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<div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 14th-century plague </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-14th-century_plague-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 14th-century plague subsection </button> <ul id="toc-14th-century_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Early theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predominant_modern_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predominant_modern_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Predominant modern theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predominant_modern_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 DNA evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Alternative explanations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Summary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lack_of_hygiene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_hygiene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Lack of hygiene </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_hygiene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territorial_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Territorial origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_outbreak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_outbreak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 European outbreak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_outbreak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Asian_and_North_African_outbreak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Asian_and_North_African_outbreak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 West Asian and North African outbreak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Asian_and_North_African_outbreak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Signs and symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bubonic_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bubonic_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Bubonic plague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bubonic_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pneumonic_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pneumonic_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Pneumonic plague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pneumonic_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Septicemic_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Septicemic_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Septicemic plague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Septicemic_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deaths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deaths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Deaths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deaths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Economic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Environmental </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.4 Persecutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.5 Social </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recurrences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recurrences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Recurrences </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recurrences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Recurrences subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Recurrences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second_plague_pandemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_plague_pandemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Second plague pandemic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_plague_pandemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_plague_pandemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_plague_pandemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Third plague pandemic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_plague_pandemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern-day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern-day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Modern-day </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Footnotes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Footnotes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Black Death</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 122 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-122" aria-hidden="true" > 122 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8D_%D1%84%D3%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D3%80%D1%8D" title="Емынэ фӀыцӀэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Емынэ фӀыцӀэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swart_Dood" title="Swart Dood – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Swart Dood" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzer_Tod" title="Schwarzer Tod – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Schwarzer Tod" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Capis_sorme" title="Čapis sorme – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Čapis sorme" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF" title="الموت الأسود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الموت الأسود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D6%82_%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B0" title="Սեւ Մահ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սեւ Մահ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negro" title="Peste negro – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Peste negro" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_%C3%B6l%C3%BCm" title="Qara ölüm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qara ölüm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="قارا اؤلوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قارا اؤلوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81" title="কালো মৃত্যু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কালো মৃত্যু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maut_Hitam" title="Maut Hitam – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Maut Hitam" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hek-s%C3%BA-p%C4%93ng" title="Hek-sú-pēng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hek-sú-pēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D2%AF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Ҡара үлем – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡара үлем" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Чорная смерць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чорная смерць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Чорная сьмерць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Чорная сьмерць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82" title="Черната смърт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Черната смърт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crna_smrt" title="Crna smrt – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Crna smrt" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosenn_Zu" title="Bosenn Zu – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bosenn Zu" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesta_Negra" title="Pesta Negra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pesta Negra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cern%C3%A1_smrt" title="Černá smrt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Černá smrt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pla_Du" title="Pla Du – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pla Du" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_sorte_d%C3%B8d" title="Den sorte død – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den sorte død" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzer_Tod" title="Schwarzer Tod – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schwarzer Tod" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Must_surm" title="Must surm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Must surm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B7_%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BB%CE%B7" title="Μαύρη πανώλη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαύρη πανώλη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigra_morto" title="Nigra morto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nigra morto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izurri_Beltza" title="Izurri Beltza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Izurri Beltza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87" title="مرگ سیاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مرگ سیاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3ttin_svarta" title="Sóttin svarta – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sóttin svarta" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_noire" title="Peste noire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Peste noire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarte_Dea" title="Swarte Dea – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Swarte Dea" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Nere" title="Peste Nere – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Peste Nere" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Phl%C3%A1_Mh%C3%B3r" title="An Phlá Mhór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Phlá Mhór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am_B%C3%A0s_Dubh" title="Am Bàs Dubh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Am Bàs Dubh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Negra" title="Peste Negra – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Peste Negra" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8D%85%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8D%84%F0%90%8D%83_%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B8%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍄𐍃 𐌳𐌰𐌿𐌸𐌿𐍃 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍄𐍃 𐌳𐌰𐌿𐌸𐌿𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het-s%C3%AD-phiang" title="Het-sí-phiang – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Het-sí-phiang" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9D%91%EC%82%AC%EB%B3%91" title="흑사병 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="흑사병" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Black Death" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D6%87_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B0" title="Սև մահ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սև մահ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4" title="काली मौत – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="काली मौत" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doba_kuge" title="Doba kuge – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Doba kuge" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigra_pesto" title="Nigra pesto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nigra pesto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabah_Hitam_(pandemi)" title="Wabah Hitam (pandemi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wabah Hitam (pandemi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_nigre" title="Peste nigre – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Peste nigre" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83_%D0%BC%C3%A6%D0%BB%C3%A6%D1%82" title="Сау мæлæт – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сау мæлæт" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartidau%C3%B0i" title="Svartidauði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Svartidauði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_nera" title="Peste nera – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Peste nera" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A8" title="המוות השחור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המוות השחור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9z%C9%A9k%CA%8A_k%C9%A9kp%C9%9Bd%CA%8A%CA%8A" title="Kɩzɩkʊ kɩkpɛdʊʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩzɩkʊ kɩkpɛdʊʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AD%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="შავი ჭირი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შავი ჭირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Оба індеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Оба індеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap%C3%A8s_nwa" title="Lapès nwa – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lapès nwa" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap%C3%A8s_nw%C3%A8" title="Lapès nwè – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lapès nwè" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirina_re%C5%9F" title="Mirina reş – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mirina reş" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mort_Foscia" title="Mort Foscia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Mort Foscia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazinura_negra" title="Hazinura negra – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Hazinura negra" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mors_atra" title="Mors atra – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mors atra" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meln%C4%81_n%C4%81ve" title="Melnā nāve – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Melnā nāve" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juodoji_mirtis" title="Juodoji mirtis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Juodoji mirtis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zjwarte_Doe%C3%ABd" title="Zjwarte Doeëd – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Zjwarte Doeëd" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fekete_hal%C3%A1l" title="Fekete halál – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fekete halál" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5" title="ब्ल्याक डेथ – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ब्ल्याक डेथ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%80%D1%82" title="Црна смрт – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Црна смрт" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahafatesana_Mainty" title="Fahafatesana Mainty – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fahafatesana Mainty" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="ബ്ലാക്ക് ഡെത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബ്ലാക്ക് ഡെത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesta_s-sewda" title="Pesta s-sewda – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Pesta s-sewda" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97" title="काळा प्लेग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="काळा प्लेग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90_%E1%83%AD%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="უჩა ჭირი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უჩა ჭირი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF" title="الموت الاسود – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الموت الاسود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maut_Hitam" title="Maut Hitam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Maut Hitam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1ik-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-b%C3%AAng" title="Háik-sṳ̄-bêng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Háik-sṳ̄-bêng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%AF%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хар үхэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хар үхэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB" title="မဲသေရောဂါ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဲသေရောဂါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltik_mikistli" title="Tiltik mikistli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tiltik mikistli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwarte_Dood" title="Zwarte Dood – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zwarte Dood" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81" title="कालो मृत्यु – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कालो मृत्यु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81" title="हाकुगु मृत्यु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="हाकुगु मृत्यु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%92%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黒死病 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="黒死病" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartedauden" title="Svartedauden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Svartedauden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartedauden" title="Svartedauden – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Svartedauden" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qora_o%CA%BBlim" title="Qora oʻlim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qora oʻlim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4" title="ਕਾਲੀ ਮੌਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਲੀ ਮੌਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AB" title="تور مرګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تور مرګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blak_Det" title="Blak Det – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Blak Det" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swart_Dood" title="Swart Dood – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Swart Dood" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czarna_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87" title="Czarna śmierć – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czarna śmierć" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Negra" title="Peste Negra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Peste Negra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moartea_neagr%C4%83" title="Moartea neagră – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Moartea neagră" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Чёрная смерть – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чёрная смерть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_niedda" title="Peste niedda – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Peste niedda" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Daith" title="Black Daith – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Black Daith" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vdekja_e_Zez%C3%AB" title="Vdekja e Zezë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Vdekja e Zezë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesti_niura" title="Pesti niura – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pesti niura" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%85%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="කළු මරණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කළු මරණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Black Death" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cierna_smr%C5%A5" title="Čierna smrť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čierna smrť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Crna_smrt" title="Črna smrt – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Črna smrt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cz%C5%8Frn%C5%8F_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87" title="Czŏrnŏ śmierć – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Czŏrnŏ śmierć" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%95%D8%B4" title="مردنی ڕەش – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مردنی ڕەش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%80%D1%82" title="Црна смрт – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Црна смрт" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crna_smrt" title="Crna smrt – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Crna smrt" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musta_surma" title="Musta surma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Musta surma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digerd%C3%B6den" title="Digerdöden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Digerdöden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salot_na_Itim" title="Salot na Itim – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Salot na Itim" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="கறுப்புச் சாவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கறுப்புச் சாவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarka_taberkant" title="Tarka taberkant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tarka taberkant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AC%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0" title="กาฬมรณะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กาฬมรณะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_%C3%96l%C3%BCm" title="Kara Ölüm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kara Ölüm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Чорна смерть – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чорна смерть" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%81_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA" title="سیاہ موت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سیاہ موت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1i_Ch%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%90en" title="Cái Chết Đen – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cái Chết Đen" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Must_surm" title="Must surm – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Must surm" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesse_des_djins" title="Pesse des djins – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Pesse des djins" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itom_nga_Kamatayon" title="Itom nga Kamatayon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Itom nga Kamatayon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="黑死病" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1346–1353 pandemic in Eurasia and North Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"The Plague" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/The_Plague_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="The Plague (disambiguation)">The Plague (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Black Death (disambiguation)">Black Death (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#FFCCCB">Black Death</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><a href="/wiki/File:1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The spread of the Black Death in Europe and the Near East (1346–1353)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/400px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/600px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/800px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="866" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The spread of the Black Death in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> (1346–1353) </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Disease</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-plague-drug-resistant-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">1346–1353</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deaths</div></th><td class="infobox-data">25,000,000 – 50,000,000 (estimated)</td></tr></tbody></table> The Black Death was a <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> that occurred in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">most fatal pandemics</a> in human history; as many as 50 million people<a href="#cite_note-lead_numbers-2">[2]</a> perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The disease is caused by the <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterium</a> <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> and spread by <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> and through the air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> One of the most significant events in European history, the Black Death had far-reaching population, economic, and cultural impacts. It was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">second plague pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history. The origin of the Black Death is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-lead_origin-7">[7]</a> Genetic analysis suggests Yersinia pestis bacteria evolved approximately 7,000 years ago, at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> with flea-mediated strains emerging around 3,800 years ago during the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remain unclear, with some evidence pointing towards <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, China, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011354-11">[11]</a> The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caffa" title="Siege of Caffa">siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> army of <a href="/wiki/Jani_Beg" title="Jani Beg">Jani Beg</a> in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by <a href="/wiki/Oriental_rat_flea" title="Oriental rat flea">fleas</a> living on the <a href="/wiki/Black_rat" title="Black rat">black rats</a> that travelled on <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> ships, spreading through the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> and reaching <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, and the rest of Europe via <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">pneumonic plague</a>, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a> was <a href="/wiki/Rat_flea" title="Rat flea">rat fleas</a> causing bubonic plague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnowden201949–53-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol conquests</a> in the 14th century, as previously speculated.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spyrou_1–7-17">[17]</a> The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> (the first one being the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</a>) and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population, as well as approximately 33% of the population of the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberth20109–13-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlchon200321-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a>), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-21">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2></div> European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death".<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first <a href="/wiki/Murrain" title="Murrain">murrain</a>) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>: den sorte død, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'the black death'.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calque</a>: <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>: svarti dauði, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: der schwarze Tod, and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: la mort noire.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: magna mortalitas, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Great Death'.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> The phrase 'black death' – describing <a href="/wiki/Thanatos" title="Thanatos">Death</a> as black – is very old. <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> used it in the <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> to describe the monstrous <a href="/wiki/Scylla" title="Scylla">Scylla</a>, with her mouths "full of black Death" (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio).<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a> of disease.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> The 12th–13th century French physician <a href="/wiki/Gilles_de_Corbeil" title="Gilles de Corbeil">Gilles de Corbeil</a> had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium).<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(astrology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjunction (astrology)">conjunction</a> of Jupiter and Saturn.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease.<a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a> The historian Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Francis_Aidan_Gasquet" title="Francis Aidan Gasquet">Francis Aidan Gasquet</a> wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893-33">[32]</a> and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[b]</a> In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Isacius_Pontanus" title="Johannes Isacius Pontanus">J. I. Pontanus</a>: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Previous_plague_epidemics">Previous plague epidemics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague (disease)</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First plague pandemic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/220px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/330px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/440px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2294" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> (200 × magnification), the bacterium that causes plague<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></figcaption></figure> Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Neolithic" title="Late Neolithic">Late Neolithic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrades_ValtueñaMittnikKeyHaak2017-39">[37]</a> Research in 2018 found evidence of <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "<a href="/wiki/Neolithic_decline" title="Neolithic decline">Neolithic decline</a>" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2019-41">[39]</a> This Y. pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near <a href="/wiki/Samara" title="Samara">Samara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018-42">[40]</a> The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a <a href="/wiki/Literary_fragment" title="Literary fragment">fragment</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rufus_of_Ephesus" title="Rufus of Ephesus">Rufus of Ephesus</a> preserved by <a href="/wiki/Oribasius" title="Oribasius">Oribasius</a>; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, six centuries before arriving at <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a> in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen201531ff-43">[41]</a> In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> (541–549 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y. pestis.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> This is known as the <a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">first plague pandemic</a>. In 610, the Chinese physician <a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuanfang" title="Chao Yuanfang">Chao Yuanfang</a> described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue."<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in <a href="/wiki/Lingnan" title="Lingnan">Lingnan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>). Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="14th-century_plague">14th-century plague</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes">Causes</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_theory">Early theory</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_the_Black_Death" title="Theories of the Black Death">Theories of the Black Death</a></div> A report by the Medical Faculty of Paris stated that a conjunction of planets had caused "a great pestilence in the air" (<a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma theory</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrox1994159-48">[46]</a> Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise. For non-believers, it was a punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2006-49">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Predominant_modern_theory">Predominant modern theory</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:216px;max-width:216px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Xenopsylla_chepsis_(oriental_rat_flea).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/214px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/321px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/428px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="381" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Oriental_rat_flea" title="Oriental rat flea">Oriental rat flea</a> (Xenopsylla cheopis) engorged with blood. This <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of flea is the primary <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a> for the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a>, the organism responsible for spreading bubonic plague in most plague epidemics. Both male and female fleas <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">feed on blood</a> and can transmit the infection.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg/180px-Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="189" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) infected with the <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterium</a> which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The foregut (proventriculus) of this flea is blocked by a Y. pestis <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a>; when the flea feeds on an uninfected <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> Y. pestis is regurgitated into the wound, causing infection.</div></div></div></div></div> Due to <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages#Climate_change_and_plague_pandemic_correlation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">climate change in Asia</a>, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETignorBrownLiuShaw2014407-52">[50]</a> The plague disease, caused by the bacterium <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Enzootic" title="Enzootic">enzootic</a> (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Marmot" title="Marmot">marmots</a>, in various areas, including <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, and the western United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler199825-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> Y. pestis was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Yersin" title="Alexandre Yersin">Alexandre Yersin</a>, a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, during an <a href="/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague" title="1894 Hong Kong plague">epidemic of bubonic plague</a> in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacterium was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrizabalaga2010-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The mechanism by which Y. pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by <a href="/wiki/Paul-Louis_Simond" title="Paul-Louis Simond">Paul-Louis Simond</a> and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose <a href="/wiki/Midgut" title="Midgut">midguts</a> had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> This blockage starves the fleas, drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour, and causes them to try to clear the blockage via <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">regurgitation</a>, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria flushing into the feeding site and infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a>, keeping the disease <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a>, and a second that lacks resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human <a href="/wiki/Epidemic_typhus" title="Epidemic typhus">epidemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DNA_evidence">DNA evidence</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues,_France_1720-1721.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/220px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/330px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/440px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Skeletons in a mass grave from 1720 to 1721 in <a href="/wiki/Martigues" title="Martigues">Martigues</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> in southern France, yielded molecular evidence of the orientalis strain of Yersinia pestis, the organism responsible for bubonic plague. The second pandemic of bubonic plague was active in Europe from 1347, the beginning of the Black Death, until 1750.</figcaption></figure> Definitive confirmation of the role of Y. pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in <a href="/wiki/PLOS_Pathogens" title="PLOS Pathogens">PLOS Pathogens</a> by Haensch et al.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[c]</a> They assessed the presence of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> with <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the <a href="/wiki/Dental_alveolus" title="Dental alveolus">tooth sockets</a> in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the <a href="/wiki/Disease_causative_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Disease causative agent">causative agent</a> of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-4">[4]</a> In 2011 these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the <a href="/wiki/East_Smithfield" title="East Smithfield">East Smithfield</a> burial site in England. Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBos2011-61">[58]</a> Later in 2011, <a href="/wiki/Kirsten_Bos" title="Kirsten Bos">Bos</a> et al. reported in <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> the first draft genome of Y. pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y. pestis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBos2011-61">[58]</a> Later genomic papers have further confirmed the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> placement of the Y. pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrouKellerTukhbatovaScheib2019-62">[59]</a> of later plague epidemics—including the <a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">third plague pandemic</a>—and the descendant<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerKlunkHarbeckDevault2014-63">[60]</a> of the strain responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>. In addition, plague genomes from prehistory have been recovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussenAllentoftNielsenOrlando2015-64">[61]</a> DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th-century London showed that plague is a strain of Y. pestis almost identical to that which <a href="/wiki/21st-century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" title="21st-century Madagascar plague outbreaks">hit Madagascar in 2013</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guardian-65">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y. pestis and traces the source to the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> mountains in <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alternative_explanations">Alternative explanations</h4></div> Researchers are hampered by a lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, where estimates of overall population at the start of the plague vary by over 100%, as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> of 1086 and the <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax#Great_Britain" title="Poll tax">poll tax</a> of the year 1377.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler1998233-68">[65]</a> Estimates of plague victims are usually <a href="/wiki/Extrapolation" title="Extrapolation">extrapolated</a> from figures for the clergy. <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling">Mathematical modelling</a> is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmission</a>. In 2018 researchers suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people". The second model claims to better fit the trends of the plague's death toll, as the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, contradicting historical death data.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lars_Wall%C3%B8e" title="Lars Walløe">Lars Walløe</a> argued that these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalløe200869-71">[68]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Monica_Green_(historian)" title="Monica Green (historian)">Monica Green</a> has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-<a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensal</a>) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen201531ff-43">[41]</a> Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London, and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESloane2011-73">[70]</a> This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_rat_flea" title="Oriental rat flea">fleas</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">second plague pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeanKrauerWalløeLingjærde2018-74">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summary">Summary</h4></div> Academic debate continues, but no single alternative explanation for the plague's spread has achieved widespread acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a> Many scholars arguing for Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">respiratory infections</a>. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">septicemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonic</a> forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-75">[72]</a> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_England" title="Public Health England">Public Health England</a> announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the <a href="/wiki/Clerkenwell" title="Clerkenwell">Clerkenwell</a> area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-guardian-65">[62]</a> Currently, while <a href="/wiki/Osteoarchaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Osteoarchaeology">osteoarcheologists</a> have conclusively verified the presence of Y. pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and <a href="/wiki/Dental_pulp" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental pulp">dental pulp</a>, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnowden201950–51-76">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_migration" title="Black Death migration">Black Death migration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lack_of_hygiene">Lack of hygiene</h4></div> The importance of <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> was not recognized until the 19th century and the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>. Until then streets were usually unhygienic, with live animals and human parasites facilitating the spread of <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmissible disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> By the early 14th century, so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste. In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit". There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17-78">[75]</a> Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris. Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were careless. William E. Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without, received a complaint alleging that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of] . . . horse dung and horse piss." One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near." In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17,_68-79">[76]</a> Early Christians considered bathing a temptation. With this danger in mind, <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">St. Benedict</a> declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted." <a href="/wiki/Agnes_of_Rome" title="Agnes of Rome">St. Agnes</a> took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200671–72-80">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Territorial_origins">Territorial origins</h4></div> According to a team of <a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">medical geneticists</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Achtman" title="Mark Achtman">Mark Achtman</a>, Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010-83">[80]</a> Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko placed its origins more specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> mountains on the border between <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> and China.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29073248-84">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin2019-85">[82]</a> However more recent research notes that the previous sampling contained East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y. pestis in the Caucasus region previously thought to be restricted to China.<a href="#cite_note-spyrou-86">[83]</a> There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China. As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day.<a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-87">[84]</a> According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th-century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> gravesites dating from 1338 to 1339 near <a href="/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a> have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiologists</a> to think they mark the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y. pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-Spyrou_1–7-17">[17]</a> Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 1347.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague. Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation. Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death. What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin2019-85">[82]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Philip Slavin</cite></div></blockquote> According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">[86]</a> According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak.<a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-87">[84]</a> Additionally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death; Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making its role in the spread of plague less likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">[86]</a> There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011328-92">[89]</a> Others still favor an origin in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin2019-85">[82]</a> The theory of Chinese origin implicates the Silk Road, the disease possibly spreading alongside <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> armies and traders, or possibly arriving via ship—however, this theory is still contested. It is speculated that rats aboard <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>'s ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-87">[84]</a> Research on the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in 14th-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-87">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448–49-93">[90]</a> Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from <a href="/wiki/Kaffa_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaffa (city)">Kaffa</a>, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450–51-94">[91]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 per cent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370. This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52. However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time. War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn2016440-95">[92]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Richard von Glahn</cite></div></blockquote> Monica Green suggests that other parts of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Death, because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world. Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2020-96">[93]</a> Another theory is that the plague originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China.<a href="#cite_note-spyrou-86">[83]</a> Other historians, such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw, believe the plague likely originated in Europe or the Middle East, and never reached China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011354-11">[11]</a> Norris specifically argues for an origin in Kurdistan rather than Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011328-92">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_outbreak">European outbreak</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in <a href="/wiki/Dorsetshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsetshire">Dorsetshire</a>, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive. ... But at length it came to <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>, yea even to <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and to London, and finally it spread over all England and so wasted the people that scarce the tenth person of any sort was left alive. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_the_Baker" title="Geoffrey the Baker">Geoffrey the Baker</a>, Chronicon Angliae<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></cite> </div> Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> traders from their port city of <a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Kaffa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> in 1347. During a <a href="/wiki/Genoese%E2%80%93Mongol_Wars" title="Genoese–Mongol Wars">protracted siege</a> of the city in 1345–1346, the Mongol <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> army of <a href="/wiki/Jani_Beg" title="Jani Beg">Jani Beg</a>—whose mainly <a href="/wiki/Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a> troops were suffering from the disease—<a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">catapulted infected corpses</a> over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002-98">[95]</a> though it is also likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014-99">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347.<a href="#cite_note-:5-101">[98]</a> The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a>, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>'s account of the 5th century BCE <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">Plague of Athens</a>, noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities.<a href="#cite_note-:5-101">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicephorus_Gregoras" title="Nicephorus Gregoras">Nicephorus Gregoras</a>, while writing to <a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Kydones" title="Demetrios Kydones">Demetrios Kydones</a>, described the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens.<a href="#cite_note-:5-101">[98]</a> The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400.<a href="#cite_note-:5-101">[98]</a> Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in October 1347;<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> the disease spread rapidly all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> a few weeks later that was the entry point into northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseilles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Italy" title="Black Death in Italy">From Italy</a>, the disease spread northwest across Europe, <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_France" title="Black Death in France">striking France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Spain" title="Black Death in Spain">Spain</a>, Portugal, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">England</a> by June 1348, then spreading east and north <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Death in Germany">through Germany</a>, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Norway" title="Black Death in Norway">into Norway</a> in 1349 when a ship landed at <a href="/wiki/Ask%C3%B8y" title="Askøy">Askøy</a>, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern <a href="/wiki/Bergen" title="Bergen">Bergen</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111-104">[101]</a> Finally, it <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Russia" title="Black Death in Russia">spread to northern Russia</a> in 1352 and reached <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> in 1353.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belich-106">[103]</a> Plague was less common in parts of Europe with less-established trade relations, including the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(greater_region)" title="Basque Country (greater region)">Basque Country</a>, isolated parts of Belgium and <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Death in the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013-107">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelfordBossak2010-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations, forcing their fleas onto alternative hosts,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011-110">[107]</a> inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohn2008-111">[108]</a> and during the cool autumn months of the southern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[d]</a> Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, pre-existing malnutrition weakened the immune response, contributing to an immense decline in European population.<a href="#cite_note-Baten-116">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Asian_and_North_African_outbreak">West Asian and North African outbreak</h4></div> The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2018-117">[113]</a> By autumn 1347, plague had reached <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt, transmitted by sea from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> via a single merchant ship carrying slaves.<a href="#cite_note-:6-118">[114]</a> By late summer 1348, it reached <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a>, cultural center of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>, and the largest city in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahriyya</a> child sultan <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Hasan" class="mw-redirect" title="An-Nasir Hasan">an-Nasir Hasan</a> fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">bimaristan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qalawun_complex" title="Qalawun complex">Qalawun complex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a> described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_funeral" title="Islamic funeral">funeral rites</a>; plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a> by April; by July it had reached <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and in October plague had broken out in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-118">[114]</a> That year, in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">the territory</a> of modern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, the cities of <a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> were all infected. In 1348–1349, the disease reached <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>. The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2006-49">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> was infected by ship from Sicily. Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of <a href="/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa" title="Almería">Almería</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-118">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-118">[114]</a> In 1351 or 1352, the <a href="/wiki/Rasulid_dynasty" title="Rasulid dynasty">Rasulid</a> sultan of the <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home.<a href="#cite_note-:6-118">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> During 1349, records show the city of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> experienced a second round of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/220px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/330px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/440px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3231" data-file-height="2144" /></a><figcaption>A hand showing how <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acral" class="extiw" title="wikt:acral">acral</a> <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">fingers</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> causes the skin and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">flesh</a> to <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">die</a> and turn black</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plague_bubo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Plague_bubo.jpg/220px-Plague_bubo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Plague_bubo.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="184" /></a><figcaption>An inguinal <a href="/wiki/Bubo" title="Bubo">bubo</a> on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague. Swollen <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a> (buboes) often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (inguinal) regions of plague victims.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bubonic_plague">Bubonic plague</h4></div> Symptoms of the plague include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, <a href="/wiki/Arthralgia" title="Arthralgia">painful aching joints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> and vomiting, and a general feeling of <a href="/wiki/Malaise" title="Malaise">malaise</a>. Left untreated, 80% of victims die within eight days.<a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a> Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise.<a href="#cite_note-125">[e]</a> The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Bubo" title="Bubo">buboes</a> (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.<a href="#cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-75">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a>'s description: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-size:100%">In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumours</a> in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg ... From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">malady</a> began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.<a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[f]</a></blockquote> This was followed by acute <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hematemesis" title="Hematemesis">vomiting of blood</a>. Most people died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes,<a href="#cite_note-130">[124]</a> which may have been caused by <a href="/wiki/Pulicosis" title="Pulicosis">flea-bites</a>, were identified as another potential sign of plague. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pneumonic_plague">Pneumonic plague</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Heyligen" title="Lodewijk Heyligen">Lodewijk Heyligen</a>, whose master Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Colonna_(cardinal,_1295%E2%80%931348)" title="Giovanni Colonna (cardinal, 1295–1348)">Giovanni Colonna</a> died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">pneumonic plague</a>, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems.<a href="#cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-75">[72]</a> Symptoms include fever, cough and <a href="/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">blood-tinged sputum</a>. As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90–95%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-131">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Septicemic_plague">Septicemic plague</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Septicemic_plague" title="Septicemic plague">Septicemic plague</a> is the least common of the three forms, with an untreated mortality rate near 100%. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (<a href="/wiki/Purpura" title="Purpura">purpura</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Disseminated_intravascular_coagulation" title="Disseminated intravascular coagulation">disseminated intravascular coagulation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-131">[125]</a> In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-131">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences">Consequences</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death" title="Consequences of the Black Death">Consequences of the Black Death</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deaths">Deaths</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_(CCLXIIIIv).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg/220px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg/330px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg/440px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Dance_of_Death_%28CCLXIIIIv%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2074" data-file-height="1769" /></a><figcaption>Inspired by the Black Death, The Dance of Death, or <a href="/wiki/Danse_Macabre" title="Danse Macabre">Danse Macabre</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> on the universality of death, was a common painting motif in the late medieval period.</figcaption></figure> There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. Urban centers with higher populations suffered longer periods of abnormal mortality.<a href="#cite_note-132">[126]</a> Some estimate that it may have killed between 75,000,000 and 200,000,000 people in Eurasia.<a href="#cite_note-ABC/Reuters-133">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Black_Death's_Gene_Code_Cracked-134">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-De-coding_the_Black_Death-135">[129]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe from 1250 to 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death. The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece, and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia, and Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a> The authors concluded that "the pandemic was immensely destructive in some areas, but in others it had a far lighter touch ... [the study methodology] invalidates histories of the Black Death that assume Y. pestis was uniformly prevalent, or nearly so, across Europe and that the pandemic had a devastating demographic impact everywhere." The Black Death killed, by various estimations, from 25 to 60% of Europe's population. Robert Gottfried writes that as early as 1351, "agents for <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VI" title="Pope Clement VI">Pope Clement VI</a> calculated the number of dead in Christian Europe at 23,840,000. With a preplague population of about 75 million, Clement's figure accounts for mortality of 31%-a rate about midway between the 50% mortality estimated for East Anglia, Tuscany, and parts of Scandinavia, and the less-than-15% morbidity for Bohemia and Galicia. And it is unerringly close to Froissart's claim that "a third of the world died," a measurement probably drawn from St. John's figure of mortality from plague in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>, a favorite medieval source of information."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried201077-137">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ole_J._Benedictow" class="mw-redirect" title="Ole J. Benedictow">Ole J. Benedictow</a> proposes 60% mortality rate for Europe as a whole based on available data, with up to 80% based on poor nutritional conditions in the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-138">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benedictow-139">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[g]</a> According to medieval historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Daileader" title="Philip Daileader">Philip Daileader</a>, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague.<a href="#cite_note-Daileader-141">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[h]</a> The overwhelming number of deaths in Europe sometimes made mass burials necessary, and some sites had hundreds or thousands of bodies.<a href="#cite_note-:3-143">[135]</a> The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical, and anthropological implications of the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-:3-143">[135]</a> The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y. pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-144">[136]</a> In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that nearly a third of the European population perished before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a> Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> perished,<a href="#cite_note-145">[137]</a> and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well,<a href="#cite_note-guardian-65">[62]</a> leaving a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETignorBrownLiuShaw2014407-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[i]</a> Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-144">[136]</a> Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450.<a href="#cite_note-148">[139]</a> The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">contagion</a>. Plague did not appear in <a href="/wiki/French_Flanders" title="French Flanders">Flanders</a> until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">Hainaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Finland">Finland</a>, northern Germany, and areas of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-144">[136]</a> Monks, nuns, and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people ill with the plague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006329-149">[140]</a> The level of mortality in the rest of Eastern Europe was likely similar to that of Western Europe in the first outbreak, with descriptions suggesting a similar effect on Russian towns, and the cycles of plague in Russia being roughly equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-Belich-106">[103]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doutielt3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/290px-Doutielt3.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/435px-Doutielt3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/580px-Doutielt3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Citizens of <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a> bury plague victims</figcaption></figure> In 1382, the physician to the <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a>, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Magister Raimundus, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–1348, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica).<a href="#cite_note-:4-150">[141]</a> In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived.<a href="#cite_note-:4-150">[141]</a> By the 1380s in Europe, the plague predominantly affected children.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-144">[136]</a> Chalmel de Vinario recognised that <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a> was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a>, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by <a href="/wiki/Medical_astrology" title="Medical astrology">astrological factors</a> and were incurable; he was never able to effect a cure.<a href="#cite_note-:4-150">[141]</a> The populations of some Italian cities, notably <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENauert2006106-151">[142]</a> Italian chronicler <a href="/wiki/Agnolo_di_Tura" title="Agnolo di Tura">Agnolo di Tura</a> recorded his experience from <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>, where plague arrived in May 1348: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night ... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura ... buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world.<a href="#cite_note-152">[143]</a></blockquote> The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population.<a href="#cite_note-153">[144]</a> The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population.<a href="#cite_note-154">[145]</a> In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> By the 18th century, the population of Cairo was halved from its numbers in 1347.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic">Economic</h4></div> It has been suggested that the Black Death, like other outbreaks through history, disproportionately affected the poorest people and those already in worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens.<a href="#cite_note-155">[146]</a> But along with population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a subsequent labour shortage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheidel2017292–93,_304-156">[147]</a> In some places rents collapsed (e.g., lettings "used to bring in £5, and now but £1.")<a href="#cite_note-gasquet-124">[120]</a>: 158  However, many labourers, artisans, and craftsmen—those living from money-wages alone—suffered a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunro2004352-157">[148]</a> Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants.<a href="#cite_note-158">[149]</a> Taxes and tithes became difficult to collect, with living poor refusing to cover the share of the rich deceased, because many properties were empty and unfarmed, and because tax-collectors, where they could be employed, refused to go to plague spots.<a href="#cite_note-gasquet-124">[120]</a>: 158  The trade disruptions in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> caused by the Black Death was one of the reasons for its collapse.<a href="#cite_note-159">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environmental">Environmental</h4></div> A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>. This may have led to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persecutions">Persecutions</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Persecution of Jews during the Black Death</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doutielt1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/330px-Doutielt1.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/495px-Doutielt1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/660px-Doutielt1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Jews being <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burned at the stake</a> in 1349. Miniature from a 14th-century manuscript Antiquitates Flandriae by <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Li_Muisis" title="Gilles Li Muisis">Gilles Li Muisis</a></figcaption></figure> Renewed religious fervor and <a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">fanaticism</a> increased in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friars</a>, foreigners, beggars, <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim">pilgrims</a>", lepers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENirenberg1998-161">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1987-162">[153]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a>, blaming them for the crisis. <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">Lepers</a>, and others with skin diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Acne" title="Acne">acne</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psoriasis" title="Psoriasis">psoriasis</a>, were killed throughout Europe. Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> forces, earthquakes and the <a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning#Medieval_accusations_against_Jews" title="Well poisoning">poisoning of wells by Jews</a> as possible reasons for outbreaks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326-24">[23]</a> Many believed the epidemic was a <a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">punishment by God</a> for their sins, and could be relieved by winning <a href="/wiki/God%27s_forgiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="God's forgiveness">God's forgiveness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[154]</a> There were many attacks against Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-164">[155]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_massacre" title="Strasbourg massacre">Strasbourg massacre</a> of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered.<a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-164">[155]</a> In August 1349, the Jewish communities in <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-165">[156]</a> During this period many Jews relocated to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Poland</a>, where they received a welcome from King <a href="/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great" title="Casimir III the Great">Casimir the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried201074-166">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social">Social</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_medieval_culture" title="Black Death in medieval culture">Black Death in medieval culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/220px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/330px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/440px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1517" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Brueghel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Triumph_of_Death" title="The Triumph of Death">The Triumph of Death</a> reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague, which devastated medieval Europe.</figcaption></figure> One theory that has been advanced is that the Black Death's devastation of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy that ultimately led to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and the resulting familiarity with death may have caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuchman1978-167">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[j]</a> It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the <a href="/wiki/Patron#Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron">sponsorship</a> of religious works of art.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century; the Renaissance's emergence was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrotton2006-171">[161]</a> in combination with an <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance#Contribution_of_Greek_scholars_to_the_Italian_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">influx of Greek scholars</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople#Impact_on_the_Renaissance" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of the Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[162]</a> As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENetzley1998-173">[163]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fiefs</a> and city-states frequently managed by the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-:0-174">[164]</a> The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled.<a href="#cite_note-:0-174">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[165]</a> The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably contributed to the destabilization of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaddockKiesling2002-177">[167]</a> The word "<a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a>" has its roots in this period, though the practice of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older. In the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ragusa" title="Republic of Ragusa">Ragusa</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a>, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas. The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty".<a href="#cite_note-Sehdev-178">[168]</a> All institutions were affected. Smaller monasteries and convents became unviable and closed. Up to half parish churches lost their priest, apart from the parishioners. Religious sensibilities changed:<a href="#cite_note-gasquet-124">[120]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"[...]looking back into the past, the history of the Church during the Middle Ages in England appears one continuous and stately progress. It is much nearer to the truth to say that in 1351 the whole ecclesiastical system was wholly disorganised, or, indeed, more than half ruined, and that everything had to be built up anew.[...] To secure the most necessary public ministrations of the rites of religion the most inadequately-prepared subjects had to be accepted, and even these could be obtained only in insufficient numbers.[...]The immediate effect on the people was a religious paralysis. Instead of turning men to God the scourge turned them to despair[...] In time the religious sense and feeling revived, but in many respects it took a new tone, and its manifestations ran in new channels[...]characterised by a devotional and more self-reflective cast than previously.[...] The new religious spirit found outward expression in the multitude of guilds which sprang into existence at this time, in the remarkable and almost, as it may seem to some, extravagant development of certain pious practices, in the singular spread of a more personal devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, to the Blessed Virgin, to the Five Wounds, to the Holy Name, and other such manifestations of a more tender or more familiar piety.[...]At the close of the fourteenth century and during the course of the fifteenth the supply of ornaments, furniture, plate, statues painted or in highly decked "coats," with which the churches were literally encumbered as time went on, proved a striking contrast to the comparative simplicity which characterised former days, as witnessed by a comparison of inventories.[...] In fact, the fifteenth century witnessed the beginnings of a great middle-class movement, which can be distinctly traced to the effect of the great pestilence[...]<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Francis_Aidan_Gasquet" title="Francis Aidan Gasquet">Francis Aidan Gasquet</a><a href="#cite_note-gasquet-124">[120]</a>: xvii </cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recurrences">Recurrences</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_plague_pandemic">Second plague pandemic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg/170px-Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg/255px-Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg/340px-Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague of London</a>, in 1665, killed up to 100,000 people.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_F%C3%BCrst,_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_(coloured_version).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/170px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/255px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/340px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Plague_doctor" title="Plague doctor">plague doctor</a> and his typical <a href="/wiki/Plague_doctor_costume" title="Plague doctor costume">apparel</a> during the 17th-century outbreak</figcaption></figure> The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter200925-179">[169]</a> According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671 (although some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays199858-180">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosenCurtis2018-181">[171]</a> The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the plague's retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and North Africa (19th century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays200546-182">[172]</a> Historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">[86]</a> However, other sources suggest that the second pandemic did indeed reach sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2018-117">[113]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)" title="Geoffrey Parker (historian)">Geoffrey Parker</a>, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20017-183">[173]</a> In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1.7 million people in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-184">[174]</a> More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne1973Chapter_15:_The_Seventeenth-Century_Decline-185">[175]</a> The Black Death ravaged much of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[176]</a> Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850. Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions.<a href="#cite_note-187">[177]</a> Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis2004-188">[178]</a> Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-:7-119">[115]</a> Plague remained a major event in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800.<a href="#cite_note-189">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIssawi198899-190">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_plague_pandemic">Third plague pandemic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG/220px-World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG/330px-World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG/440px-World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Worldwide distribution of plague-infected animals, 1998</figcaption></figure> The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.<a href="#cite_note-191">[181]</a> The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Yersin" title="Alexandre Yersin">Alexandre Yersin</a>, for whom the pathogen was named.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a> Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.<a href="#cite_note-192">[182]</a> The first North American plague epidemic was the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_plague_of_1900%E2%80%931904" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco plague of 1900–1904">San Francisco plague of 1900–1904</a>, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChase2004-193">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchenberg2007-194">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut1995-195">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern-day">Modern-day</h3></div> Modern treatment methods include <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a>, the use of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Plague_vaccine" title="Plague vaccine">plague vaccine</a>. It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">drug resistance</a> and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-196">[186]</a> Another outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014.<a href="#cite_note-197">[187]</a> In October 2017, the <a href="/wiki/21st-century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" title="21st-century Madagascar plague outbreaks">deadliest outbreak of the plague</a> in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.<a href="#cite_note-198">[188]</a> An estimate of the <a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">case fatality rate</a> for the modern <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>, after the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.<a href="#cite_note-199">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellant" title="Flagellant">Flagellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Declining temperatures following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> added to the crisis. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> that was prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> from 541 to 700 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">[33]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> In 1998, Drancourt et al. reported the detection of Y. pestis DNA in human dental pulp from a medieval grave.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Another team led by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Thomas_Pius_Gilbert" title="Marcus Thomas Pius Gilbert">Tom Gilbert</a> cast doubt on this identification<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbertCuccuiWhiteLynnerup2004-59">[57]</a> and the techniques employed, stating that this method "does not allow us to confirm the identification of Y. pestis as the <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">aetiological</a> agent of the Black Death and subsequent plagues. In addition, the utility of the published tooth-based ancient DNA technique used to diagnose fatal <a href="/wiki/Bacteremia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteremia">bacteraemias</a> in historical epidemics still awaits independent corroboration". </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> However, other researchers do not think that plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers, so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species, such as <a href="/wiki/Gerbillinae" title="Gerbillinae">gerbils</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidBüntgenEasterdayGinzler2015-114">[111]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> In Britain "the special symptoms characteristic of the plague of 1348–9 were four in number:— (1) Gangrenous inflammation of the throat and lungs; (2) Violent pains in the region of the chest; (3) The vomiting and spitting of blood; and (4) The pestilential odour coming from the bodies and breath of the sick."<a href="#cite_note-gasquet-124">[120]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an "infallible token of approaching death", as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler199818–19-128">[123]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-size:100%"> Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60% of Europe's population. The generally assumed population of Europe at the time is about 80 million, implying that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-Benedictow-139">[133]</a></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> According to medieval historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Daileader" title="Philip Daileader">Philip Daileader</a>,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-size:100%"> The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45–50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. In Germany and England ... it was probably closer to 20%.<a href="#cite_note-Daileader-141">[134]</a></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> While contemporary accounts report mass burial pits being created in response to the large number of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickPringleSloaneCarver2015-146">[138]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHattyHatty199989-168">[159]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-plague-drug-resistant-1"><a href="#cite_ref-plague-drug-resistant_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLawton2022" class="citation magazine cs1">Lawton, Graham (25 May 2022). <a href="/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(journalist)" title="Emily Wilson (journalist)">Wilson, Emily</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25433880-400-plague-never-went-away-now-it-could-re-emerge-in-drug-resistant-form/">"Plague: Black death bacteria persists and could cause a pandemic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>. London. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0262-4079">0262-4079</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220530221812/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25433880-400-plague-never-went-away-now-it-could-re-emerge-in-drug-resistant-form/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Plague%3A+Black+death+bacteria+persists+and+could+cause+a+pandemic&rft.date=2022-05-25&rft.issn=0262-4079&rft.aulast=Lawton&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg25433880-400-plague-never-went-away-now-it-could-re-emerge-in-drug-resistant-form%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lead_numbers-2"><a href="#cite_ref-lead_numbers_2-0">^</a> Sources for deaths: <a href="#CITEREFAberth2021">Aberth 2021</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2021">Benedictow 2021</a>, pp. 869–877; <a href="#CITEREFChristakosOleaSerreWang2005">Christakos et al. 2005</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/economic-life-after-covid-19-lessons-from-the-black-death/articleshow/74870296.cms?from=mdr">"Economic life after Covid-19: Lessons from the Black Death"</a>. The Economic Times. 29 March 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200621020454/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/economic-life-after-covid-19-lessons-from-the-black-death/articleshow/74870296.cms?from=mdr">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Times&rft.atitle=Economic+life+after+Covid-19%3A+Lessons+from+the+Black+Death&rft.date=2020-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconomictimes.indiatimes.com%2Fmarkets%2Fstocks%2Fnews%2Feconomic-life-after-covid-19-lessons-from-the-black-death%2Farticleshow%2F74870296.cms%3Ffrom%3Dmdr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010_4-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010">Haensch et al. 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs267/en/">"Plague"</a>. World Health Organization. October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150424065540/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs267/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Plague&rft.date=2017-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Ffactsheets%2Ffs267%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirth2012" class="citation web cs1">Firth J (April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191002022050/https://jmvh.org/article/the-history-of-plague-part-1-the-three-great-pandemics/">"The History of Plague – Part 1. The Three Great Pandemics"</a>. jmvh.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jmvh.org/article/the-history-of-plague-part-1-the-three-great-pandemics/">the original</a> on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 14 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Plague+%E2%80%93+Part+1.+The+Three+Great+Pandemics&rft.pub=jmvh.org&rft.date=2012-04&rft.aulast=Firth&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjmvh.org%2Farticle%2Fthe-history-of-plague-part-1-the-three-great-pandemics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lead_origin-7"><a href="#cite_ref-lead_origin_7-0">^</a> Sources for origins <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/23/asia/plague-china-history-intl-hnk-scli/index.html">"Black Death in China: A history of plagues, from ancient times to now"</a>. CNN. 24 November 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200306011659/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/23/asia/plague-china-history-intl-hnk-scli/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Black+Death+in+China%3A+A+history+of+plagues%2C+from+ancient+times+to+now&rft.date=2019-11-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2019%2F11%2F23%2Fasia%2Fplague-china-history-intl-hnk-scli%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2004">Benedictow 2004</a>, pp. 50–51</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBramantiStensethWalløeLei2016">Bramanti et al. 2016</a>, pp. 1–26</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death">"Black Death | Causes, Facts, and Consequences"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190709135155/https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Black+Death+%7C+Causes%2C+Facts%2C+and+Consequences&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FBlack-Death&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSussman2011">Sussman 2011</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusatLübkeImmelBrinker2021" class="citation journal cs1">Susat, Julian; et al. 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Linde. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+Norway%3A+%E2%80%A6&rft.place=London&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=A.+Linde&rft.date=1755&rft.aulast=Pontoppidan&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FnaturalhistoryNc2Pont%2Fpage%2Fn57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> From p. 24: "Norway, indeed, cannot be said to be entirely exempt from pestilential distempers, for the Black-death, known all over Europe by its terrible ravages, from the years 1348 to 50, was felt here as in other parts, and to the great diminution of the number of the inhabitants." </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Irsay1926" class="citation journal cs1">d'Irsay S (1926). "Notes to the Origin of the Expression: ≪ Atra Mors ≫". Isis. 8 (2): 328–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F358397">10.1086/358397</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/223649">223649</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147317779">147317779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Notes+to+the+Origin+of+the+Expression%3A+%E2%89%AA+Atra+Mors+%E2%89%AB&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=328-32&rft.date=1926&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147317779%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F223649%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F358397&rft.aulast=d%27Irsay&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> The German physician <a href="/wiki/Justus_Hecker" title="Justus Hecker">Justus Friedrich Karl Hecker</a> (1795–1850) cited the phrase in Icelandic (Svarti Dauði), Danish (den sorte Dod), etc. See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHecker1832" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hecker, J. F. C. (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429081540/https://books.google.com/books?id=LhoqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3">Der schwarze Tod im vierzehnten Jahrhundert</a> [The Black Death in the Fourteenth Century] (in German). Berlin, (Germany): Friedr. Aug. Herbig. p. 3, footnote 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LhoqAAAAYAAJ/page/n11">the original</a> on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+schwarze+Tod+im+vierzehnten+Jahrhundert&rft.place=Berlin%2C+%28Germany%29&rft.pages=3%2C+footnote+1&rft.pub=Friedr.+Aug.+Herbig&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=Hecker&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_LhoqAAAAYAAJ%2Fpage%2Fn11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Homer, Odyssey, XII, 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Seneca, Oedipus, 164–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Corbeil1907" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Corbeil G (1907) [1200]. Valentin R (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/egidiicorbolien02rosegoog">Egidii Corboliensis Viaticus: De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium</a> (in Latin). Harvard University: In aedibus B.G. Teubneri.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egidii+Corboliensis+Viaticus%3A+De+signis+et+symptomatibus+aegritudium&rft.place=Harvard+University&rft.pub=In+aedibus+B.G.+Teubneri&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=de+Corbeil&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fegidiicorbolien02rosegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> On page 22 of the manuscript in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image">Gallica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006064435/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image">Archived</a> 6 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Simon mentions the phrase "mors nigra" (Black Death): "Cum rex finisset oracula judiciorum / Mors nigra surrexit, et gentes reddidit illi;" (When the king ended the oracles of judgment / Black Death arose, and the nations surrendered to him;). <ul><li>A more legible copy of the poem appears in: Emile Littré (1841) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&">"Opuscule relatif à la peste de 1348, composé par un contemporain"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140722010105/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&">Archived</a> 22 July 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Work concerning the plague of 1348, composed by a contemporary), Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes, 2 (2) : 201–43; see especially p. 228.</li> <li>See also: Joseph Patrick Byrne, The Black Death (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1">p. 1.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426053818/https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 26 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGasquet1893">Gasquet 1893</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreWang2005110–14_34-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristakosOleaSerreWang2005">Christakos et al. 2005</a>, pp. 110–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGasquet1908">Gasquet 1908</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Johan Isaksson Pontanus, Rerum Danicarum Historia ... (Amsterdam (Netherlands): Johann Jansson, 1631), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HaExAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA476">p. 476.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504221100/https://books.google.com/books?id=HaExAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA476">Archived</a> 4 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516012329/http://www.avma.org/public_health/biosecurity/plague_bgnd.asp">"Plague Backgrounder"</a>. Avma.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avma.org/public_health/biosecurity/plague_bgnd.asp">the original</a> on 16 May 2008. 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Retrieved 22 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modern+lab+reaches+across+the+ages+to+resolve+plague+DNA+debate&rft.pub=phys.org&rft.date=2013-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2013-05-modern-lab-ages-plague-dna.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng2014" class="citation web cs1">Cheng M (28 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/01/28/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-shows-medieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease/">"Plague DNA found in ancient teeth shows medieval Black Death, 1,500-year pandemic caused by same disease"</a>. National Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140129115824/http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/01/28/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-shows-medieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2014. Retrieved 22 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Post&rft.atitle=Plague+DNA+found+in+ancient+teeth+shows+medieval+Black+Death%2C+1%2C500-year+pandemic+caused+by+same+disease&rft.date=2014-01-28&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalpost.com%2F2014%2F01%2F28%2Fplague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-shows-medieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KjLHAOE7irsC&pg=PA41">The Black Death, 1346-1353: The Complete History</a>. Boydell Press. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843832140" title="Special:BookSources/9781843832140"><bdi>9781843832140</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=KjLHAOE7irsC&pg=PA41">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death%2C+1346-1353%3A+The+Complete+History&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781843832140&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKjLHAOE7irsC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HkI3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130">The Complete History of the Black Death</a>. Boydell & Brewer. 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781783275168" title="Special:BookSources/9781783275168"><bdi>9781783275168</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=HkI3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+History+of+the+Black+Death&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781783275168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHkI3EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrox1994159-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrox1994159_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHorrox1994">Horrox 1994</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2006-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly2006_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly2006_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly2006">Kelly 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Asqalani" class="citation book cs1">al-Asqalani IH. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Library.mmn_20150901/mode/2up">Badhl aI-md'On fi fadi at-ld'an</a>. Cairo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Badhl+aI-md%27On+fi+fadi+at-ld%27an&rft.place=Cairo&rft.aulast=al-Asqalani&rft.aufirst=IH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FLibrary.mmn_20150901%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegan2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Legan JA (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/honors201019/103">The medical response to the Black Death</a>. Senior Honors Projects (B.A.). James Madison University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019202939/https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/honors201019/103/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+medical+response+to+the+Black+Death&rft.inst=James+Madison+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Legan&rft.aufirst=JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.lib.jmu.edu%2Fhonors201019%2F103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETignorBrownLiuShaw2014407-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETignorBrownLiuShaw2014407_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETignorBrownLiuShaw2014407_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTignorBrownLiuShaw2014">Tignor et al. 2014</a>, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler199825-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiegler199825_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZiegler1998">Ziegler 1998</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/plague/maps/index.html">"Maps and Statistics: Plague in the United States"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. 25 November 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200408090846/https://www.cdc.gov/plague/maps/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=Maps+and+Statistics%3A+Plague+in+the+United+States&rft.date=2019-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fplague%2Fmaps%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrizabalaga2010-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrizabalaga2010_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArrizabalaga2010">Arrizabalaga 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYersin1894" class="citation journal cs1">Yersin A (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58345103/f54">"La peste bubonique a Hong-Kong"</a>. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur: Journal de microbiologie. 8 (9): 662–67. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-2444">0020-2444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200412092843/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58345103/f54">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020 – via Gallica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+l%27Institut+Pasteur%3A+Journal+de+microbiologie&rft.atitle=La+peste+bubonique+a+Hong-Kong&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=662-67&rft.date=1894&rft.issn=0020-2444&rft.aulast=Yersin&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k58345103%2Ff54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimond1898" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Simond, P.-L. (October 1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/22266#page/633/mode/1up">"La propagation de la peste"</a> [The spread of the plague]. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur (in French). 12 (10): 625–687. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240718010607/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/22266#page/633/mode/1up">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+l%27Institut+Pasteur&rft.atitle=La+propagation+de+la+peste&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=625-687&rft.date=1898-10&rft.aulast=Simond&rft.aufirst=P.-L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F22266%23page%2F633%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> From p. 674: "Nous avon pratiqué un certain nombre de fois l'examen microscopique du contenu intestinal des puces recueillies sur les rats spontanément pestiférés, et dans plusieurs cas nous avons constaté la présence d'un bacille morphologiquement semblable à celui de la peste." ("We carried out a number of times microscopic examinations of the intestinal contents of fleas [which were] collected from rats [which had become] infected with plague, and in several cases we noted the presence of a bacillus [which was] morphologically similar to that of the plague.") </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrancourtAboudharamSignoliDutour1998" class="citation journal cs1">Drancourt M, Aboudharam G, Signoli M, Dutour O, Raoult D (October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC22883">"Detection of 400-year-old Yersinia pestis DNA in human dental pulp: an approach to the diagnosis of ancient septicemia"</a>. 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The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140330010701/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/29/black-death-not-spread-rat-fleas-london-plague">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Black+death+was+not+spread+by+rat+fleas%2C+say+researchers&rft.date=2014-03-29&rft.aulast=Vanessa&rft.aufirst=Thorpe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2014%2Fmar%2F29%2Fblack-death-not-spread-rat-fleas-london-plague&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2014" class="citation news cs1">Morgan J (30 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26770334">"Black Death skeletons unearthed by Crossrail project"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171225001808/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26770334">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 20 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Black+Death+skeletons+unearthed+by+Crossrail+project&rft.date=2014-03-30&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-26770334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2022" class="citation web cs1">Hunt, Katie (15 June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/15/health/black-death-plague-source-identified-scn/index.html">"DNA analysis reveals source of Black Death"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220618150441/https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/15/health/black-death-plague-source-identified-scn/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DNA+analysis+reveals+source+of+Black+Death&rft.pub=CNN&rft.date=2022-06-15&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2022%2F06%2F15%2Fhealth%2Fblack-death-plague-source-identified-scn%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler1998233-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiegler1998233_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZiegler1998">Ziegler 1998</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarino2018" class="citation news cs1">Guarino B (16 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/01/16/the-classic-explanation-for-the-black-death-plague-is-wrong-scientists-say/">"The classic explanation for the Black Death plague is wrong, scientists say"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180122005044/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/01/16/the-classic-explanation-for-the-black-death-plague-is-wrong-scientists-say/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+classic+explanation+for+the+Black+Death+plague+is+wrong%2C+scientists+say&rft.date=2018-01-16&rft.aulast=Guarino&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fspeaking-of-science%2Fwp%2F2018%2F01%2F16%2Fthe-classic-explanation-for-the-black-death-plague-is-wrong-scientists-say%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRettner2018" class="citation news cs1">Rettner R (17 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/61444-black-death-cause-found-transmission.html">"Rats May Not Be to Blame for Spreading the 'Black Death'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Live_Science" title="Live Science">Live Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004408/https://www.livescience.com/61444-black-death-cause-found-transmission.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rats+May+Not+Be+to+Blame+for+Spreading+the+%27Black+Death%27&rft.date=2018-01-17&rft.aulast=Rettner&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F61444-black-death-cause-found-transmission.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalløe200869-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalløe200869_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalløe2008">Walløe 2008</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2011" class="citation news cs1">Kennedy M (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/17/black-death-rats-off-hook">"Black Death study lets rats off the hook"</a>. The Guardian. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2829-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2829-1"><bdi>978-0-7524-2829-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130827191239/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/17/black-death-rats-off-hook">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Black+Death+study+lets+rats+off+the+hook&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2829-1&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2011%2Faug%2F17%2Fblack-death-rats-off-hook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESloane2011-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESloane2011_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSloane2011">Sloane 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeanKrauerWalløeLingjærde2018-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeanKrauerWalløeLingjærde2018_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeanKrauerWalløeLingjærde2018">Dean et al. 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Byrne2004pp21-9_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byrne2004pp21-9_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byrne2004pp21-9_75-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFByrne2004">Byrne 2004</a>, pp. 21–29 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnowden201950–51-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnowden201950–51_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSnowden2019">Snowden 2019</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060">"Erratum to: The Path to Pistoia: Urban Hygiene Before the Black Death"</a>. Past & Present (251): e2. 14 November 2019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060">10.1093/pastj/gtz060</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Erratum+to%3A+The+Path+to+Pistoia%3A+Urban+Hygiene+Before+the+Black+Death&rft.issue=251&rft.pages=e2&rft.date=2019-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fpastj%252Fgtz060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly2006">Kelly 2006</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17,_68-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly200616–17,_68_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly2006">Kelly 2006</a>, pp. 16–17, 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly200671–72-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly200671–72_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly2006">Kelly 2006</a>, pp. 71–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordqvist2010" class="citation web cs1">Nordqvist C (1 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/206309#1">"Origins Of The Black Death Traced Back To China, Gene Sequencing Has Revealed"</a>. Medicalnewstoday.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220717060853/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/206309">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medicalnewstoday.com&rft.atitle=Origins+Of+The+Black+Death+Traced+Back+To+China%2C+Gene+Sequencing+Has+Revealed&rft.date=2010-11-01&rft.aulast=Nordqvist&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F206309%231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wade" title="Nicholas Wade">Wade N</a> (31 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html">"Europe's Plagues Came From China, Study Finds"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101104083917/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2020. <q>The great waves of plague that twice devastated Europe and changed the course of history had their origins in China, a team of medical geneticists reported Sunday, as did a third plague outbreak that struck less harmfully in the 19th century. ... In the issue of <a href="/wiki/Nature_Genetics" title="Nature Genetics">Nature Genetics</a> published online Sunday, they conclude that all three of the great waves of plague originated from China, where the root of their tree is situated. ... The likely origin of the plague in China has nothing to do with its people or crowded cities, Dr. Achtman said. The bacterium has no interest in people, whom it slaughters by accident. Its natural hosts are various species of rodent such as marmots and voles, which are found throughout China.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Europe%27s+Plagues+Came+From+China%2C+Study+Finds&rft.date=2010-10-31&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F11%2F01%2Fhealth%2F01plague.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010">Morelli et al. 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid29073248-84"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid29073248_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEroshenkoNosovKrasnovOglodin2017" class="citation journal cs1">Eroshenko GA, Nosov NY, Krasnov YM, Oglodin YG, Kukleva LM, Guseva NP, et al. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5658180">"Yersinia pestis strains of ancient phylogenetic branch 0.ANT are widely spread in the high-mountain plague foci of Kyrgyzstan"</a>. PLOS ONE. 12 (10): e0187230. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PLoSO..1287230E">2017PLoSO..1287230E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0187230">10.1371/journal.pone.0187230</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5658180">5658180</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29073248">29073248</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Yersinia+pestis+strains+of+ancient+phylogenetic+branch+0.ANT+are+widely+spread+in+the+high-mountain+plague+foci+of+Kyrgyzstan&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e0187230&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5658180%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29073248&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0187230&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PLoSO..1287230E&rft.aulast=Eroshenko&rft.aufirst=GA&rft.au=Nosov%2C+NY&rft.au=Krasnov%2C+YM&rft.au=Oglodin%2C+YG&rft.au=Kukleva%2C+LM&rft.au=Guseva%2C+NP&rft.au=Kuznetsov%2C+AA&rft.au=Abdikarimov%2C+ST&rft.au=Dzhaparova%2C+AK&rft.au=Kutyrev%2C+VV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5658180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin2019-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavin2019_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavin2019_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavin2019_85-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSlavin2019">Slavin 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-spyrou-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spyrou_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-spyrou_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpyrouTukhbatovaFeldmanDrath2016" class="citation journal cs1">Spyrou MA, Tukhbatova RI, Feldman M, Drath J, Kacki S, Beltrán de Heredia J, et al. (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chom.2016.05.012">"Historical Y. pestis Genomes Reveal the European Black Death as the Source of Ancient and Modern Plague Pandemics"</a>. Cell Host & Microbe. 19 (6): 874–881. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chom.2016.05.012">10.1016/j.chom.2016.05.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27281573">27281573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Host+%26+Microbe&rft.atitle=Historical+Y.+pestis+Genomes+Reveal+the+European+Black+Death+as+the+Source+of+Ancient+and+Modern+Plague+Pandemics&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=874-881&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chom.2016.05.012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27281573&rft.aulast=Spyrou&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Tukhbatova%2C+RI&rft.au=Feldman%2C+M&rft.au=Drath%2C+J&rft.au=Kacki%2C+S&rft.au=Beltr%C3%A1n+de+Heredia%2C+J&rft.au=Arnold%2C+S&rft.au=Sitdikov%2C+AG&rft.au=Castex%2C+D&rft.au=Wahl%2C+J&rft.au=Gazimzyanov%2C+IR&rft.au=Nurgaliev%2C+DK&rft.au=Herbig%2C+A&rft.au=Bos%2C+KI&rft.au=Krause%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.chom.2016.05.012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-telegraph_china-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_china_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_china_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_china_87-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_china_87-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2010" class="citation news cs1">Moore M (1 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8102278/Black-Death-may-have-originated-in-China.html">"Black Death may have originated in China"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018235115/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8102278/Black-Death-may-have-originated-in-China.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Black+Death+may+have+originated+in+China&rft.date=2010-11-01&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fchina%2F8102278%2FBlack-Death-may-have-originated-in-China.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreighton1891" class="citation book cs1">Creighton C (1891). A History of Epidemics in Britain. Cambridge: At the University Press. p. 153.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Epidemics+in+Britain&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=At+the+University+Press&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Creighton&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_89-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_89-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_89-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSussman2011">Sussman 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2008" class="citation book cs1">Kohn GC (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA31">Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6935-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6935-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-6935-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331195953/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA31">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+plague+and+pestilence%3A+from+ancient+times+to+the+present&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6935-4&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=GC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzRwRmb09rgC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHecker1859">Hecker 1859</a>, p. 21 cited by Ziegler, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011328-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011328_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011328_92-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSussman2011">Sussman 2011</a>, p. 328. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448–49-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448–49_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2004">Benedictow 2004</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450–51-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450–51_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2004">Benedictow 2004</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn2016440-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn2016440_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvon_Glahn2016">von Glahn 2016</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2020-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2020_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2020">Green 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1847" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Baker G (1847) [1350]. Gilles AJ (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galfridilebaker00gilegoog/page/n27">Galfridi Le Baker de Swinbroke, Chronicon Angliae temporibus Edwardi II et Edwardi III</a> (in Latin and English). Londini: apud Jacobum Bohn. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/08014593">08014593</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6996785M">6996785M</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galfridilebaker00gilegoog">the original</a> on 3 August 2008 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galfridi+Le+Baker+de+Swinbroke%2C+Chronicon+Angliae+temporibus+Edwardi+II+et+Edwardi+III&rft.place=Londini&rft.pub=apud+Jacobum+Bohn&rft.date=1847&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6996785M%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F08014593&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalfridilebaker00gilegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWheelis2002">Wheelis 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarrasGreub2014">Barras & Greub 2014</a>"In the Middle Ages, a famous although controversial example is offered by the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caffa" title="Siege of Caffa">siege of Caffa</a> (now Feodossia in Ukraine/Crimea), a Genovese outpost on the Black Sea coast, by the Mongols. In 1346, the attacking army experienced an epidemic of bubonic plague. The Italian chronicler Gabriele de' Mussi, in his Istoria de Morbo sive Mortalitate quae fuit Anno Domini 1348, describes quite plausibly how plague was transmitted by the Mongols by throwing diseased cadavers with catapults into the besieged city, and how ships transporting Genovese soldiers, fleas and rats fleeing from there brought it to the Mediterranean ports. Given the highly complex epidemiology of plague, this interpretation of the Black Death (which might have killed >25 million people in the following years throughout Europe) as stemming from a specific and localized origin of the Black Death remains controversial. Similarly, it remains doubtful whether the effect of throwing infected cadavers could have been the sole cause of the outburst of an epidemic in the besieged city." </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2012" class="citation book cs1">Byrne JP (2012). "Caffa (Kaffa, Fyodosia), Ukraine". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC">Encyclopedia of the Black Death</a>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-253-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-253-1"><bdi>978-1-59884-253-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604122924/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caffa+%28Kaffa%2C+Fyodosia%29%2C+Ukraine&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-253-1&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=JP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KtDfvlSrDAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_101-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_101-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2012" class="citation book cs1">Byrne JP (2012). "Constantinople/Istanbul". Encyclopedia of the Black Death. Santa Barbara, California.: ABC-CLIO. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-254-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-254-8"><bdi>978-1-59884-254-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/769344478">769344478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constantinople%2FIstanbul&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California.&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769344478&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-254-8&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=JP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Michael of Piazza (Platiensis) Bibliotheca scriptorum qui res in Sicilia gestas retulere Vol 1, p. 562, cited in Ziegler, 1998, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> De Smet, Vol II, Breve Chronicon, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarlsson2000">Karlsson 2000</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2012" class="citation book cs1">Byrne, Joseph P. (16 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FkzEEAAAQBAJ">Encyclopedia of the Black Death</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-254-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-254-8"><bdi>978-1-59884-254-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2012-01-16&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-254-8&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFkzEEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belich-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belich_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belich_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelich2024" class="citation book cs1">Belich, James (25 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P3frEAAAQBAJ">The World the Plague Made: The Black Death and the Rise of Europe</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-21916-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-21916-5"><bdi>978-0-691-21916-5</bdi></a>. <q>Northern Russia was hit in 1352, beginning in towns close to the Baltic, Novgorod, and Pskov, and reaching Moscow in 1353.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+the+Plague+Made%3A+The+Black+Death+and+the+Rise+of+Europe&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2024-06-25&rft.isbn=978-0-691-21916-5&rft.aulast=Belich&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP3frEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuchora-Walske2013">Zuchora-Walske 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelfordBossak2010-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelfordBossak2010_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWelfordBossak2010">Welford & Bossak 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisRoosen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Curtis DR, Roosen J (October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6667914">"The sex-selective impact of the Black Death and recurring plagues in the Southern Netherlands, 1349-1450"</a>. 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Nature Medicine. 11 (9): 927–928. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm0905-927">10.1038/nm0905-927</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16145573">16145573</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31060258">31060258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+plague+upon+the+phagocytes&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=927-928&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31060258%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16145573&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm0905-927&rft.aulast=DeLeo&rft.aufirst=FR&rft.au=Hinnebusch%2C+BJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnm0905-927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickPringleSloaneCarver2015" class="citation journal cs1">Dick HC, Pringle JK, Sloane B, Carver J, Wisniewski KD, Haffenden A, et al. 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London: George Bell and Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+of+1348+and+1349&rft.place=London&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=George+Bell+and+Sons&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Gasquet&rft.aufirst=FA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackdeathof1908gasq%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbertCuccuiWhiteLynnerup2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert MT, Cuccui J, White W, Lynnerup N, Titball RW, Cooper A, Prentice MB (February 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.26594-0">"Absence of Yersinia pestis-specific DNA in human teeth from five European excavations of putative plague victims"</a>. Microbiology. 150 (Pt 2): 341–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.26594-0">10.1099/mic.0.26594-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14766912">14766912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology&rft.atitle=Absence+of+Yersinia+pestis-specific+DNA+in+human+teeth+from+five+European+excavations+of+putative+plague+victims&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=Pt+2&rft.pages=341-354&rft.date=2004-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fmic.0.26594-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14766912&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=MT&rft.au=Cuccui%2C+J&rft.au=White%2C+W&rft.au=Lynnerup%2C+N&rft.au=Titball%2C+RW&rft.au=Cooper%2C+A&rft.au=Prentice%2C+MB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252Fmic.0.26594-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Glahn2016" class="citation cs2">von Glahn R (2016), The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+China%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=von+Glahn&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Green M (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17302%2FTMG.1-1.3">"Taking 'Pandemic' Seriously: Making the Black Death Global"</a>. 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(October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6775055">"Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes"</a>. Nature Communications. 10 (1): 4470. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatCo..10.4470S">2019NatCo..10.4470S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-019-12154-0">10.1038/s41467-019-12154-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6775055">6775055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31578321">31578321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Phylogeography+of+the+second+plague+pandemic+revealed+through+analysis+of+historical+Yersinia+pestis+genomes&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4470&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6775055%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31578321&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-019-12154-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatCo..10.4470S&rft.aulast=Spyrou&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Keller%2C+M&rft.au=Tukhbatova%2C+RI&rft.au=Scheib%2C+CL&rft.au=Nelson%2C+EA&rft.au=Andrades+Valtue%C3%B1a%2C+A&rft.au=Neumann%2C+GU&rft.au=Walker%2C+D&rft.au=Alterauge%2C+A&rft.au=Carty%2C+N&rft.au=Cessford%2C+C&rft.au=Fetz%2C+H&rft.au=Gourvennec%2C+M&rft.au=Hartle%2C+R&rft.au=Henderson%2C+M&rft.au=von+Heyking%2C+K&rft.au=Inskip%2C+SA&rft.au=Kacki%2C+S&rft.au=Key%2C+FM&rft.au=Knox%2C+EL&rft.au=Later%2C+C&rft.au=Maheshwari-Aplin%2C+P&rft.au=Peters%2C+J&rft.au=Robb%2C+JE&rft.au=Schreiber%2C+J&rft.au=Kivisild%2C+T&rft.au=Castex%2C+D&rft.au=L%C3%B6sch%2C+S&rft.au=Harbeck%2C+M&rft.au=Herbig%2C+A&rft.au=Bos%2C+KI&rft.au=Krause%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6775055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSussman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sussman GD (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academicworks.cuny.edu/lg_pubs/52">"Was the black death in India and China?"</a>. 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A Distant Mirror. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-40026-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-40026-7"><bdi>0-394-40026-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Distant+Mirror&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-394-40026-7&rft.aulast=Tuchman&rft.aufirst=B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagnerKlunkHarbeckDevault2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wagner DM, Klunk J, Harbeck M, Devault A, Waglechner N, Sahl JW, et al. (April 2014). "Yersinia pestis and the plague of Justinian 541-543 AD: a genomic analysis". The Lancet. 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Supplement. 27 (27): 59–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300072094">10.1017/S0025727300072094</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2632865">2632865</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18575082">18575082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History.+Supplement&rft.atitle=Medieval+and+modern+bubonic+plague%3A+some+clinical+continuities&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=59-73&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2632865%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18575082&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300072094&rft.aulast=Wall%C3%B8e&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2632865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelfordBossak2010" class="citation journal cs1">Welford M, Bossak BH (June 2010). "Revisiting the Medieval Black Death of 1347-1351: Spatiotemporal Dynamics Suggestive of an Alternate Causation: Black death spatiotemporal dynamics". Geography Compass. 4 (6): 561–575. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8198.2010.00335.x">10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00335.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geography+Compass&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+Medieval+Black+Death+of+1347-1351%3A+Spatiotemporal+Dynamics+Suggestive+of+an+Alternate+Causation%3A+Black+death+spatiotemporal+dynamics&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=561-575&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8198.2010.00335.x&rft.aulast=Welford&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Bossak%2C+BH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wheelis M (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">"Biological warfare at the 1346 siege of Caffa"</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (9): 971–975. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0809.010536">10.3201/eid0809.010536</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">2732530</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12194776">12194776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Biological+warfare+at+the+1346+siege+of+Caffa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=971-975&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12194776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0809.010536&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiegler1998" class="citation book cs1">Ziegler P (1998). The Black Death. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-027524-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-027524-7"><bdi>978-0-14-027524-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-14-027524-7&rft.aulast=Ziegler&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"> 1st editions 1969.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuchora-Walske2013" class="citation book cs1">Zuchora-Walske C (2013). Poland. North Mankato: ABDO Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61783-634-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61783-634-3"><bdi>978-1-61783-634-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland&rft.place=North+Mankato&rft.pub=ABDO+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61783-634-3&rft.aulast=Zuchora-Walske&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfanoSgobbi2022" class="citation journal cs1">Alfano V, Sgobbi M (January 2022). "A fame, peste et bello libera nos Domine: An Analysis of the Black Death in Chioggia in 1630". Journal of Family History. 47 (1): 24–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F03631990211000615">10.1177/03631990211000615</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233671164">233671164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Family+History&rft.atitle=A+fame%2C+peste+et+bello+libera+nos+Domine%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Black+Death+in+Chioggia+in+1630&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-40&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F03631990211000615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233671164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alfano&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Sgobbi%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2016" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong D (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/the-black-death-the-worlds-most-devastating-plague.html">The Black Death: The World's Most Devastating Plague</a>. The Great Courses. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B01FWOO2G6">B01FWOO2G6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161018203714/http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/the-black-death-the-worlds-most-devastating-plague.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death%3A+The+World%27s+Most+Devastating+Plague&rft.pub=The+Great+Courses&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB01FWOO2G6%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegreatcourses.com%2Fcourses%2Fthe-black-death-the-worlds-most-devastating-plague.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2021" class="citation book cs1">Bailey M (2021). After the Black Death: Economy, society, and the law in fourteenth-century England. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-259973-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-259973-5"><bdi>978-0-19-259973-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Black+Death%3A+Economy%2C+society%2C+and+the+law+in+fourteenth-century+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-259973-5&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2021" class="citation journal cs1">Barker H (2021). "Laying the Corpses to Rest: Grain, Embargoes, and Yersinia pestis in the Black Sea, 1346–48". Speculum. 96 (1): 97–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F711596">10.1086/711596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229344364">229344364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Laying+the+Corpses+to+Rest%3A+Grain%2C+Embargoes%2C+and+Yersinia+pestis+in+the+Black+Sea%2C+1346%E2%80%9348&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-126&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F711596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229344364%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantor_NF2015" class="citation book cs1">Cantor NF (2015) [2001]. 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A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles. Cambridge Univ Pr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02247-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02247-7"><bdi>978-0-521-02247-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Bubonic+Plague+in+the+British+Isles.&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ+Pr&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-02247-7&rft.aulast=Shrewsbury&rft.aufirst=JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwigg1985" class="citation book cs1">Twigg G (1985). The Black Death : a biological reappraisal (1st American ed.). New York: Schocken Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-4618-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-4618-0"><bdi>978-0-7134-4618-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+%3A+a+biological+reappraisal&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+American&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-4618-0&rft.aulast=Twigg&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Death" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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pandemic">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_migration" title="Black Death migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_the_Black_Death" title="Theories of the Black Death">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death" title="Consequences of the Black Death">Consequences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:14th-century_deaths_from_plague_(disease)" title="Category:14th-century deaths from plague (disease)">Notable deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Persecution of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronaca_fiorentina_di_Marchionne_di_Coppo_Stefani" title="Cronaca fiorentina di Marchionne di Coppo Stefani">Cronaca fiorentina di Marchionne di Coppo Stefani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_medieval_culture" title="Black Death in medieval culture">In medieval culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Denmark" title="Black Death in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_France" title="Black Death in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Black Death in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Italy" title="Black Death in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_the_Middle_East" title="Black Death in the Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Norway" title="Black Death in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Poland" title="Black Death in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Russia" title="Black Death in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Spain" title="Black Death in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_Sweden" title="Black Death in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Black_Death" title="Category:Black Death">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epidemics" title="Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epidemics" title="Template talk:Epidemics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pandemics,_epidemics_and_notable_disease_outbreaks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> and notable <a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">disease outbreaks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List of epidemics and pandemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_plague" title="Hittite plague">Hittite plague</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1330 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">Plague of Athens</a> (429–426 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> (165–180 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> (250–266)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post- classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> (541–542)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Plague_of_590" title="Roman Plague of 590">Roman Plague</a> (590)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Sheroe" title="Plague of Sheroe">Plague of Sheroe</a> (627–628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas" title="Plague of Amwas">Plague of Amwas</a> (638–639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_664" title="Plague of 664">Plague of 664</a> (664–689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/735%E2%80%93737_Japanese_smallpox_epidemic" title="735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic">Japanese smallpox</a> (735–737)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweating_sickness" title="Sweating sickness">Sweating sickness</a> (1485–1551)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox_in_Mexico" title="History of smallpox in Mexico">Mexican smallpox</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoliztli_epidemics" title="Cocoliztli epidemics">"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico</a> (1545, 1576)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1563_London_plague" title="1563 London plague">London plague</a> (1563–1564)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1592–1593 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_London_plague" title="1592–1593 London plague">London plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1603_London_plague" title="1603 London plague">London plague</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1623_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1623 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague" title="1629–1631 Italian plague">Italian plague</a> (1629–1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_smallpox_epidemic" title="Massachusetts smallpox epidemic">Massachusetts smallpox</a> (1633)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty</a> (1633–1644)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Seville" title="Great Plague of Seville">Great Plague of Seville</a> (1647–1652)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1655_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1655 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_Plague_(1656)" title="Naples Plague (1656)">Naples Plague</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague of London</a> (1665–1666)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1675%E2%80%931676_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1675–1676 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1675–1676)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Vienna" title="Great Plague of Vienna">Great Plague of Vienna</a> (1679)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1707%E2%80%9308_Iceland_smallpox_epidemic" title="1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic">Iceland smallpox epidemic</a> (1707–1708)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War_plague_outbreak" title="Great Northern War plague outbreak">Great Northern War plague</a> (1710–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Marseille" title="Great Plague of Marseille">Great Plague of Marseille</a> (1720–1722)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_1738" title="Great Plague of 1738">Great Plague of 1738</a> (1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1770%E2%80%931772_Russian_plague" title="1770–1772 Russian plague">Russian plague</a> (1770–1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1772%E2%80%931773_Persian_Plague" title="1772–1773 Persian Plague">Persian Plague</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1775%E2%80%931782_North_American_smallpox_epidemic" title="1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic">North American smallpox</a> (1780–1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic">Philadelphia yellow fever</a> (1793–1798)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1812%E2%80%931819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic" title="1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic">Ottoman plague</a> (1812–1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1813%E2%80%931814_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1813–1814 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1813–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caragea%27s_plague" title="Caragea's plague">Caragea's plague</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_epidemic" title="Groningen epidemic">Groningen epidemic</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1837_Great_Plains_smallpox_epidemic" title="1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic">Great Plains smallpox</a> (1837–1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1847_North_American_typhus_epidemic" title="1847 North American typhus epidemic">Typhus</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Copenhagen_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak">Copenhagen cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Stockholm_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak">Stockholm cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">Broad Street cholera</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_Guam_smallpox_epidemic" title="1856 Guam smallpox epidemic">Guam smallpox</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1862_Pacific_Northwest_smallpox_epidemic" title="1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic">Pacific Northwest smallpox</a> (1862–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Barcelona_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic">Barcelona yellow fever</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_in_Buenos_Aires" title="Yellow fever in Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires yellow fever</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague" title="1894 Hong Kong plague">Hong Kong plague</a> (1894)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_plague_of_1900%E2%80%931904" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco plague of 1900–1904">San Francisco plague</a> (1900–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a> (1910–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Los_Angeles_pneumonic_plague_outbreak" title="1924 Los Angeles pneumonic plague outbreak">LA pneumonic plague</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croydon_typhoid_outbreak_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Croydon typhoid outbreak of 1937">Croydon typhoid</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_New_York_City_smallpox_outbreak" title="1947 New York City smallpox outbreak">NYC smallpox</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_smallpox_epidemic_in_Wroc%C5%82aw" title="1963 smallpox epidemic in Wrocław">Wrocław smallpox</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Yugoslav_smallpox_outbreak" title="1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak">Yugoslav smallpox</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_flu" title="London flu">London flu</a> (1972–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_smallpox_epidemic_in_India" title="1974 smallpox epidemic in India">Indian smallpox</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_plague_in_India" title="1994 plague in India">Surat plague</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Malaysia_Nipah_virus_outbreak" title="1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak">Malaysian Nipah virus</a> (1998–1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS</a> (2002–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Midwest_monkeypox_outbreak" title="2003 Midwest monkeypox outbreak">Midwest monkeypox</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Bird flu</a> (2003–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2005 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_India" title="2006 dengue outbreak in India">Indian dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_chikungunya" title="Epidemiology of chikungunya">Chikungunya outbreaks</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2006 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Iraq_cholera_outbreak" title="2007 Iraq cholera outbreak">Iraqi cholera</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_cholera_outbreak" title="2008 Zimbabwean cholera outbreak">Zimbabwean cholera</a> (2008–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2008–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Bolivian_dengue_fever_epidemic" title="2009 Bolivian dengue fever epidemic">Bolivian dengue</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Gujarat_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak">Gujarat hepatitis</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009%E2%80%932010_West_African_meningitis_outbreak" title="2009–2010 West African meningitis outbreak">Western African meningitis</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_Haiti_cholera_outbreak" title="2010s Haiti cholera outbreak">Haiti cholera</a> (2010–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2011 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_yellow_fever_outbreak_in_Darfur,_Sudan" title="2012 yellow fever outbreak in Darfur, Sudan">Darfur yellow fever</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 MERS outbreak">MERS</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2013 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Swansea_measles_epidemic" title="2013 Swansea measles epidemic">Swansea measles</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_chikungunya_outbreak" title="2013–2014 chikungunya outbreak">Chikungunya</a> (2013–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western African Ebola virus epidemic">Western African Ebola</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Ebola_virus_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak">DR Congo Ebola</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Odisha_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2014 Odisha hepatitis outbreak">Odisha hepatitis</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_eradication#2011–2015" title="Polio eradication">Polio declaration</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Indian_swine_flu_outbreak" title="2015 Indian swine flu outbreak">Indian swine flu</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_MERS_outbreak_in_South_Korea" title="2015 MERS outbreak in South Korea">South Korean MERS</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Zika_virus_epidemic" title="2015–16 Zika virus epidemic">Zika</a> (2015–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Angola_and_DR_Congo_yellow_fever_outbreak" title="2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak">Angolan yellow fever</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%932022_Yemen_cholera_outbreak" title="2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak">Yemeni cholera</a> (2016–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Gorakhpur_hospital_deaths" title="2017 Gorakhpur hospital deaths">Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 MERS outbreak">Saudi Arabian MERS</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus_outbreaks_in_Kerala#2018_outbreak" title="Nipah virus outbreaks in Kerala">Kerala Nipah virus</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_%C3%89quateur_province_Ebola_outbreak" title="2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak">Équateur province Ebola</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic" title="Kivu Ebola epidemic">Kivu Ebola</a> (2018–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Madagascar_measles_outbreak" title="2018 Madagascar measles outbreak">Madagascar measles</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Samoa_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Samoa measles outbreak">Samoa measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_measles_outbreak_in_the_Philippines" title="2019 measles outbreak in the Philippines">Philippine measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Pacific_Northwest_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Pacific Northwest measles outbreak">Pacific NW measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_New_York_measles_outbreak" title="2019 New York measles outbreak">New York measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Kuala_Koh_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Kuala Koh measles outbreak">Kuala Koh measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Tonga_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Tonga measles outbreak">Tonga measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_measles_outbreak_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="2019–2020 measles outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DRC measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_New_Zealand_measles_outbreak" title="2019–2020 New Zealand measles outbreak">New Zealand measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2020 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022-2023_Uganda_Ebola_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2022-2023 Uganda Ebola outbreak">Uganda Ebola</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_dengue_outbreak_in_Jamaica" title="2023 dengue outbreak in Jamaica">Jamaica dengue</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Bangsamoro_measles_outbreak" title="2023–2024 Bangsamoro measles outbreak">Bangsamoro measles</a> (2023–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_outbreak_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="2024 dengue outbreak in Latin America and the Caribbean">2024 Latin American dengue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_epidemic_in_Argentina" title="2024 dengue epidemic in Argentina">Argentina</a> (2024)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First plague pandemic</a> (541–767)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a> (1348–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">First cholera pandemic</a> (1816–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">Second cholera pandemic</a> (1829–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1846%E2%80%931860_cholera_pandemic" title="1846–1860 cholera pandemic">Third cholera pandemic</a> (1852–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a> (1855–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic" title="1863–1875 cholera pandemic">Fourth cholera pandemic</a> (1863–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">Fifth cholera pandemic</a> (1881–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">Russian flu</a> (1889–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">Sixth cholera pandemic</a> (1899–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919%E2%80%931930_encephalitis_lethargica_epidemic" title="1919–1930 encephalitis lethargica epidemic">encephalitis lethargica epidemic</a> (1919–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">Asian flu</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_cholera_pandemic" title="Seventh cholera pandemic">Seventh cholera pandemic</a> (1961–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu</a> (1968–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">Russian flu pandemic</a> (1977–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked during 2020-23">*</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_mpox_outbreak" title="2022–2023 mpox outbreak">Mpox (clade II) outbreak</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_mpox_epidemic" title="2023–2024 mpox epidemic">Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic</a> (2023–2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template talk:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_leprosy" title="History of leprosy">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plague" title="History of plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_polio" title="History of polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox" title="History of smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_syphilis" title="History of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_typhoid_fever" title="History of typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Jacob_Kligler" title="Israel Jacob Kligler">Israel Jacob Kligler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Major epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked from 2020-2023">*</abbr>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery of disease-causing pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox eradication">Smallpox eradication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses" title="Social history of viruses">Social history of viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42005#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/833602/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85014548">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124641040">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124641040">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007283124505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/033822263">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ireland_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ireland_topics" title="Template:Ireland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ireland_topics" title="Template talk:Ireland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ireland_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ireland topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ireland_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ireland-related_topics" title="List of Ireland-related topics">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Outline of the Republic of Ireland">topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Northern_Ireland%E2%80%93related_topics" title="List of Northern Ireland–related topics">topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_history" title="Timeline of Irish history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory_of_Ireland" title="Protohistory of Ireland">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">1536–1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1691%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Ireland (1691–1800)">1691–1800</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1801%E2%80%931923)" title="History of Ireland (1801–1923)">1801–1923</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Republic" title="Irish Republic">Irish Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ireland_(1921%E2%80%931922)" title="Southern Ireland (1921–1922)">Southern Ireland (1921–1922)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> (1921–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">since 1922</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State (1922–1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland (since 1922)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(Ireland)" title="Battle of Tara (Ireland)">Battles of Tara</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmama" title="Battle of Glenmama">Glenmama</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf" title="Battle of Clontarf">Clontarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" title="Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_campaign_in_Ireland" title="Bruce campaign in Ireland">Bruce campaign</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Rebellions" title="Desmond Rebellions">Desmond Rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada_in_Ireland" title="Spanish Armada in Ireland">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Tyrone's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls" title="Flight of the Earls">Flight of the Earls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster" title="Plantation of Ulster">Plantation of Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">1641 Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Confederate War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest</a> / <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Settlement of 1652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_(Ireland)" title="Penal laws (Ireland)">Penal Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)" title="Irish Famine (1740–1741)">First Great Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">1798 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Act of Union (1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_rebellion_of_1803" title="Irish rebellion of 1803">1803 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe_War" title="Tithe War">Tithe War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Second Great Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_War" title="Land War">Land War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_Rising" title="Fenian Rising">Fenian Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_lock-out" title="Dublin lock-out">Dublin lock-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1914" title="Government of Ireland Act 1914">Home Rule crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Anglo-Irish Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Civil_War" title="Irish Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)" title="Northern campaign (Irish Republican Army)">IRA Northern Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)" title="Border campaign (Irish Republican Army)">IRA Border Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process" title="Northern Ireland peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Economy of the Republic of Ireland">Economy of the Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Tiger" title="Celtic Tiger">Celtic Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_economic_downturn" title="Post-2008 Irish economic downturn">Post-2008 Irish economic downturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_banking_crisis" title="Post-2008 Irish banking crisis">Post-2008 Irish banking crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Ireland" title="List of conflicts in Ireland">List of conflicts in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes#Goidels_/_Gaels_/_Hibernians" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">List of Irish tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_kingdoms" title="List of Irish kingdoms">List of Irish kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_High_Kings_of_Ireland" title="List of High Kings of Ireland">List of High Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland#Dress" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic clothing and fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland">List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Ireland" title="Geography of Ireland">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Ireland" title="Climate of Ireland">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Climate change in the Republic of Ireland">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_landforms_of_Ireland" title="Coastal landforms of Ireland">Coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Ireland" title="Extreme points of Ireland">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Ireland" title="Fauna of Ireland">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Ireland" title="List of islands of Ireland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loughs_of_Ireland" title="List of loughs of Ireland">Loughs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_in_Ireland" title="Lists of mountains in Ireland">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_of_Ireland" title="Rivers of Ireland">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Ireland" title="List of rivers of Ireland">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of national parks of the Republic of Ireland">List of national parks of the Republic of Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_the_United_Kingdom#National_parks_in_Northern_Ireland" title="National parks of the United Kingdom">in Northern Ireland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Ireland" title="Architecture of Ireland">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buildings_in_Ireland" title="List of buildings in Ireland">Notable buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Ireland" title="List of tallest structures in Ireland">Tallest buildings and structures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_Ireland" title="City status in Ireland">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland" title="Counties of Ireland">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Demographics of the Republic of Ireland">Demographics of the Republic of Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Demographics of Northern Ireland">of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_Ireland" title="List of ports in Ireland">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland" title="Provinces of Ireland">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border" title="Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border">ROI–UK border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_towns_in_Ireland" title="Lists of towns in Ireland">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Tourism in the Republic of Ireland">Tourism in the Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Ireland" title="List of tourist attractions in Ireland">Tourist attractions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ireland" title="Transport in Ireland">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Politics of the Republic of Ireland">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_loyalism" title="Ulster loyalism">Ulster loyalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland" title="Unionism in Ireland">Unionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Politics of the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland" title="Constitution of Ireland">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Economy of the Republic of Ireland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Ireland" title="Foreign relations of Ireland">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland" title="Government of Ireland">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Local government in the Republic of Ireland">local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Law of the Republic of Ireland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Republic of Ireland">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oireachtas" title="Oireachtas">Oireachtas parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann" title="Dáil Éireann">Dáil Éireann (lower house)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann" title="Seanad Éireann">Seanad Éireann (upper house)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Ireland" title="President of Ireland">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Taxation in the Republic of Ireland">Taxation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%27Hondt_method" title="D'Hondt method">D'Hondt method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Education in Northern Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Northern_Ireland" title="LGBT rights in Northern Ireland">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process" title="Northern Ireland peace process">Peace process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_cuisine" title="Irish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_dishes" title="List of Irish dishes">List of dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barmbrack" title="Barmbrack">Barmbrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacon_and_cabbage" title="Bacon and cabbage">Bacon and cabbage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxty" title="Boxty">Boxty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_(food)" title="Champ (food)">Champ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coddle" title="Coddle">Coddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colcannon" title="Colcannon">Colcannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drisheen" title="Drisheen">Drisheen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_breakfast#Ireland" title="Full breakfast">Irish fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skirts_and_kidneys" title="Skirts and kidneys">Skirts and kidneys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread">Soda bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_bag" title="Spice bag">Spice Bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_stew" title="Irish stew">Stew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-in-1_(fast_food_dish)" title="3-in-1 (fast food dish)">Three-in-One</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Drinks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_coffee" title="Irish coffee">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cream" title="Irish cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinness" title="Guinness">Guinness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mist" title="Irish Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poit%C3%ADn" title="Poitín">Poitín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_breakfast_tea" title="Irish breakfast tea">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_whiskey" title="Irish whiskey">Whiskey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_dance" title="Irish dance">Dance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jig" title="Jig">Jig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_dance" title="Sean-nós dance">Sean-nós</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_set_dancing" title="Irish set dancing">Set dancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_stepdance" title="Irish stepdance">Stepdance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day" title="Saint Patrick's Day">Saint Patrick's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Bealtaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Twelfth" title="The Twelfth">The Twelfth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lúnasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_of_Tralee_(festival)" title="Rose of Tralee (festival)">Rose of Tralee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Halloween" title="Halloween">Halloween</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wren_Day" title="Wren Day">Wren Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ireland" title="Languages of Ireland">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialect" title="Ulster Scots dialect">Ulster Scots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_prose_fiction" title="Irish prose fiction">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_poetry" title="Irish poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_theatre" title="Irish theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triads_of_Ireland" title="Triads of Ireland">Triads</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ireland" title="Music of Ireland">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_ballads" title="List of Irish ballads">Ballads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A8ilidh" title="Cèilidh">Céilí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Folk music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music_session" title="Irish traditional music session">session</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Irish_musical_instruments" title="Category:Irish musical instruments">Instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_music_in_Ireland" title="Rock music in Ireland">Rock music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Irish_singing" title="Traditional Irish singing">Traditional singing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Mythology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology#Mythological_cycle" title="Irish mythology">Cycles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythological_Cycle" title="Mythological Cycle">Mythological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_Cycle" title="Fenian Cycle">Fenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Cycle" title="Ulster Cycle">Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycles_of_the_Kings" title="Cycles of the Kings">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aos_S%C3%AD" title="Aos Sí">Aos Sí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echtra" title="Echtra">Echtrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immram" title="Immram">Immrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann" title="Tuatha Dé Danann">Tuatha Dé Danann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firbolg" class="mw-redirect" title="Firbolg">Firbolg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomorians" title="Fomorians">Fomorians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Irish_legendary_creatures" title="Category:Irish legendary creatures">Legendary creatures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_people" title="Anglo-Irish people">Anglo-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland" title="Normans in Ireland">Hiberno-Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_people" title="List of Irish people">List of Irish people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Travellers" title="Irish Travellers">Travellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Scots_people" title="Ulster Scots people">Ulster Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yola_people" title="Yola people">Yola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Ireland" title="Sport in Ireland">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_football_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Association football in the Republic of Ireland">Association football in the Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_football_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Association football in Northern Ireland">Association football in Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camogie" title="Camogie">Camogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_handball" title="Gaelic handball">Gaelic handball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurling" title="Hurling">Hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_martial_arts" title="Irish martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_road_bowling" title="Irish road bowling">Road bowling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rounders" title="Rounders">Rounders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_in_Ireland" title="Rugby union in Ireland">Rugby union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em"><a href="/wiki/Category:National_symbols_of_Ireland" title="Category:National symbols of Ireland">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigid%27s_cross" title="Brigid's cross">Brighid's Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_harp" title="Celtic harp">Cláirseach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Ireland" title="Armorial of Ireland">County coats of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_Ireland" title="List of flags of Ireland">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_flags_issue" title="Northern Ireland flags issue">Northern Ireland flags issue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Wolfhound" title="Irish Wolfhound">Irish Wolfhound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Ireland" title="Coat of arms of Ireland">National coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Hand_of_Ulster" title="Red Hand of Ulster">Red Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamrock" title="Shamrock">Shamrock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.25em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_calendar" title="Irish calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Ireland" title="List of castles in Ireland">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Ireland" title="Cinema of Ireland">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland">Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_houses_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="List of historic houses in the Republic of Ireland">Historic houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Ireland" title="Homelessness in Ireland">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Mass media in the Republic of Ireland">Mass media (Republic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monastic_houses_in_Ireland" title="List of monastic houses in Ireland">Monastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_name" title="Irish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_names_in_Ireland" title="Place names in Ireland">Place names</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_place_names_in_other_countries" title="List of Irish place names in other countries">outside Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Prostitution in the Republic of Ireland">Prostitution (Republic)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Prostitution in Northern Ireland">in Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland">Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_Kingdom#Dates_in_England,_Northern_Ireland,_and_Wales" title="Public holidays in the United Kingdom">in Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_pub" title="Irish pub">Public houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Ireland" title="Squatting in Ireland">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td 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[\"CITEREFBoccaccio1351\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBos2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBramantiStensethWalløeLei2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrotton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2012\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFCantor_NF2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_(CDC)2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristakosOleaSerreWang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohn2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohn_Jr2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCreighton1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtisRoosen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLeoHinnebusch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeanKrauerWalløeLingjærde2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickPringleSloaneCarver2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDols1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDols1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDols2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrancourtAboudharamSignoliDutour1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncanScott2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEchenberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEroshenkoNosovKrasnovOglodin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirth2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalensKnight2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrett2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGasquet1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGasquet1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGasquet2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbertCuccuiWhiteLynnerup2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGottfried2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGouldPyle1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuarino2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaddockKiesling2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHattyHatty1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHays1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHays2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHecker1832\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHecker1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerlihy1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrox1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIssawi1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIzdebskiGuzowskiPoniatMasci2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlsson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraut1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeill1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunro2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNauert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNetzley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNirenberg1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordqvist2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoymer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOleaChristakos2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadma2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPamuk2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPontoppidan1755\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasmussenAllentoftNielsenOrlando2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavilious2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRettner2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoosenCurtis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadek2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidBüntgenEasterdayGinzler2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuenemannBosDeWitteSchmedes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScottDuncan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSehdev2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShrewsbury2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimond1898\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlavin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSloane2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnowden2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpyrouKellerTukhbatovaScheib2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpyrouMusralinaGnecchi_RusconeKocher2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpyrouTukhbatovaFeldmanDrath2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpyrouTukhbatovaWangAndrades_Valtueña2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSusatLübkeImmelBrinker2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSussman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTignorBrownLiuShaw2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuchman1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTwigg1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversité_de_StrasbourgInstitut_de_turcologie,_Université_de_StrasbourgInstitut_d\u0026#039;études_turques,_Association_pour_le_développement_des_études_turques1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanessa2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWagnerKlunkHarbeckDevault2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalløe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelfordBossak2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWexlerAntoy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheelis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWunderli1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYersin1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZiegler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuchora-Walske2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Asqalani\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;Irsay1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Corbeil1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Glahn2016\"] = 1,\n [\"plague-in-palestine\"] = 1,\n [\"plague-in-syria\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Black Death\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 75,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 30,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 10,\n [\"Epidemics\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"History of infectious disease\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox pandemic\"] = 1,\n [\"Ireland topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Langx\"] = 17,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Open access\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 2,\n [\"Quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 3,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 98,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 12,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","320","14.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","11.7"],["?","240","10.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","180","8.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","8.1"],["dataWrapper 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