Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)">Oconaluftee valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">Oconaluftee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrams_Creek_(Tennessee)" title="Abrams Creek (Tennessee)">Abrams Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sycamore_Shoals" title="Sycamore Shoals">Sycamore Shoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trading_Path" title="Trading Path">The Great Trading Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Indian_Warpath" title="Great Indian Warpath">The Great War Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_River_Heritage_Center" title="Hiwassee River Heritage Center">Hiwassee River Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatata" title="Chatata">Chatata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townsend,_Tennessee" title="Townsend, Tennessee">Tuckaleechee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Smith National Historic Site"> Fort Smith Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_State_Park" title="Port Royal State Park">Port Royal State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes_Museum" title="Five Civilized Tribes Museum">Five Civilized Tribes Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murphy,_North_Carolina" title="Murphy, North Carolina">Tlanusiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Path" title="Cherokee Path">Cherokee Path</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Tellico" title="Moytoy of Tellico">Moytoy of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attakullakulla" title="Attakullakulla">Attakullakulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amouskositte" title="Amouskositte">Amouskositte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_I" title="Conocotocko I">Old Hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Citico" title="Moytoy of Citico">Moytoy of Citico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_II" title="Conocotocko II">Standing Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostenaco" title="Ostenaco">Outacite of Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconostota" title="Oconostota">Oconostota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savanukah" title="Savanukah">Savanukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Tassel" title="Old Tassel">Old Tassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Turkey" title="Little Turkey">Little Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Watts_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Watts (Cherokee chief)">Kunokeski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublehead" title="Doublehead">Incalatanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagwadihi" title="Tagwadihi">Tagwadihi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation East (1794–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Fox_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Black Fox (Cherokee chief)">Enola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathkiller" title="Pathkiller">Pathkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Tiger" title="Big Tiger">Big Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Hicks" title="Charles R. Hicks">Charles R. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hicks_(Cherokee_chief)" title="William Hicks (Cherokee chief)">William Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation West (1810–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bowl_(Cherokee_chief)" title="The Bowl (Cherokee chief)">The Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takatoka" title="Takatoka">Degadoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee chief)">Tahlonteeskee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jolly" title="John Jolly">John Jolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Looney_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Looney (Cherokee chief)">John Looney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Rogers (Cherokee chief)">John Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (1824–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguska" title="Yonaguska">Yonaguska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Jarrett_Smith" title="Nimrod Jarrett Smith">Tsaladihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Parker" title="Gerard Parker">Gerard Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Dugan" title="Joyce Dugan">Joyce Dugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Lambert" title="Patrick Lambert">Patrick Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sneed" title="Richard Sneed">Richard Sneed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (1839–1907) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Downing" title="Lewis Downing">Lewis Downing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Degataga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Ross" title="William P. Ross">William P. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thompson_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Charles Thompson (Cherokee chief)">Utselata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Bushyhead" title="Dennis Bushyhead">Dennis Bushyhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_B._Mayes" title="Joel B. Mayes">Joel B. Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Harris" title="Johnson Harris">Johnson Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Houston_Mayes" title="Samuel Houston Mayes">Samuel Houston Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Buffington" title="Thomas Buffington">Thomas Buffington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Charles_Rogers" title="William Charles Rogers">William Charles Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation (1975–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Milam" title="J. B. Milam">J. B. Milam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._W._Keeler" title="W. W. Keeler">W. W. Keeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Swimmer" title="Ross Swimmer">Ross Swimmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilma_Mankiller" title="Wilma Mankiller">Wilma Mankiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Byrd_(Cherokee_Nation_Principal_Chief)" title="Joe Byrd (Cherokee Nation Principal Chief)">Joe Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Smith_(politician)" title="Chad Smith (politician)">Chadwick "Corntassel" Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_John_Baker" title="Bill John Baker">Bill John Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hoskin_Jr." title="Chuck Hoskin Jr.">Chuck Hoskin Jr.</a></li></ul></li> <li>United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (1939–present) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_L._Gordon_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James L. Gordon (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">James L. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Hair_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Hair (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">John W. Hair</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other notable Cherokee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward" title="Nancy Ward">Nancy Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_warrior)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee warrior)">Tahlonteeskee (warrior)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle-at-Home" title="Turtle-at-Home">Turtle-at-Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junaluska" title="Junaluska">Junaluska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goingsnake" title="Goingsnake">Goingsnake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wauhatchie" title="Wauhatchie">Wauhatchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Vann" title="James Vann">James Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Vann_(Cherokee_leader)" title="David Vann (Cherokee leader)">David Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vann" title="Joseph Vann">Joseph Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Benge" title="Bob Benge">Bob Benge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitepath" title="Whitepath">Nunnahitsunega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Christie" title="Ned Christie">Ned Christie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(judge)" title="John Martin (judge)">John Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markwayne_Mullin" title="Markwayne Mullin">Markwayne Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvette_Herrell" title="Yvette Herrell">Yvette Herrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McIntosh" title="Jenny McIntosh">Jenny McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Sixkiller" title="Sam Sixkiller">Sam Sixkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_V._Rogers" title="Clement V. Rogers">Clement V. Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbird_Smith" title="Redbird Smith">Redbird Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbin_Feeling" title="Durbin Feeling">Durbin Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastings_Shade" title="Hastings Shade">Hastings Shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberly_Teehee" title="Kimberly Teehee">Kimberly Teehee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawna_Baker" title="Shawna Baker">Shawna Baker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="chr:">Cherokee-language Wikipedia</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage, sexual slavery and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&oldid=1253739765">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amerindian_slave_ownership&oldid=1253739765</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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