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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_water_vascular_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The water vascular system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_water_vascular_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_organs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_organs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Other organs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_organs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Regeneration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reproduction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Sexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Asexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Larval_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Larval_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Larval development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Larval_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_and_habitat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_and_habitat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Distribution and habitat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_and_habitat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mode_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mode_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mode of life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mode_of_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mode of life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mode_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Locomotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Feeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antipredator_defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antipredator_defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Antipredator defence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antipredator_defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Taxonomy and evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy_and_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Taxonomy and evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>External phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_phylogeny:_extant_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_phylogeny:_extant_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>Internal phylogeny: extant classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_phylogeny:_extant_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_phylogeny:_total_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_phylogeny:_total_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.3</span> <span>Internal phylogeny: total group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_phylogeny:_total_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linnaean_taxonomies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linnaean_taxonomies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.3.1</span> <span>Linnaean taxonomies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linnaean_taxonomies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cladograms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cladograms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.3.2</span> <span>Cladograms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cladograms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Fossil history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_early_echinoderms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_early_echinoderms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Possible early echinoderms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_early_echinoderms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Echinoderms_in_the_Cambrian_and_Ordovician" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Echinoderms_in_the_Cambrian_and_Ordovician"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Echinoderms in the Cambrian and Ordovician</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Echinoderms_in_the_Cambrian_and_Ordovician-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_by_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_by_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Use by humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_by_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Use by humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Use_by_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-As_food_and_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_food_and_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>As food and medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_food_and_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>In research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Other uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Echinoderm</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stekelhuidiges" title="Stekelhuidiges – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stekelhuidiges" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF" title="شوكيات الجلد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شوكيات الجلد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80" title="কণ্টকচৰ্মী প্ৰাণী – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কণ্টকচৰ্মী প্ৰাণী" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%99risitikanl%C4%B1lar" title="Dərisitikanlılar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dərisitikanlılar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="دریسیتیکان‌لیلار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دریسیتیکان‌لیلار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE" title="একাইনোডার্মাটা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="একাইনোডার্মাটা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Энәтирелеләр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Энәтирелеләр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Ігласкурыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ігласкурыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Іголкаваскурыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Іголкаваскурыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8" title="Бодлокожи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бодлокожи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodljoko%C5%A1ci" title="Bodljokošci – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bodljokošci" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinoderms" title="Equinoderms – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Equinoderms" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunokogpanit" title="Tunokogpanit – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tunokogpanit" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostnoko%C5%BEci" title="Ostnokožci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ostnokožci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Echinoderm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pighuder" title="Pighuder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pighuder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stachelh%C3%A4uter" title="Stachelhäuter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stachelhäuter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bik%C3%A1g%C3%AD_Da%CA%BCawosh%C3%ADg%C3%AD%C3%AD" title="Bikágí Daʼawoshígíí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Bikágí Daʼawoshígíí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okasnahksed" title="Okasnahksed – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Okasnahksed" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Εχινόδερμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εχινόδερμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekinodermo" title="Ekinodermo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekinodermo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekinodermatu" title="Ekinodermatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekinodermatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خارپوستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خارپوستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tindad%C3%BDr" title="Tindadýr – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Tindadýr" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinodermos" title="Equinodermos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Equinodermos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B9%ED%94%BC%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="극피동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="극피동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Փշամորթներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փշամորթներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="शूलचर्मी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शूलचर्मी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodljika%C5%A1i" title="Bodljikaši – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bodljikaši" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekinodermo" title="Ekinodermo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ekinodermo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Сындздзармтæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сындздзармтæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skr%C3%A1pd%C3%BDr" title="Skrápdýr – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skrápdýr" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A8" title="קווצי עור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קווצי עור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulit_eri" title="Kulit eri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kulit eri" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಕಂಟಕ ಚರ್ಮಿಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಂಟಕ ಚರ್ಮಿಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="კანეკლიანები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კანეკლიანები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Тікентерілілер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тікентерілілер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnyama_Ngozi-miiba" title="Mnyama Ngozi-miiba – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mnyama Ngozi-miiba" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D2%AF%D2%AF" title="Ийне терилүү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ийне терилүү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D3%93%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%BB%D3%93" title="Имӓн каваштанвлӓ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Имӓн каваштанвлӓ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adat%C4%81dai%C5%86i" title="Adatādaiņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Adatādaiņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stachelhaiter" title="Stachelhaiter – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Stachelhaiter" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dygiaod%C5%BEiai" title="Dygiaodžiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dygiaodžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stekelhujige" title="Stekelhujige – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Stekelhujige" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecinodermato" title="Ecinodermato – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ecinodermato" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCsk%C3%A9sb%C5%91r%C5%B1ek" title="Tüskésbőrűek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tüskésbőrűek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8" title="Иглокожи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Иглокожи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1" title="എക്കൈനൊഡെർമാറ്റ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എക്കൈനൊഡെർമാറ്റ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="एकिनोडर्म – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="एकिनोडर्म" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF" title="شوكيات الجلد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شوكيات الجلد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekinoderma" title="Ekinoderma – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekinoderma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stekelhuidigen" title="Stekelhuidigen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stekelhuidigen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%98%E7%9A%AE%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="棘皮動物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="棘皮動物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puurthidjeten" title="Puurthidjeten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Puurthidjeten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigghuder" title="Pigghuder – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pigghuder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigghudingar" title="Pigghudingar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pigghudingar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaterililar" title="Ignaterililar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ignaterililar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%88%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%92" title="کنڈیارے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کنڈیارے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szkar%C5%82upnie" title="Szkarłupnie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szkarłupnie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinoderme" title="Echinoderme – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Echinoderme" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kichka_qarayuq" title="Kichka qarayuq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kichka qarayuq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Иглокожие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иглокожие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinzinu" title="Zinzinu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Zinzinu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Echinoderm" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Echinoderm" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D8%A6%D9%86%D9%88%DA%8A%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B2" title="ڪئنوڊرمز – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪئنوڊرمز" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostnatoko%C5%BEce" title="Ostnatokožce – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ostnatokožce" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloko%C5%BEci" title="Iglokožci – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Iglokožci" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%99%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Бодљокошци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бодљокошци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodljika%C5%A1i" title="Bodljikaši – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bodljikaši" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piikkinahkaiset" title="Piikkinahkaiset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Piikkinahkaiset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagghudingar" title="Tagghudingar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tagghudingar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF" title="முட்தோலி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முட்தோலி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsennenin" title="Timsennenin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Timsennenin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE" title="ఇకైనోడెర్మేటా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇకైనోడెర్మేటా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2" title="เอไคโนเดอร์มาตา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เอไคโนเดอร์มาตา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monumanu_kili_talatala" title="Monumanu kili talatala – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Monumanu kili talatala" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lea faka-Tonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%80%D1%96" title="Голкошкірі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Голкошкірі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A0nh_Da_gai" title="Ngành Da gai – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngành Da gai" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stekkervelb%C3%AAestn" title="Stekkervelbêestn – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Stekkervelbêestn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" title="Echinodermata – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Echinodermata" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%98%E7%9A%AE%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9" title="棘皮动物 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="棘皮动物" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%98%E7%9A%AE%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="棘皮動物 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="棘皮動物" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stekel%27udegen" title="Stekel'udegen – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Stekel'udegen" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Exclusively marine phylum of animals with generally 5-point radial symmetry</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the fungus, see <a href="/wiki/Echinoderma" title="Echinoderma">Echinoderma</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Echinoderms<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Stage_3" title="Cambrian Stage 3">Cambrian Stage 3</a>–<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Present</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;"></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:32.153846153846px; width:187.84615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:45.353846153846px; width:174.64615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:46.353846153846px; width:172.64615384615px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg/220px-Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg/330px-Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg/440px-Echinoderm_collage_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Extant and extinct echinoderms of six classes: <i><a href="/wiki/Fromia_indica" title="Fromia indica">Fromia indica</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">Asteroidea</a>); <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocoma_scolopendrina" title="Ophiocoma scolopendrina">Ophiocoma scolopendrina</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ophiuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiuroidea">Ophiuroidea</a>); <i><a href="/wiki/Stomopneustes" title="Stomopneustes">Stomopneustes variolaris</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a>); <i><a href="/wiki/Oxycomanthus_bennetti" title="Oxycomanthus bennetti">Oxycomanthus bennetti</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">Crinoidea</a>); <i><a href="/wiki/Actinopyga_echinites" title="Actinopyga echinites">Actinopyga echinites</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">Holothuroidea</a>); <a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystoidea</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Echinodermata" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subkingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Superphylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Echinodermata</a><br /><small>Bruguière, 1791 [ex <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Theodor_Klein" title="Jacob Theodor Klein">Klein</a>, 1734]</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Type_genus" title="Type genus">Type genus</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><i><a href="/wiki/Echinus_(sea_urchin)" title="Echinus (sea urchin)">Echinus</a></i><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Linnaeus, 1758</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Subphyla and classes </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <p>See <a href="#Taxonomy_and_evolution">taxonomy</a> </p> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p>An <b>echinoderm</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>-/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is any <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> <b>Echinodermata</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>), which includes <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand_dollar" title="Sand dollar">sand dollars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>, as well as the sessile <a href="/wiki/Sea_lilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea lilies">sea lilies</a> or "stone lilies".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Bilaterally_symmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterally symmetrical">bilaterally symmetrical</a> as <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Adult" title="Adult">adults</a> echinoderms are recognisable by their usually five-pointed <a href="/wiki/Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial symmetry">radial symmetry</a> (pentamerous symmetry), and are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth from the <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zone</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>. The phylum contains about 7,600 living <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, making it the second-largest group of <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a>, as well as the largest <a href="/wiki/Marine_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine animal">marine-only</a> phylum. The first definitive echinoderms appeared near the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>. </p><p>The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">shallower oceans</a>. Most echinoderms are able to <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">reproduce asexually</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerate</a> tissue, organs and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their <a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">ossified</a> <a href="/wiki/Dermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal">dermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">endoskeletons</a>, which are major contributors to many <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> formations and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries. Further, some scientists hold that the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">radiation</a> of echinoderms was responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic_Marine_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesozoic Marine Revolution">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name echinoderm is from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%90%CF%87%E1%BF%96%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἐχῖνος">ἐχῖνος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>ekhînos</i></span>)</i> 'hedgehog' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:δέρμα">δέρμα</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>dérma</i></span>)</i> 'skin'.<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name Echinodermata was originated by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Theodor_Klein" title="Jacob Theodor Klein">Jacob Theodor Klein</a> in 1734, but only in reference to <a href="/wiki/Echinoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoids">echinoids</a>. It was expanded to the phylum level by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Guillaume_Brugui%C3%A8re" title="Jean Guillaume Bruguière">Jean Guillaume Bruguière</a>, first informally in 1789 and then in formal Latin in 1791. In 1955, <a href="/wiki/Libbie_Hyman" title="Libbie Hyman">Libbie Hyman</a> attributed the name to "Bruguière, 1791 [ex Klein, 1734]."<sup id="cite_ref-attribution_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-attribution-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This attribution has become common and is listed by the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">Integrated Taxonomic Information System</a> (ITIS),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some workers believe that the ITIS rules should result in attributing "Klein, 1778" due to a 2nd edition of his work published by <a href="/wiki/Leske" class="mw-redirect" title="Leske">Leske</a> in that year.<sup id="cite_ref-attribution_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-attribution-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Echinodermata has been in common use since the mid-1800s,<sup id="cite_ref-attribution_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-attribution-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several other names had been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-altnames_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altnames-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Arthur_Bather" title="Francis Arthur Bather">F. A. Bather</a> called the phylum "Echinoderma" (apparently after <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Andr%C3%A9_Latreille" title="Pierre André Latreille">Latreille</a>, 1825<sup id="cite_ref-altnames_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altnames-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in his 1900 treatise on the phylum,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this name now refers to a <a href="/wiki/Echinoderma" title="Echinoderma">fungus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity">Diversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are about 7,600 <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> species of echinoderm as well as about 13,000 extinct species.<sup id="cite_ref-Tree_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tree-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adw_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adw-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All echinoderms are <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine</a>, but they are found in habitats ranging from shallow intertidal areas to abyssal depths. Five extant classes of echinoderms are generally recognized: the Asteroidea (<a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, with some 1,745 species), Ophiuroidea (<a href="/wiki/Brittle_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle stars">brittle stars</a>, with around 2,300 species), Echinoidea (<a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sand_dollar" title="Sand dollar">sand dollars</a>, with some 900 species), Holothuroidea (<a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>, with about 1,430 species), and Crinoidea (<a href="/wiki/Feather_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Feather star">feather stars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea lily">sea lilies</a>, with around 580 species).<sup id="cite_ref-Uthicke_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uthicke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arnone_Byrne_Martinez_2015_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnone_Byrne_Martinez_2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerycaption">The extant classes of echinoderms</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A brittle star, Ophionereis reticulata"><img alt="A brittle star, Ophionereis reticulata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg/273px-Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg/410px-Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg/546px-Ophionereis_reticulata_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1184" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A brittle star, <i><a href="/wiki/Ophionereis_reticulata" title="Ophionereis reticulata">Ophionereis reticulata</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A sea cucumber, Stichopus chloronotus, from Malaysia"><img alt="A sea cucumber, Stichopus chloronotus, from Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg/240px-Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg/360px-Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg/480px-Sea_cucumber_at_Pulau_Redang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumber</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stichopus_chloronotus" title="Stichopus chloronotus">Stichopus chloronotus</a></i>, from Malaysia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nerr0878.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Starfish of varied colours"><img alt="Starfish of varied colours" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/262px-Nerr0878.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/393px-Nerr0878.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/524px-Nerr0878.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1236" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Starfish of varied colours</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 147.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 145.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus"><img alt="A sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg/218px-Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg/326px-Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg/435px-Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="1374" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A sea urchin, <i><a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Crinoid on a coral reef"><img alt="Crinoid on a coral reef" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG/135px-Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG/202px-Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG/270px-Crinoid_on_the_reef_of_Batu_Moncho_Island.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2822" data-file-height="3762" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">Crinoid</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy_and_physiology">Anatomy and physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anatomy and physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms evolved from animals with <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)#Bilateral_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">bilateral symmetry</a>. Although adult echinoderms possess <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)#Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">pentaradial</a> symmetry, their larvae are <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">ciliated</a>, free-swimming organisms with bilateral symmetry. Later, during metamorphosis, the left side of the body grows at the expense of the right side, which is eventually absorbed. The left side then grows in a <a href="/wiki/Pentaradial_symmetry#Pentamerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentaradial symmetry">pentaradially</a> symmetric fashion, in which the body is arranged in five parts around a central axis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004873_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004873-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the <a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a>, there can be a few exceptions from the rule. Most starfish in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Leptasterias" title="Leptasterias">Leptasterias</a></i> have six arms, although five-armed individuals can occur. The <a href="/wiki/Brisingida" title="Brisingida">Brisingida</a> also contain some six-armed species. Amongst the brittle stars, six-armed species such as <i>Ophiothela danae</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiactis_savignyi" title="Ophiactis savignyi">Ophiactis savignyi</a></i>, and <i>Ophionotus hexactis</i> exist, and <i>Ophiacantha vivipara</i> often has more than six.<sup id="cite_ref-Byrne_OHara_2017_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byrne_OHara_2017-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Echinoderms have secondary radial symmetry in portions of their body at some stage of life, most likely an adaptation to a sessile or slow-moving existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Holló_Novák_2012_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holló_Novák_2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many crinoids and some seastars are symmetrical in multiples of the basic five; starfish such as <i><a href="/wiki/Labidiaster_annulatus" title="Labidiaster annulatus">Labidiaster annulatus</a></i> possess up to fifty arms, while the <a href="/wiki/Sea-lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea-lily">sea-lily</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Comaster_schlegelii" title="Comaster schlegelii">Comaster schlegelii</a></i> has two hundred.<sup id="cite_ref-Messing_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Messing-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genetic studies have shown that genes directing anterior-most development are expressed along ambulacra in the center of starfish rays, with the next-most-anterior genes expressed in the surrounding fringe of tube feet. Genes related to the beginning of the trunk are expressed at the ray margins, but trunk genes are only expressed in interior tissue rather than on the body surface. This means that a starfish body can more-or-less be considered to consist only of a head.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_and_skeleton">Skin and skeleton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Skin and skeleton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms have a <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesodermal</a> skeleton in the dermis, composed of <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>-based plates known as <a href="/wiki/Ossicle_(echinoderm)" title="Ossicle (echinoderm)">ossicles</a>. If solid, these would form a heavy skeleton, so they have a sponge-like porous structure known as stereom.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016979–980_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016979–980-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ossicles may be fused together, as in the <a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">test</a> of sea urchins, or may <a href="/wiki/Articulation_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articulation (anatomy)">articulate</a> to form flexible joints as in the arms of sea stars, brittle stars and crinoids. The ossicles may bear external projections in the form of spines, granules or warts and they are supported by a tough <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(zoology)" title="Epidermis (zoology)">epidermis</a>. Skeletal elements are sometimes deployed in specialized ways, such as the chewing organ called "<a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_lantern" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's lantern">Aristotle's lantern</a>" in sea urchins, the supportive stalks of crinoids, and the structural "lime ring" of sea cucumbers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004873_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004873-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although individual ossicles are robust and fossilize readily, complete skeletons of starfish, brittle stars and crinoids are rare in the fossil record. On the other hand, sea urchins are often well preserved in chalk beds or limestone. During fossilization, the cavities in the stereom are filled in with calcite that is continuous with the surrounding rock. On fracturing such rock, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontologists</a> can observe distinctive cleavage patterns and sometimes even the intricate internal and external structure of the test.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The epidermis contains pigment cells that provide the often vivid colours of echinoderms, which include deep red, stripes of black and white, and intense purple.<sup id="cite_ref-Perillo_Oulhen_2020_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perillo_Oulhen_2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cells may be light-sensitive, causing many echinoderms to change appearance completely as night falls. The reaction can happen quickly: the sea urchin <i><a href="/wiki/Centrostephanus_longispinus" title="Centrostephanus longispinus">Centrostephanus longispinus</a></i> changes colour in just fifty minutes when exposed to light.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One characteristic of most echinoderms is a special kind of tissue known as <a href="/wiki/Catch_connective_tissue" title="Catch connective tissue">catch connective tissue</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>-based material can change its mechanical properties under nervous control rather than by muscular means. This tissue enables a starfish to go from moving flexibly around the seabed to becoming rigid while prying open a <a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">bivalve mollusc</a> or preventing itself from being extracted from a crevice. Similarly, sea urchins can lock their normally mobile spines upright as a defensive mechanism when attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016980_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016980-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_water_vascular_system">The water vascular system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The water vascular system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Water_vascular_system" title="Water vascular system">Water vascular system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_;.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg/220px-FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg/330px-FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg/440px-FMIB_52615_Diagram_of_water-vascular_system_of_a_starfish_%3B.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of <a href="/wiki/Water_vascular_system" title="Water vascular system">water vascular system</a> of a starfish, showing the ring canal, the radial canals, ampullae (small bulbs), and <a href="/wiki/Tube_feet" title="Tube feet">tube feet</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals modified from the <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a> (body cavity) that function in gas exchange, feeding, sensory reception and locomotion. This system varies between different classes of echinoderm but typically opens to the exterior through a sieve-like <a href="/wiki/Madreporite" title="Madreporite">madreporite</a> on the aboral (upper) surface of the animal. The madreporite is linked to a slender duct, the stone canal, which extends to a ring canal that encircles the mouth or <a href="/wiki/Oesophagus#Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Oesophagus">oesophagus</a>. The ring canal branches into a set of radial canals, which in asteroids extend along the arms, and in echinoids adjoin the test in the ambulacral areas. Short lateral canals branch off the radial canals, each one ending in an ampulla. Part of the ampulla can protrude through a pore (or a pair of pores in sea urchins) to the exterior, forming a podium or <a href="/wiki/Tube_feet" title="Tube feet">tube foot</a>. The water vascular system assists with the distribution of nutrients throughout the animal's body; it is most visible in the tube feet which can be extended or contracted by the redistribution of fluid between the foot and the internal ampulla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991780–791_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991780–791-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016980–982_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016980–982-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The organisation of the water vascular system is somewhat different in ophiuroids, where the madreporite may be on the oral surface and the podia lack suckers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991784–785_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991784–785-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In holothuroids, the system is reduced, often with few tube feet other than the specialised feeding tentacles, and the madreporite opens on to the coelom. Some holothuroids like the Apodida lack tube feet and canals along the body; others have longitudinal canals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016982_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016982-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrangement in crinoids is similar to that in asteroids, but the tube feet lack suckers and are used in a back-and-forth wafting motion to pass food particles captured by the arms towards the central mouth. In the asteroids, the same motion is employed to move the animal across the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991790–793_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991790–793-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_organs">Other organs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other organs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. With a few exceptions, the members of the order <a href="/wiki/Paxillosida" title="Paxillosida">Paxillosida</a> do not possess an anus.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many species of starfish, the large cardiac stomach can be everted to digest food outside the body. Some other species are able to ingest whole food items such as <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004885_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004885-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brittle stars, which have varying diets, have a blind gut with no intestine or anus; they expel <a href="/wiki/Food_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Food waste">food waste</a> through their mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004891_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004891-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew their food, mainly <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>. They have an oesophagus, a large stomach and a rectum with the anus at the apex of the test.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004902–904_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004902–904-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea cucumbers are mostly <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a>, sorting through the sediment with modified tube feet around their mouth, the buccal tentacles. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut, which has a long coiled intestine and a large <a href="/wiki/Cloaca" title="Cloaca">cloaca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004912_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004912-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crinoids are <a href="/wiki/Suspension_feeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspension feeder">suspension feeders</a>, passively catching <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> which drift into their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to the mouth, which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004920_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004920-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity">coelomic cavities</a> of echinoderms are complex. Aside from the water vascular system, echinoderms have a <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">haemal coelom</a>, a peri<a href="/wiki/Visceral" class="mw-redirect" title="Visceral">visceral</a> coelom, a <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonadal</a> coelom and often also a perihaemal coelom.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During development, echinoderm coelom is divided into the metacoel, mesocoel and protocoel (also called somatocoel, hydrocoel and axocoel, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water vascular system, haemal system and perihaemal system form the tubular coelomic system.<sup id="cite_ref-wbd.etibioinformatics.nl_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wbd.etibioinformatics.nl-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Echinoderms are unusual in having both a coelomic circulatory system (the water vascular system) and a haemal circulatory system, as most groups of animals have just one of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Haemal and perihaemal systems are derived from the original coelom, forming an <a href="/wiki/Open_circulatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open circulatory system">open</a> and reduced circulatory system. This usually consists of a central ring and five radial vessels. There is no true <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, and the blood often lacks any respiratory pigment. Gaseous exchange occurs via dermal branchiae or papulae in starfish, genital bursae in brittle stars, peristominal gills in sea urchins and cloacal trees in sea cucumbers. Exchange of gases also takes place through the tube feet. Echinoderms lack specialized excretory (waste disposal) organs and so <a href="/wiki/Nitrogenous_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogenous waste">nitrogenous waste</a>, chiefly in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, diffuses out through the respiratory surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991780–791_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991780–791-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coelomic fluid contains the <a href="/wiki/Coelomocyte" title="Coelomocyte">coelomocytes</a>, or immune cells. There are several types of immune cells, which vary among classes and species. All classes possess a type of <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytic</a> amebocyte, which engulf invading particles and infected cells, aggregate or clot, and may be involved in <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxicity</a>. These cells are usually large and granular, and are believed to be a main line of defence against potential pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the class, echinoderms may have <a href="/wiki/Spherule" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherule">spherule</a> cells (for cytotoxicity, inflammation, and anti-bacterial activity), vibratile cells (for coelomic fluid movement and clotting), and crystal cells (which may serve for <a href="/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulation</a> in sea cucumbers).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coelomocytes secrete <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides" title="Antimicrobial peptides">antimicrobial peptides</a> against bacteria, and have a set of <a href="/wiki/Lectin" title="Lectin">lectins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement proteins</a> as part of an <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a> that is still being characterised.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Ghosh_Buckley_2010_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Ghosh_Buckley_2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Echinoderms have a simple radial <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> that consists of a modified <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a> of interconnected neurons with no central <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, although some do possess <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>. Nerves radiate from central rings around the mouth into each arm or along the body wall; the branches of these nerves coordinate the movements of the organism and the synchronisation of the tube feet. Starfish have sensory cells in the epithelium and have simple <a href="/wiki/Ocelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocelli">eyespots</a> and touch-sensitive tentacle-like tube feet at the tips of their arms. Sea urchins have no particular sense organs but do have <a href="/wiki/Statocyst" title="Statocyst">statocysts</a> that assist in gravitational orientation, and they too have sensory cells in their epidermis, particularly in the tube feet, spines and <a href="/wiki/Pedicellariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicellariae">pedicellariae</a>. Brittle stars, crinoids and sea cucumbers in general do not have sensory organs, but some burrowing sea cucumbers of the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Apodida" title="Apodida">Apodida</a> have a single statocyst adjoining each radial nerve, and some have an eyespot at the base of each tentacle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a> at least periodically occupy much of the body cavities of sea urchins<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sea cucumbers, while the less voluminous crinoids, brittle stars and starfish have two gonads in each arm. While the ancestors of modern echinoderms are believed to have had one genital aperture, many organisms have multiple <a href="/wiki/Gonopore" title="Gonopore">gonopores</a> through which eggs or sperm may be released.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regeneration">Regeneration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regeneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Starfish_regeneration" title="Starfish regeneration">Starfish regeneration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg/220px-Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg/330px-Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg/440px-Sea_star_regenerating_legs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_seastar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower seastar">Sunflower star</a> regenerating several arms</figcaption></figure> <p>Many echinoderms have great powers of <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a>. Many species routinely <a href="/wiki/Autotomy" title="Autotomy">autotomize</a> and regenerate arms and <a href="/wiki/Viscera" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscera">viscera</a>. Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive themselves to be threatened, regenerating them over the course of several months. Sea urchins constantly replace spines lost through damage, while sea stars and sea lilies readily lose and regenerate their arms. In most cases, a single severed arm cannot grow into a new starfish in the absence of at least part of the disc.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson1935_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson1935-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McAlaray1987_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McAlaray1987-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hotchkiss2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher1925-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in a few species a single arm can survive and develop into a complete individual, and arms are sometimes intentionally detached for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McAlaray1987_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McAlaray1987-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hotchkiss2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher1925-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During periods when they have lost their digestive tracts, sea cucumbers live off stored nutrients and absorb dissolved organic matter directly from the water.<sup id="cite_ref-dobson1991_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dobson1991-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The regeneration of lost parts involves both <a href="/wiki/Epimorphosis" title="Epimorphosis">epimorphosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphallaxis" title="Morphallaxis">morphallaxis</a>. In epimorphosis stem cells—either from a reserve pool or those produced by <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation#Dedifferentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">dedifferentiation</a>—form a <a href="/wiki/Blastema" title="Blastema">blastema</a> and generate new tissues. Morphallactic regeneration involves the movement and remodelling of existing tissues to replace lost parts.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct <a href="/wiki/Transdifferentiation" title="Transdifferentiation">transdifferentiation</a> of one type of tissue to another during tissue replacement is also observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Mashanov2005_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mashanov2005-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_reproduction">Sexual reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms become sexually mature after approximately two to three years, depending on the species and the environmental conditions. Almost all species have separate <a href="/wiki/Gonochoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonochoric">male and female sexes</a>, though some are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphroditic</a>. The eggs and sperm cells are typically released into open water, where fertilisation takes place. The release of sperm and eggs is synchronised in some species, usually with regard to the lunar cycle. In other species, individuals may aggregate during the reproductive season, increasing the likelihood of successful fertilisation. Internal fertilisation has been observed in three species of sea star, three brittle stars and a deep-water sea cucumber. Even at <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal depths</a>, where no light penetrates, echinoderms often synchronise their reproductive activity.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some echinoderms <a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation" title="Egg incubation">brood their eggs</a>. This is especially common in cold water species where planktonic larvae might not be able to find sufficient food. These retained eggs are usually few in number and are supplied with large yolks to nourish the developing embryos. In starfish, the female may carry the eggs in special pouches, under her arms, under her arched body, or even in her cardiac stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004887–888_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004887–888-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many brittle stars are hermaphrodites; they often brood their eggs, usually in special chambers on their oral surfaces, but sometimes in the ovary or coelom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004895_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004895-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these starfish and brittle stars, development is usually direct to the adult form, without passing through a bilateral larval stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004888_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004888-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few sea urchins and one species of sand dollar carry their eggs in cavities, or near their anus, holding them in place with their spines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004908_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004908-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sea cucumbers use their buccal tentacles to transfer their eggs to their underside or back, where they are retained. In a very small number of species, the eggs are retained in the coelom where they develop <a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparously</a>, later emerging through ruptures in the body wall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004916_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004916-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some crinoids, the embryos develop in special breeding bags, where the eggs are held until sperm released by a male happens to find them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004922_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004922-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asexual_reproduction">Asexual reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Asexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Regeneration">§ Regeneration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comet_form_of_Linckia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Comet_form_of_Linckia.png/170px-Comet_form_of_Linckia.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Comet_form_of_Linckia.png 1.5x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>'Comet' form of <i><a href="/wiki/Linckia" title="Linckia">Linckia</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>One species of <a href="/wiki/Seastar" class="mw-redirect" title="Seastar">seastar</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ophidiaster_granifer" title="Ophidiaster granifer">Ophidiaster granifer</a></i>, reproduces asexually by <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamaguchi1984_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamaguchi1984-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In certain other <a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">asterozoans</a>, adults reproduce asexually until they mature, then reproduce sexually. In most of these species, asexual reproduction is by <a href="/wiki/Transverse_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse fission">transverse fission</a> with the disc splitting in two. Both the lost disc area and the missing arms regrow, so an individual may have arms of varying lengths.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher1925-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the period of regrowth, they have a few tiny arms and one large arm, and are thus often known as "comets".<sup id="cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hotchkiss2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Monks1904_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monks1904-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adult sea cucumbers reproduce asexually by transverse fission. <i><a href="/wiki/Holothuria_parvula" title="Holothuria parvula">Holothuria parvula</a></i> uses this method frequently, splitting into two a little in front of the midpoint. The two halves each regenerate their missing organs over a period of several months, but the missing genital organs are often very slow to develop.<sup id="cite_ref-Kille1942_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kille1942-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The larvae of some echinoderms are capable of asexual reproduction. This has long been known to occur among starfish and brittle stars, but has more recently been observed in a sea cucumber, a sand dollar and a sea urchin.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaves2003_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaves2003-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be by <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">autotomising</a> parts that develop into secondary larvae, by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Paratomy" title="Paratomy">splitting transversely</a>. Autotomised parts or buds may develop directly into fully formed larvae, or may pass through a <a href="/wiki/Gastrula" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrula">gastrula</a> or even a <a href="/wiki/Blastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastula">blastula</a> stage. New larvae can develop from the preoral hood (a mound like structure above the mouth), the side body wall, the postero-lateral arms, or their rear ends.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaves2003_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaves2003-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jaeckle1994_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaeckle1994-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2009_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cloning is costly to the larva both in resources and in development time. Larvae undergo this process when food is plentiful<sup id="cite_ref-McDonald2010_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonald2010-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or temperature conditions are optimal.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2009_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larvae of some sand dollars clone themselves when they detect dissolved fish mucus, indicating the presence of predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2009_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2008_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asexual reproduction produces many smaller larvae that escape better from planktivorous fish, implying that the mechanism may be an anti-predator adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn2010_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn2010-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Larval_development">Larval development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Larval development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pluteus001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Pluteus001.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="156" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bilaterally_symmetric" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterally symmetric">bilaterally symmetric</a> echino<a href="/wiki/Pluteus_larva" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluteus larva">pluteus larva</a> with larval arms</figcaption></figure> <p>Development begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. <a href="/wiki/Gastrulation" title="Gastrulation">Gastrulation</a> marks the opening of the "second mouth" that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are often <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">planktonic</a>, but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female, while in some the female broods the larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991778_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991778-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016997–998_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016997–998-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The larvae pass through several stages, which have specific names derived from the taxonomic names of the adults or from their appearance. For example, a sea urchin has an 'echinopluteus' larva while a brittle star has an 'ophiopluteus' larva. A starfish has a '<a href="/wiki/Bipinnaria" title="Bipinnaria">bipinnaria</a>' larva, which develops into a multi-armed '<a href="/wiki/Brachiolaria" title="Brachiolaria">brachiolaria</a>' larva. A sea cucumber's larva is an 'auricularia' while a crinoid's is a 'vitellaria'. All these larvae are <a href="/wiki/Bilaterally_symmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterally symmetrical">bilaterally symmetrical</a> and have bands of cilia with which they swim; some, usually known as 'pluteus' larvae, have arms. When fully developed they settle on the seabed to undergo metamorphosis, and the larval arms and gut degenerate. The left-hand side of the larva develops into the oral surface of the juvenile, while the right side becomes the aboral surface. At this stage the pentaradial symmetry develops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991778_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991778-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Planktotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Planktotrophic">plankton-eating</a> larva, living and feeding in the water column, is considered to be the ancestral larval type for echinoderms, but in extant echinoderms, some 68% of species develop using a <a href="/wiki/Lecithotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lecithotrophic">yolk-feeding</a> larva.<sup id="cite_ref-Uthicke_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uthicke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provision of a yolk-sac means that smaller numbers of eggs are produced, the larvae have a shorter development period and a smaller dispersal potential, but a greater chance of survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Uthicke_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uthicke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_and_habitat">Distribution and habitat</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Distribution and habitat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. Adults are mainly <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic</a>, living on the seabed, whereas larvae are often <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic</a>, living as plankton in the open ocean. Some holothuroid adults such as <i><a href="/wiki/Pelagothuria" title="Pelagothuria">Pelagothuria</a></i> are however pelagic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016968_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016968-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some crinoids are pseudo-planktonic, attaching themselves to floating logs and debris, although this behaviour was exercised most extensively in the Paleozoic, before competition from organisms such as barnacles restricted the extent of the behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mode_of_life">Mode of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mode of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locomotion">Locomotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Locomotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG/220px-Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG/330px-Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG/440px-Podia_de_Colobocentrotus_atratus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Echinoderms use their tube feet to move about. (<i><a href="/wiki/Colobocentrotus_atratus" title="Colobocentrotus atratus">Colobocentrotus atratus</a></i> shown)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">Animal locomotion</a></div> <p>Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This combines with some stickiness from the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> to provide adhesion. The tube feet contract and relax in waves which move along the adherent surface, and the animal moves slowly along.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brittle stars are the most agile of the echinoderms. Any one of the arms can form the axis of symmetry, pointing either forwards or back. The animal then moves in a co-ordinated way, propelled by the other four arms. During locomotion, the propelling arms can made either snake-like or rowing movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Astley_2012_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astley_2012-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starfish move using their tube feet, keeping their arms almost still, including in genera like <i><a href="/wiki/Pycnopodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pycnopodia">Pycnopodia</a></i> where the arms are flexible. The oral surface is covered with thousands of tube feet which move out of time with each other, but not in a <a href="/wiki/Metachronal_rhythm" title="Metachronal rhythm">metachronal rhythm</a>; in some way, however, the tube feet are coordinated, as the animal glides steadily along.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016982–983_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016982–983-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some burrowing starfish have points rather than suckers on their tube feet and they are able to "glide" across the seabed at a faster rate.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sea urchins use their tube feet to move around in a similar way to starfish. Some also use their articulated spines to push or lever themselves along or lift their oral surfaces off the substrate. If a sea urchin is overturned, it can extend its tube feet in one ambulacral area far enough to bring them within reach of the substrate and then successively attach feet from the adjoining area until it is righted. Some species bore into rock, usually by grinding away at the surface with their mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004899–900_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004899–900-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neothyonidium_magnum_(Burrowing_sea_cucumber).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg/220px-Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg/330px-Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg/440px-Neothyonidium_magnum_%28Burrowing_sea_cucumber%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2586" data-file-height="1938" /></a><figcaption>Sea cucumbers like this <i>Neothyonidium magnum</i> can burrow using peristaltic movements.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sea cucumbers are generally sluggish animals. Many can move on the surface of the seabed or burrow through sand or mud using <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristaltic</a> movements; some have short tube feet on their under surface with which they can creep along in the manner of a starfish. Some species drag themselves along using their buccal tentacles, while others manage to swim with peristaltic movements or rhythmic flexing. Many live in cracks, hollows and burrows and hardly move at all. Some deep-water species are <a href="/wiki/Pelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic">pelagic</a> and can float in the water with webbed papillae forming sails or fins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004911–912_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004911–912-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of crinoids are motile, but sea lilies are sessile and attached to hard substrates by stalks. Movement in most sea lilies is limited to bending (their stems can bend) and rolling and unrolling their arms; a few species can relocate themselves on the seabed by crawling. The sea feathers are unattached and usually live in crevices, under corals or inside sponges with their arms the only visible part. Some sea feathers emerge at night and perch themselves on nearby eminences to better exploit food-bearing currents. Many species can "walk" across the seabed, raising their body with the help of their arms, or swim using their arms. Most species of sea feather, however, are largely sedentary, seldom moving far from their chosen place of concealment.<sup id="cite_ref-Feeding_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feeding-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feeding">Feeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Feeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modes of feeding vary greatly between the different echinoderm taxa. Crinoids and some brittle stars tend to be passive filter-feeders,<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_997_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes_997-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004893_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004893-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enmeshing suspended particles from passing water. Most sea urchins are grazers;<sup id="cite_ref-Carefoot_Urchins_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carefoot_Urchins-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sea cucumbers are deposit feeders;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004914_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004914-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the majority of starfish are active hunters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004884–885_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004884–885-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crinoids catch food particles using the tube feet on their outspread pinnules, move them into the ambulacral grooves, wrap them in mucus, and convey them to the mouth using the cilia lining the grooves.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_997_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes_997-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact dietary requirements of crinoids have been little researched, but in the laboratory, they can be fed with diatoms.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Basket_star" title="Basket star">Basket stars</a> are suspension feeders, raising their branched arms to collect <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, while other brittle stars use several methods of feeding. Some are suspension feeders, securing food particles with mucus strands, spines or tube feet on their raised arms. Others are scavengers and detritus feeders. Others again are voracious <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a> and able to lasso their waterborne prey with a sudden encirclement by their flexible arms. The limbs then bend under the disc to transfer the food to the jaws and mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004893_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004893-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many sea urchins feed on algae, often scraping off the thin layer of algae covering the surfaces of rocks with their specialised mouthparts known as Aristotle's lantern. Other species devour smaller organisms, which they may catch with their tube feet. They may also feed on dead fish and other animal matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Carefoot_Urchins_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carefoot_Urchins-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sand dollars may perform suspension feeding and feed on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, detritus, algal pieces and the bacterial layer surrounding grains of sand.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sea cucumbers are often mobile deposit or suspension feeders, using their buccal podia to actively capture food and then stuffing the particles individually into their buccal cavities. Others ingest large quantities of sediment, absorb the organic matter and pass the indigestible mineral particles through their guts. In this way they disturb and process large volumes of substrate, often leaving characteristic ridges of sediment on the seabed. Some sea cucumbers live infaunally in burrows, anterior-end down and anus on the surface, swallowing sediment and passing it through their gut. Other burrowers live anterior-end up and wait for detritus to fall into the entrances of the burrows or rake in debris from the surface nearby with their buccal podia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004914_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004914-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nearly all starfish are detritus feeders or carnivores, though a few are suspension feeders. Small fish landing on the upper surface may be captured by pedicilaria and dead animal matter may be scavenged but the main prey items are living invertebrates, mostly bivalve molluscs. To feed on one of these, the starfish moves over it, attaches its tube feet and exerts pressure on the valves by arching its back. When a small gap between the valves is formed, the starfish inserts part of its stomach into the prey, excretes digestive <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> and slowly liquefies the soft body parts. As the <a href="/wiki/Adductor_muscles_(bivalve)" title="Adductor muscles (bivalve)">adductor muscle</a> of the bivalve relaxes, more stomach is inserted and when digestion is complete, the stomach is returned to its usual position in the starfish with its now liquefied bivalve meal inside it. Other starfish evert the stomach to feed on sponges, sea anemones, corals, detritus and algal films.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004884–885_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004884–885-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antipredator_defence">Antipredator defence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Antipredator defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centrostephanus_coronatus_(juvenile).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg/220px-Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg/330px-Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg/440px-Centrostephanus_coronatus_%28juvenile%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2426" data-file-height="2576" /></a><figcaption>Many echinoderms, like this <i><a href="/wiki/Centrostephanus_coronatus" title="Centrostephanus coronatus">Centrostephanus coronatus</a></i>, are defended by sharp spines.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite their low nutrition value and the abundance of indigestible calcite, echinoderms are preyed upon by many organisms, including <a href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eider_duck" class="mw-redirect" title="Eider duck">eider ducks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">gastropod molluscs</a>, other echinoderms, <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_fox" title="Arctic fox">Arctic foxes</a> and humans. Larger starfish prey on smaller ones; the great quantity of eggs and larva that they produce form part of the <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, consumed by many marine creatures. Crinoids, on the other hand, are relatively free from predation.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antipredator_defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator defence">Antipredator defences</a> include the presence of spines, toxins (inherent or delivered through the tube feet), and the discharge of sticky entangling threads by sea cucumbers. Although most echinoderm spines are blunt, those of the <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a> are long and sharp and can cause a painful puncture wound as the epithelium covering them contains a toxin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991779_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991779-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of their catch connective tissue, which can change rapidly from a flaccid to a rigid state, echinoderms are very difficult to dislodge from crevices. Some sea cucumbers have a cluster of <a href="/wiki/Cuvierian_tubules" title="Cuvierian tubules">cuvierian tubules</a> which can be ejected as long sticky threads from their anus to entangle and permanently disable an attacker. Sea cucumbers occasionally defend themselves by rupturing their body wall and discharging the gut and internal organs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991789–790_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991789–790-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starfish and brittle stars may undergo <a href="/wiki/Autotomy" title="Autotomy">autotomy</a> when attacked, detaching an arm; this may distract the predator for long enough for the animal to escape. Some starfish species can swim away from danger.<sup id="cite_ref-Mladenov1989_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mladenov1989-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/170px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/255px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/340px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A blue <i>Linckia</i> starfish on a <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a>, a biodiverse ecosystem</figcaption></figure> <p>Echinoderms are numerous invertebrates whose adults play an important role in benthic <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, while the larvae are a major component of the plankton. Among the ecological roles of adults are the grazing of sea urchins, the sediment processing of heart urchins, and the suspension and deposit feeding of crinoids and sea cucumbers.<sup id="cite_ref-Uthicke_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uthicke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016968_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruscaMooreShuster2016968-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sea urchins can bore into solid rock, destabilising rock faces and releasing nutrients into the ocean. Coral reefs are also bored into in this way, but the rate of accretion of carbonate material is often greater than the erosion produced by the sea urchin.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Echinoderms sequester about 0.1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year as <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, making them important contributors in the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebrato_Iglesias-Rodríguez_2010_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebrato_Iglesias-Rodríguez_2010-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Echinoderms sometimes have large population swings which can transform ecosystems. In 1983, for example, the mass mortality of the tropical sea urchin <i><a href="/wiki/Diadema_antillarum" title="Diadema antillarum">Diadema antillarum</a></i> in the Caribbean caused a change from a coral-dominated reef system to an alga-dominated one.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea urchins are among the main herbivores on reefs and there is usually a fine balance between the urchins and the kelp and other algae on which they graze. A diminution of the numbers of predators (otters, lobsters and fish) can result in an increase in urchin numbers, causing <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a>, resulting in an alga-denuded "<a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">urchin barren</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, an unexplained increase in the numbers of <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a> (<i>Acanthaster planci</i>), which graze on living coral tissue, has greatly increased coral mortality and reduced coral reef <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy_and_evolution">Taxonomy and evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Taxonomy and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_echinoderm_orders" title="List of echinoderm orders">List of echinoderm orders</a></div> <p>The characteristics of adult echinoderms are the possession of a <a href="/wiki/Water_vascular_system" title="Water vascular system">water vascular system</a> with external <a href="/wiki/Tube_feet" title="Tube feet">tube feet</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Stereom" title="Stereom">stereom</a> endoskeleton. Stereom is a <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> material consisting of <a href="/wiki/Ossicle_(echinoderm)" title="Ossicle (echinoderm)">ossicles</a> connected by a mesh of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> fibres, which is unique to this phylum.<sup id="cite_ref-Tree_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tree-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderm phylogeny has long been a contentious subject. While the relationships among extant taxa are well-understood, there is no broadly accepted consensus regarding the phylum's origins or the relationships among its extinct groups.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-twoclades_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twoclades-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Echinoderm evolution shows a high degree of <a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasy</a>, meaning that many features have evolved multiple times independently. This means that many features initiatlly assumed to indicate a genetic connection do not, in fact, do so, which has obscured the true relationships of various groups.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="External_phylogeny">External phylogeny</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms are <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>, meaning that their ancestors were mirror-symmetric. Among the bilaterians, they belong to the <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostome</a> division, meaning that the <a href="/wiki/Blastopore" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastopore">blastopore</a>, the first opening to form during embryo development, becomes the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> instead of the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991777–779_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991777–779-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lander_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lander-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Echinoderms are the sister group of the <a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">Hemichordata</a>, with which they form the crown group <a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two taxa of uncertain placement, <a href="/wiki/Vetulocystida" class="mw-redirect" title="Vetulocystida">Vetulocystida</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Yanjiahella" title="Yanjiahella">Yanjiahella</a></i>, have each been proposed as either stem-group echinoderms<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or stem-group ambulacrarians.<sup id="cite_ref-vetulocystids_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vetulocystids-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-yanjiahella-doubts_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yanjiahella-doubts-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vetulocystids have also been proposed as stem-group <a href="/wiki/Chordates" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordates">chordates</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i>Yanjiahella</i> has also been proposed to be a stem-group hemichordate.<sup id="cite_ref-yanjiahella-doubts_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yanjiahella-doubts-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ambulacrarian context of the echinoderms is shown below, simplified from Li et al. 2023,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the possible ambulacrarian placements of the uncertian taxa shown with dashed lines and question marks: </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first" style="border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:1px dashed;"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <a href="/wiki/Vetulocystida" class="mw-redirect" title="Vetulocystida">Vetulocystida</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/20px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/30px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/40px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="63" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cambroernida" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambroernida">Cambroernida</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png/50px-Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png/75px-Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png/100px-Herpetogaster_collinsi_reconstruction.png 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="3786" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label" style="border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dashed;"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <i><a href="/wiki/Yanjiahella" title="Yanjiahella">Yanjiahella</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/50px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/75px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/100px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="410" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Ambulacraria </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first" style="border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:1px dashed;">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? Vetulocystida† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/20px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/30px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png/40px-Vetulocystis_catenata_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="63" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label" style="border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dashed;"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <i>Yanjiahella</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/50px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/75px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/100px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="410" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><b>Echinodermata</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crownward</a>)</span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinaster_serpentarius_(USNM_E28192)_001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/50px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/75px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/100px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1819" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Total_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Total group">total group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">Hemichordata</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first" style="border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:1px dashed;">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <i>Yanjiahella</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/50px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/75px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png/100px-Yanjiahella_concept_extract.png 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="410" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Hemichordata <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crownward</a>)</span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/45px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/68px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/90px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png 2x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="428" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Total_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Total group">total group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Total_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Total group">total group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_phylogeny:_extant_classes">Internal phylogeny: extant classes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Internal phylogeny: extant classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extant echinoderms consist of the <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a>, the latter of which is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TelfordLowe2014_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TelfordLowe2014-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Escriva_Reich_2015_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Escriva_Reich_2015-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> (feather stars) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/60px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/90px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/120px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="896" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holothuria_parvula.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/80px-Holothuria_parvula.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/120px-Holothuria_parvula.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/160px-Holothuria_parvula.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2001" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">sea cucumbers </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinometra_viridis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/70px-Echinometra_viridis.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/105px-Echinometra_viridis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/140px-Echinometra_viridis.png 2x" data-file-width="1527" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">sea urchins, etc </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ophiuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiuroidea">Ophiuroidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiocoma_(26150611418).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/80px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/120px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/160px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2876" data-file-height="2644" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">brittle & basket stars </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">Asteroidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinaster_serpentarius_(USNM_E28192)_001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/70px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/105px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/140px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1819" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">starfish </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_phylogeny:_total_group">Internal phylogeny: total group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Internal phylogeny: total group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The lack of a consensus <a href="/wiki/Cladistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistic">cladistic</a> phylogeny incorporating extinct echinoderm groups has resulted in the continued use of terms from <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomies</a>, even when the named taxa are known to be <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Linnaean_taxonomies">Linnaean taxonomies</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Linnaean taxonomies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three taxonomies introduced nearly all of the traditional subphyla and class divisions that continue to be referenced in cladistic work: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Arthur_Bather" title="Francis Arthur Bather">F. A. Bather</a> produced the earliest widely referenced classification of both fossil and extant echinoderms in 1900, using a two-subphylum system.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1966 the <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology" title="Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology">Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology</a></i>, rejected Bather's classification, replacing it with a new four-subphylum scheme<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that had been previously proposed by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Fell" title="Barry Fell">H. B. Fell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>James Sprinkle which added a fifth subphylum to the <i>Treatise</i> taxonomy in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His later class-level taxonomy of the five subphyla was the most recent approach cited in an early cladistic re-assessment of the phylum.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Notable Linnaean taxonomies of the phylum Echinodermata </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Bather, 1900<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Moore (ed.), 1966–7<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Sprinkle, 1980<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td> <ul><li><i>Phylum</i> <b>Echinoderma</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">Latreille, 1825<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> <ul><li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Pelmatozoa" title="Pelmatozoa">Pelmatozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Leuckart, 1848</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> Cystidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">von Buch, 1844</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Blastoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastoidea">Blastoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Say, 1825 <i>sensu extenso</i></span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Miller, 1821</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroidea" title="Edrioasteroidea">Edrioasteroidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">E. Billings, 1854-58; Huxley, 1877; Bather, 1899</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Bell, 1891</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">C. T. v. Siebold, 1848</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Stelleroidea" title="Stelleroidea">Stelleroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Gregory, 1900</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Leske" class="mw-redirect" title="Leske">Leske</a>, 1778</span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><i>Phylum</i> <b>Echinodermata</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">Klein, 1734; Brugière, 1789</span> <ul><li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Homalozoa" title="Homalozoa">Homalozoa</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Whitehouse, 1941</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Stylophora" title="Stylophora">Stylophora</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Homostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homostelea">Homostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Homoiostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoiostelea">Homoiostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Crinozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Matsumoto, 1929</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Lepidocystis" title="Lepidocystis">Lepidocystoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Durham, 1967</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Eocrinoidea" title="Eocrinoidea">Eocrinoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Jaekel, 1918</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Cystoidea" title="Cystoidea">Cystoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">von Buch, 1846</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Edrioblastoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Fay, 1962</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Parablastoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Hudson, 1907</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Blastoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastoidea">Blastoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Say, 1825</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Paracrinoidea" title="Paracrinoidea">Paracrinoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Regnéll, 1945</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Miller, 1821</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Zittel 1895</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Stelleroidea" title="Stelleroidea">Stelleroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Lamarck 1816</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Haekel  Zittel 1895</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoidea" title="Helicoplacoidea">Helicoplacoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Durham & Caster, 1963</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Camptostroma" title="Camptostroma">Camptostromatoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Durham, 1966</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroidea" title="Edrioasteroidea">Edrioasteroidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Billings, 1858</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Cyclocystoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Miller & Gurley, 1895</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Ophiocistioidea" title="Ophiocistioidea">Ophiocistioidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Solas, 1899</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Leske, 1778</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">de Blainville, 1834</span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><i>Phylum</i> <b>Echinodermata</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">de Bruguière <i>[sic]</i>, 1791</span> <ul><li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Homalozoa" title="Homalozoa">Homalozoa</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Whitehouse, 1941</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Robinson & Sprinkle, 1969</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Stylophora" title="Stylophora">Stylophora</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Homostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homostelea">Homostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Homoiostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoiostelea">Homoiostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Gill & Caster, 1960</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Blastozoa" title="Blastozoa">Blastozoa</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Sprinkle, 1973</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Eocrinoidea" title="Eocrinoidea">Eocrinoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Jaekel, 1918</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Rhombifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombifera">Rhombifera</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Zittel, 1879</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Diploporita" title="Diploporita">Diploporita</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Müller, 1854</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Parablastoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Hudson, 1907</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Blastoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastoidea">Blastoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Say, 1825</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Crinozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Matsumoto, 1929, restricted in Sprinkle, 1973</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Paracrinoidea" title="Paracrinoidea">Paracrinoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Regnéll, 1945</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Miller, 1821</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Zittel 1895</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">Asteroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">de Blainville, 1830</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Ophiuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiuroidea">Ophiuroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Gray, 1840</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Subphylum</i> <a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Haekel  Zittel 1895</span> <ul><li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoidea" title="Helicoplacoidea">Helicoplacoidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Durham & Caster, 1963</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroidea" title="Edrioasteroidea">Edrioasteroidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Billings, 1858</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Edrioblastoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Fay, 1962</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> Cyclocystoidea† <span style="font-size:85%;">Miller & Gurley, 1895</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Ophiocistioidea" title="Ophiocistioidea">Ophiocistioidea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">Solas, 1899</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Leske, 1778</span></li> <li><i>Class</i> <a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">de Blainville, 1834</span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> Other proposed classes not included at that rank in any of the above taxonoies include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa#Asterozoa_vs_Cryptosyringida" title="Eleutherozoa">Cryptosyringida</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Smith, 1984</span><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somasteroidea" title="Somasteroidea">Somasteroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Spencer, 1951</span><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa#Stenuroidea" title="Asterozoa">Stenuroidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Spencer, 1951</span><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Coronoidea <span style="font-size:85%;">Brett et al., 1983</span><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentricycloidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentricycloidea">Concentricycloidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Baker, Rowe & Clark, 1986</span><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>There are also several common alternative names involving homalozoans: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpoidea">Carpoidea</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Jaekel, 1900</span> for Homalozoa, giving rise to the term "carpoids"<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cincta" title="Cincta">Cincta</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Jaekel, 1918</span> as either the senior synonym of or sole order within Homostelea<sup id="cite_ref-Rozhnov2022_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozhnov2022-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soluta_(echinoderm)" title="Soluta (echinoderm)">Soluta</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Jaekel, 1901</span> as either the senior synonym of or sole order within Homoiostelea<sup id="cite_ref-Rozhnov2022_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozhnov2022-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Calcichordata <span style="font-size:85%;">Jeffries, 1967</span>, a subphylum effectively identical to Stylophora that was central<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the now-disproven<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Calcichordate_hypothesis" title="Calcichordate hypothesis">calcichordate hypothesis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cladograms">Cladograms</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cladograms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to 2024 review, there are two main schools of thought regarding echinoderm phylogeny: One that sees pentaradiality as a <a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphic">plesiomorphic</a> trait of the phylum, and another that considers it a derived trait (<a href="/wiki/Apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphy">apomorphy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Note that neither cladogram shown below includes all of the traditional classes, or even all of the classes mentioned in accompanying text. </p> <dl><dt>Pentaradiality as a plesiomorphy</dt></dl> <p>Supporters of pentaradiality as an initial condition of the phylum note that radial forms are the first uncontested echinoderms to appear in the fossil record. They also define homologies of echinoderm anatomy based on a division of the skeleton into two parts: those that are or are not associated with the water vascular system.<sup id="cite_ref-twoclades_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twoclades-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following cladogram is based on David & Mooi (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and David, Lefebvre, Mooi, and Parsley (2000):<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/60px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/90px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/120px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png 2x" data-file-width="2097" data-file-height="1350" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoidea" title="Helicoplacoidea">Helicoplacoidea</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helicoplacus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/20px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/30px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/40px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="669" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroidea" title="Edrioasteroidea">Edrioasteroidea</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foerstediscus-splendens.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Foerstediscus-splendens.png/30px-Foerstediscus-splendens.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Foerstediscus-splendens.png/45px-Foerstediscus-splendens.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Foerstediscus-splendens.png/60px-Foerstediscus-splendens.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Blastozoa" title="Blastozoa">Blastozoa</a>† </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid indigo;"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lepidocystis" title="Lepidocystis">Lepidocystiodea</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinzercystis_durhami.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kinzercystis_durhami.svg/20px-Kinzercystis_durhami.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kinzercystis_durhami.svg/30px-Kinzercystis_durhami.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kinzercystis_durhami.svg/40px-Kinzercystis_durhami.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="842" /></a></span> </p> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-bar" style=""><div><div style="position:absolute;white-space:nowrap;color:indigo;top:30%;">"<a href="/wiki/Eocrinoidea" title="Eocrinoidea">Eocrinoidea</a>"†</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <p>some Eocrinoids† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gogia-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/40px-Gogia-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/60px-Gogia-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/80px-Gogia-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="579" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <p>some Eocrinoids† </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:2px solid indigo;border-top:0;"> <p>some Eocrinoids† </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Homostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homostelea">Homostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">(Cincta)</span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protcinctus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/35px-Protcinctus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/53px-Protcinctus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/70px-Protcinctus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="485" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystoidea</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ctenocystis-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/35px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/53px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/70px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Homoiostelea" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoiostelea">Homoiostelea</a>† <span style="font-size:85%;">(Soluta)</span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coleicarpus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/15px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/23px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/30px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="773" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid indigo;"> <p><a href="/wiki/Diploporita" title="Diploporita">Diploporita</a>† </p> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-bar" style=""><div><div style="position:absolute;white-space:nowrap;color:indigo;top:30%;">"<a href="/wiki/Cystoidea" title="Cystoidea">Cystoidea</a>"†</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:2px solid indigo;border-top:0;"> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhombifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombifera">Rhombifera</a>† </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Blastoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastoidea">Blastoidea</a>† </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Crinozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/40px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/60px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/80px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="896" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Stylophora" title="Stylophora">Stylophora</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceratocystis-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/50px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/75px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/100px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="487" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ophiuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiuroidea">Ophiuroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiocoma_(26150611418).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/60px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/90px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/120px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2876" data-file-height="2644" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">Asteroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinaster_serpentarius_(USNM_E28192)_001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/50px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/75px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/100px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1819" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinometra_viridis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/50px-Echinometra_viridis.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/75px-Echinometra_viridis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/100px-Echinometra_viridis.png 2x" data-file-width="1527" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ophiocistioidea" title="Ophiocistioidea">Ophiocistioidea</a>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png/50px-Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png/75px-Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png/100px-Sollasina-cthulu-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1787" data-file-height="936" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holothuria_parvula.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/60px-Holothuria_parvula.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/90px-Holothuria_parvula.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/120px-Holothuria_parvula.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2001" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Total_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Total group">total group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p><p><br /> In this theory, the controversial<sup id="cite_ref-arkarua_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arkarua-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> fossil <i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i> is tentatively placed as the sister to all other echinoderms. <a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoidea" title="Helicoplacoidea">Helicoplacoidea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroidea" title="Edrioasteroidea">Edrioasteroidea</a> join it in the stem group. <a href="/wiki/Pelmatozoa" title="Pelmatozoa">Pelmatozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eocrinoidea" title="Eocrinoidea">Eocrinoidea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cystoidea" title="Cystoidea">Cystoidea</a> are shown to be paraphyletic while <a href="/wiki/Homalozoa" title="Homalozoa">Homalozoa</a> is polyphyletic. </p> <dl><dt>Pentaradiality as an apomorphy</dt></dl> <p>Those who find pentaradiality to be derived incorporate the recently-discovered fossils <i><a href="/wiki/Ctenoimbricata" title="Ctenoimbricata">Ctenoimbricata</a></i> (seen as a possible sister to all other echinoderms) and <i><a href="/wiki/Helicocystis" title="Helicocystis">Helicocystis</a></i> (seen as bridging the triradial helicoplacoids and the pentaradial crown group). They cite research indicating that the early appearance of pentaradial forms is likely due to an incomplete fossil record, as well as multiple studies showing non-radial forms as an early stem group, to argue that this is phylogeny represents an emerging consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-twoclades_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twoclades-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They reject <i>Arkarua</i> as an echinoderm due to its lack of <a href="/wiki/Stereom" title="Stereom">stereom</a> and possession of true pentaradiality instead of the 2-1-2 pseudo-pentaradiality seen in all early forms.<sup id="cite_ref-arkarua_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arkarua-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following cladogram is based on Rahman & Zamora (2024),<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> incorporating class<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subphylum<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> names from the text: </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ctenoimbricata" title="Ctenoimbricata">Ctenoimbricata</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png/35px-Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png/53px-Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png/70px-Ctenoimbricata-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="505" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid indigo;"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i>Ctenocystis</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ctenocystis-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/35px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/53px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ctenocystis-cropped.png/70px-Ctenocystis-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystoid</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i>Courtessolea</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Courtessolea-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Courtessolea-cropped.png/35px-Courtessolea-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Courtessolea-cropped.png/53px-Courtessolea-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Courtessolea-cropped.png/70px-Courtessolea-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="517" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystoid</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-bar" style=""><div><div style="position:absolute;white-space:nowrap;top:20%;">"Homalozoa"†</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <p><i>Protocinctus</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protcinctus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/35px-Protcinctus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/53px-Protcinctus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Protcinctus-cropped.png/70px-Protcinctus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="485" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Cinctan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinctan">Cinctan</a>† a.k.a. Homostelean†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid indigo;border-bottom:2px solid indigo;border-top:0;"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i>Coleicarpus</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coleicarpus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/15px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/23px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Coleicarpus-cropped.png/30px-Coleicarpus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="773" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Soluta_(echinoderm)" title="Soluta (echinoderm)">Solute</a>† a.k.a. Homoiostelean†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label" style="border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dashed;"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <i>Ceratocystis</i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceratocystis-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/50px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/75px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ceratocystis-cropped.png/100px-Ceratocystis-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="487" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Stylophoran" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylophoran">Stylophoran</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last" style="border-right:none;border-left:none;"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Helicoplacus" title="Helicoplacus">Helicoplacus</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helicoplacus-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/20px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/30px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Helicoplacus-cropped.png/40px-Helicoplacus-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="669" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(a <a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Helicoplacoid">Helicoplacoid</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Helicocystis" title="Helicocystis">Helicocystis</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helicocystis-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Helicocystis-cropped.png/15px-Helicocystis-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Helicocystis-cropped.png/23px-Helicocystis-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Helicocystis-cropped.png/30px-Helicocystis-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="697" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><b>Echinodermata</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Gogia" title="Gogia">Gogia</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gogia-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/40px-Gogia-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/60px-Gogia-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gogia-cropped.png/80px-Gogia-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="579" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(an <a href="/wiki/Eocrinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eocrinoid">Eocrinoid</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Camptostroma" title="Camptostroma">Camptostroma</a></i>† <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Camptostroma-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Camptostroma-cropped.png/30px-Camptostroma-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Camptostroma-cropped.png/45px-Camptostroma-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Camptostroma-cropped.png/60px-Camptostroma-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="482" /></a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(an <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Edrioasteroid">Edrioasteroid</a>†)</span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/40px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/60px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg/80px-202012_Metacrinus_rotundus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="896" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Echinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoidea">Echinoidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinometra_viridis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/50px-Echinometra_viridis.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/75px-Echinometra_viridis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Echinometra_viridis.png/100px-Echinometra_viridis.png 2x" data-file-width="1527" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">Holothuroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holothuria_parvula.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/60px-Holothuria_parvula.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/90px-Holothuria_parvula.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Holothuria_parvula.png/120px-Holothuria_parvula.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2001" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">Asteroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinaster_serpentarius_(USNM_E28192)_001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/50px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/75px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png/100px-Echinaster_serpentarius_%28USNM_E28192%29_001.png 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1819" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ophiuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiuroidea">Ophiuroidea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiocoma_(26150611418).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/60px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/90px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg/120px-Ophiocoma_%2826150611418%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2876" data-file-height="2644" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Total_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Total group">total group</a>)</span></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Here, <a href="/wiki/Homalozoa" title="Homalozoa">Homalozoa</a> (with uncertain placement of <a href="/wiki/Stylophora" title="Stylophora">Stylophora</a>) is shown to be a paraphyletic assemblage along the stem group, followed by <a href="/wiki/Helicoplacoidea" title="Helicoplacoidea">Helicoplacoidea</a> and then <i><a href="/wiki/Helicocystis" title="Helicocystis">Helicocystis</a></i> as the sister of the crown group. The details of <a href="/wiki/Blastozoa" title="Blastozoa">Blastozoa</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Crinozoa</a> are not addressed, as they are represented only by the classes <a href="/wiki/Eocrinoidea" title="Eocrinoidea">Eocrinoidea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a>, respectively, and the overall nature of <a href="/wiki/Pelmatozoa" title="Pelmatozoa">Pelmatozoa</a> remains unresolved. The four-way <a href="/wiki/Polytomy" title="Polytomy">polytomy</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crinoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoidea">Crinoidea</a> shows either <i><a href="/wiki/Camptostroma" title="Camptostroma">Camptostroma</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Gogia" title="Gogia">Gogia</a></i> or both could prove to be outside of the crown group. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_history">Fossil history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fossil history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Echinoderms have a rich fossil record due to their mineralized endoskeletons.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Waggoner_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waggoner-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possible_early_echinoderms">Possible early echinoderms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Possible early echinoderms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three oldest known candidate echinoderms all lack <a href="/wiki/Stereom" title="Stereom">stereom</a> and other echinoderm <a href="/wiki/Apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphy">apomorphies</a>, making their inclusion in the phylum controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-origins_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origins-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/220px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/330px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png/440px-Arkarua_adami_pennetta.png 2x" data-file-width="2097" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Arkarua adami illustration by Pennetta</figcaption></figure> <p>The oldest potential echinoderm <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> is <i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i> from the late <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> of Australia <i>circa</i> 555 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a>. These fossils are disc-like, with radial ridges on the rim and a five-pointed central depression marked with radial lines. However, the fossils have no <a href="/wiki/Stereom" title="Stereom">stereom</a> or internal structure indicating a water vascular system, so they cannot be conclusively identified.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, all known early pentaradial echinoderms are pseudo-pentaradial in a 2-1-2 pattern, with true pentaradiality as seen in <i>Arkarua</i> not seen until the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">Eleutherozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-origins_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origins-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next possible echinoderms are the <a href="/wiki/Vetulocystida" class="mw-redirect" title="Vetulocystida">Vetulocystids</a>, which date to the early to mid <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, 541–501 Ma. While the youngest vetulocystid, <i>Thylacocercus</i>, displays some characteristics that could be interemediate between older vetulocystids and <i><a href="/wiki/Yanjiahella" title="Yanjiahella">Yanjiahella</a></i>, its discoverers consider vetulocystids more likely to be stem ambulacrarians than stem echinoderms.<sup id="cite_ref-vetulocystids_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vetulocystids-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanjiahella_concept.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Yanjiahella_concept.png/220px-Yanjiahella_concept.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Yanjiahella_concept.png/330px-Yanjiahella_concept.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Yanjiahella_concept.png/440px-Yanjiahella_concept.png 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of Y. biscarpa</figcaption></figure> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Yanjiahella" title="Yanjiahella">Yanjiahella</a></i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Fortunian" title="Fortunian">Fortunian</a> (<i>circa</i> 539–529 Ma), is unlike the older fossils in that it has a plated theca, albeit one without evidence of stereom. To some, this is a reason to place it as a stem ambulacrarian or stem hemichordate.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue that absence of evidence for stereom is not evidence of absence, and consider a stem echinoderm position more likely.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Echinoderms_in_the_Cambrian_and_Ordovician">Echinoderms in the Cambrian and Ordovician</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Echinoderms in the Cambrian and Ordovician"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first universally accepted echinoderms appear in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Cambrian">Lower Cambrian</a> period; asterozoans appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, while the crinoids were a dominant group in the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>. </p><p>It is hypothesised that the ancestor of all echinoderms was a simple, motile, bilaterally symmetrical animal with a mouth, gut and anus. This ancestral organism adopted an attached mode of life with suspension feeding, and developed radial symmetry. Even so, the larvae of all echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical, and all develop radial symmetry at metamorphosis. Like their ancestor, the starfish and crinoids still attach themselves to the seabed while changing to their adult form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first known echinoderms were non-motile,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but evolved into animals able to move freely. These soon developed endoskeletal plates with stereom structure, and external ciliary grooves for feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Paleozoic echinoderms were globular, attached to the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrate</a> and were orientated with their oral surfaces facing upwards. These early echinoderms had <a href="/wiki/Ambulacral_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambulacral groove">ambulacral grooves</a> extending down the side of the body, fringed on either side by brachioles, like the pinnules of a modern crinoid. Eventually, the mobile <a href="/wiki/Eleutherozoa" title="Eleutherozoa">eleutherozoans</a> reversed their orientation to become mouth-downward. Before this happened, the podia probably had a feeding function, as they do in the crinoids today. The locomotor function of the podia came later, when the re-orientation of the mouth brought the podia into contact with the substrate for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793_147-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoritWalkerBarnes1991792–793-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Early echinoderms Ctenoimbricata, Ctenocystis, Gogia, Protocintus and Rhenocystis"><img alt="Early echinoderms Ctenoimbricata, Ctenocystis, Gogia, Protocintus and Rhenocystis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg/240px-EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg/360px-EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg/480px-EarlyEchinoderms_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Early echinoderms <i><a href="/wiki/Ctenoimbricata" title="Ctenoimbricata">Ctenoimbricata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ctenocystoidea" title="Ctenocystoidea">Ctenocystis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gogia" title="Gogia">Gogia</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protocintus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protocintus (page does not exist)">Protocintus</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhenocystis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhenocystis (page does not exist)">Rhenocystis</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 130px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 128px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echinosphaerites.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ordovician cystoid Echinosphaerites from northeastern Estonia"><img alt="The Ordovician cystoid Echinosphaerites from northeastern Estonia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Echinosphaerites.JPG/192px-Echinosphaerites.JPG" decoding="async" width="128" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Echinosphaerites.JPG/287px-Echinosphaerites.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Echinosphaerites.JPG/383px-Echinosphaerites.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1648" data-file-height="1548" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Ordovician cystoid <i><a href="/wiki/Echinosphaerites" title="Echinosphaerites">Echinosphaerites</a></i> from northeastern Estonia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 109.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 107.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossile-seelilie.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil crinoid crowns"><img alt="Fossil crinoid crowns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Fossile-seelilie.jpg/161px-Fossile-seelilie.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Fossile-seelilie.jpg/242px-Fossile-seelilie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Fossile-seelilie.jpg/322px-Fossile-seelilie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="835" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossil <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">crinoid</a> crowns</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 119.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 117.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyperoblastus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Calyx of Hyperoblastus, a blastoid from the Devonian of Wisconsin"><img alt="Calyx of Hyperoblastus, a blastoid from the Devonian of Wisconsin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hyperoblastus.jpg/176px-Hyperoblastus.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hyperoblastus.jpg/265px-Hyperoblastus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hyperoblastus.jpg/353px-Hyperoblastus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1817" data-file-height="1854" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Calyx of <i>Hyperoblastus</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Blastoid" title="Blastoid">blastoid</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_by_humans">Use by humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Use by humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_food_and_medicine">As food and medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: As food and medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg/220px-Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg/330px-Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg/440px-Sea_urchin_eggs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Sea urchin being cut open to eat its eggs</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg/220px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg/330px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg/440px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_cucumber_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Sea cucumbers as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2019, 129,052 tonnes of echinoderms were harvested. The majority of these were sea cucumbers (59,262 tonnes) and sea urchins (66,341 tonnes).<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are used mainly for food, but also in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PangestutiArifin2018_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PangestutiArifin2018-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea cucumbers are considered a delicacy in some countries of southeast Asia; as such, they are in imminent danger of being over-harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular species include the pineapple roller <i><a href="/wiki/Thelenota_ananas" title="Thelenota ananas">Thelenota ananas</a></i> (<i>susuhan</i>) and the red sea cucumber <i><a href="/wiki/Holothuria_edulis" title="Holothuria edulis">Holothuria edulis</a></i>. These and other species are colloquially known as <i>bêche de mer</i> or <i>trepang</i> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The sea cucumbers are boiled for twenty minutes and then dried both naturally and later over a fire which gives them a smoky tang. In China they are used as a basis for gelatinous soups and stews.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both male and female gonads of sea urchins are consumed, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. The taste is described as soft and melting, like a mixture of seafood and fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_2014_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson_2014-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea urchin breeding trials have been undertaken to try to compensate for <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_research">In research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: In research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of their robust larval growth, sea urchins are widely used in research, particularly as <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a> and ecotoxicology.<sup id="cite_ref-Insight_from_the_Sea_Urchin_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Insight_from_the_Sea_Urchin-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Arbacia_punctulata" title="Arbacia punctulata">Arbacia punctulata</a></i> are used for this purpose in embryological studies.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large size and the transparency of the eggs enables the observation of <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> cells in the process of fertilising <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Insight_from_the_Sea_Urchin_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Insight_from_the_Sea_Urchin-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arm regeneration potential of brittle stars is being studied in connection with understanding and treating <a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">neurodegenerative</a> diseases in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Barkhouse_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkhouse-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomic</a> data relevant to echinoderm model organisms are collected in <a href="/wiki/Echinobase" title="Echinobase">Echinobase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10.1093_nar_gkab1005_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093_nar_gkab1005-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10.1093_genetics_iyae002_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093_genetics_iyae002-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently there are 4 species of echinoderms fully supported (gene pages, BLAST, JBrowse tracks, genome downloads) including <i><a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></i> (purple sea urchin), <i><a href="/wiki/Lytechinus_variegatus" title="Lytechinus variegatus">Lytechinus variegatus</a></i> (green sea urchin), <i><a href="/wiki/Patiria_miniata" title="Patiria miniata">Patiria miniata</a></i> (bat star) and <i><a href="/wiki/Acanthaster_planci" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthaster planci">Acanthaster planci</a></i> (Crown-of-thorns sea star). Partially supported species (no gene pages) include <i><a href="/wiki/Lytechinus_pictus" title="Lytechinus pictus">Lytechinus pictus</a></i> (painted sea urchin), <i><a href="/wiki/Asterias_rubens" class="mw-redirect" title="Asterias rubens">Asterias rubens</a></i> (sugar star) and <i><a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">Anneissia japonica</a></i> (feather star crinoid).<sup id="cite_ref-10.1093_nar_gkab1005_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093_nar_gkab1005-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10.1093_genetics_iyae002_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093_genetics_iyae002-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The calcareous tests or shells of echinoderms are used as a source of <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> by farmers in areas where <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> is unavailable and some are used in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Fish_meal" title="Fish meal">fish meal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four thousand tons of the animals are used annually for these purposes. This trade is often carried out in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">shellfish</a> farmers, for whom the starfish pose a major threat by eating their cultured stock. Other uses for the starfish they recover include the manufacture of animal feed, composting and the preparation of dried specimens for the arts and craft trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Barkhouse_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkhouse-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_echinoderm_genera" title="List of prehistoric echinoderm genera">List of prehistoric echinoderm genera</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, A., Zamora, S. & Álvaro, J. The oldest echinoderm faunas from Gondwana show that echinoderm body plan diversification was rapid. Nat Commun 4, 1385 (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2391">https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2391</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/echinoderm">"echinoderm"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a></i> (Online). n.d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=echinoderm&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fechinoderm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2022" class="citation web cs1">Hall, Danielle (3 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/echinoderms">"Echinoderms | Smithsonian Ocean"</a>. <i>ocean.si.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Boston, Massachusetts: Springer. pp. 260–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-8059-5_14">10.1007/978-1-4419-8059-5_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8058-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8058-8"><bdi>978-1-4419-8058-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21528703">21528703</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Echinoderm+Immunity&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Immunity&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.series=Advances+in+Experimental+Medicine+and+Biology&rft.pages=260-301&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21528703&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-8059-5_14&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-8058-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=L.+Courtney&rft.au=Ghosh%2C+Julie&rft.au=Buckley%2C+Katherine+M.&rft.au=Clow%2C+Lori+A.&rft.au=Dheilly%2C+Nolwenn+M.&rft.au=Haug%2C+Tor&rft.au=Henson%2C+John+H.&rft.au=Li%2C+Chun&rft.au=Lun%2C+Cheng+Man&rft.au=Majeske%2C+Audrey+J.&rft.au=Matranga%2C+Valeria&rft.au=Nair%2C+Sham+V.&rft.au=Rast%2C+Jonathan+P.&rft.au=Raftos%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Roth%2C+Mattias&rft.au=Sacchi%2C+Sandro&rft.au=Schrankel%2C+Catherine+S.&rft.au=Stensv%C3%A5g%2C+Klara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuppertFoxBarnes2004872–929_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004">Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004</a>, pp. 872–929.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesSiikavuopioJohansson2018" class="citation web cs1">James, Philip; Siikavuopio, Sten; Johansson, Gunhild Seljehaug (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urchinproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2018/04/NPP_Urchin_Publication_final_16.4.2018.pdf">"A Guide to the Sea Urchin Reproductive Cycle and Staging Sea Urchin Gonad Samples"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Nofima. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://urchinproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2018/04/NPP_Urchin_Publication_final_16.4.2018.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2022</span>. <q>The GI [% of body weight made up by the gonad] of urchins in the wild can vary hugely and can be less than 1% or as high as 20%, whilst for cultured sea urchins GI values can be as high as 35%</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Sea+Urchin+Reproductive+Cycle+and+Staging+Sea+Urchin+Gonad+Samples&rft.pub=Nofima&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Siikavuopio%2C+Sten&rft.au=Johansson%2C+Gunhild+Seljehaug&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Furchinproject.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F3%2F2018%2F04%2FNPP_Urchin_Publication_final_16.4.2018.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edmondson1935-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson1935_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmondson1935" class="citation journal cs1">Edmondson, C.H. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op11-8.pdf">"Autotomy and regeneration of Hawaiian starfishes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bishop Museum Occasional Papers</i>. <b>11</b> (8): 3–20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op11-8.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bishop+Museum+Occasional+Papers&rft.atitle=Autotomy+and+regeneration+of+Hawaiian+starfishes&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3-20&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Edmondson&rft.aufirst=C.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhbs.bishopmuseum.org%2Fpubs-online%2Fpdf%2Fop11-8.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McAlaray1987-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McAlaray1987_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McAlaray1987_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAlary1993" class="citation conference cs1">McAlary, Florence A. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.library.csuci.edu/handle/10139/3393"><i>Population Structure and Reproduction of the Fissiparous Seastar, </i>Linckia columbiae<i> Gray, on Santa Catalina Island, California</i></a>. 3rd California Islands Symposium. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Population+Structure+and+Reproduction+of+the+Fissiparous+Seastar%2C+Linckia+columbiae+Gray%2C+on+Santa+Catalina+Island%2C+California&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=McAlary&rft.aufirst=Florence+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.library.csuci.edu%2Fhandle%2F10139%2F3393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hotchkiss2000-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hotchkiss2000_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See last paragraph in review above Analysis<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotchkiss2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hotchkiss, Frederick H. 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(1 June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F40.3.340">"On the Number of Rays in Starfish"</a>. <i>American Zoologist</i>. <b>40</b> (3): 340–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F40.3.340">10.1093/icb/40.3.340</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=On+the+Number+of+Rays+in+Starfish&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=340-354&rft.date=2000-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F40.3.340&rft.aulast=Hotchkiss&rft.aufirst=Frederick+H.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252F40.3.340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fisher1925-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher1925_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1925" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, W. K. (1 March 1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/reprint/48/3/171.pdf">"Asexual Reproduction in the Starfish, <i>Sclerasterias</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Biological Bulletin</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 171–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1536659">10.2307/1536659</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1536659">1536659</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/reprint/48/3/171.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Clements; R. M. Showman (1 February 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/reprint/180/1/167">"Nutrient Translocation during Early Disc Regeneration in the Brittlestar <i>Microphiopholis gracillima</i> (Stimpson) (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)"</a>. <i>Biol Bull</i>. <b>180</b> (1): 167–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1542439">10.2307/1542439</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1542439">1542439</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29303627">29303627</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wild Singapore<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sea+stars&rft.pub=Wild+Singapore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wildsingapore.com%2Fwildfacts%2Fechinodermata%2Fasteroidea%2Fasteroidea.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Echinoderm&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBather1900" class="citation book cs1">Bather, F. A. (1900). "Chapter VIII: General Description of the Echinoderma". In Lankester, E. Ray (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/59435"><i>A Treatise on Zoology, Part III: The Echinoderma</i></a>. Vol. 6. London: Adam & Charles Black. pp. 1–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00222930008678384">10.1080/00222930008678384</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+VIII%3A+General+Description+of+the+Echinoderma&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+Zoology%2C+Part+III%3A+The+Echinoderma&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-37&rft.pub=Adam+%26+Charles+Black&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00222930008678384&rft.aulast=Bather&rft.aufirst=F.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fpart%2F59435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruscaMooreShuster2016" class="citation book cs1">Brusca, Richard C.; Moore, Wendy; Shuster, Stephen M. 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class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7063041">7063041</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32152310">32152310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Re-evaluating+the+phylogenetic+position+of+the+enigmatic+early+Cambrian+deuterostome+Yanjiahella&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1286&rft.date=2020-03-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7063041%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatCo..11.1286Z&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32152310&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-14920-x&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.aulast=Zamora&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Wright%2C+David+F.&rft.au=Mooi%2C+Rich&rft.au=Lefebvre%2C+Bertrand&rft.au=Guensburg%2C+Thomas+E.&rft.au=Gorzelak%2C+Przemys%C5%82aw&rft.au=David%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Sumrall%2C+Colin+D.&rft.au=Cole%2C+Selina+R.&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Aaron+W.&rft.au=Sprinkle%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7063041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEchinoderm" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div 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title="wikispecies:Echinodermata">Echinodermata</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.echinobase.org">echinobase.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/">The Echinoid Directory</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Echinodermata&contgroup=Deuterostomia">Echinodermata</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" title="Tree of Life Web Project">Tree of Life Web Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/echinodermata.php?menuentry=sleutel">Echinoderms of the North Sea</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animalia" title="Template talk:Animalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_animal_phyla" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Animalia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge"><b>Porifera (sponges)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora (comb jellies)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Planulozoa" title="Planulozoa">Planulozoa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa (<i>Trichoplax</i> and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria"><b>Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (Triploblasts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of the animal root <a href="/wiki/Animal#Internal_phylogeny" title="Animal">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Benthozoa" title="Benthozoa">Benthozoa</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div id="Bilateria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bilateria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -24px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata (chordates)</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><b>Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Protostomia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scalidophora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Scalidophora" title="Scalidophora">Scalidophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida (penis worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">N+L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nematoida" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Nematoida" title="Nematoida">Nematoida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode"><b>Nematoda (roundworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="L+P" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera (corset animals)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora (velvet worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod"><b>Arthropoda (arthropods)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade"><b>Tardigrada (waterbears)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -20px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gnathifera" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(Spiralia)" title="Gnathifera (Spiralia)">Gnathifera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha (arrow worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulid" title="Gnathostomulid">Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limnognathia" title="Limnognathia">Micrognathozoa <i>(Limnognathia)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">Rotifera (wheel animals)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -41px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Platytrochozoa" title="Platytrochozoa">Platytrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="R+M" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">R+M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Rouphozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouphozoa">Rouphozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm"><b>Platyhelminthes (flatworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotrich" title="Gastrotrich">Gastrotricha (hairybacks)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida or Rhombozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinella" title="Salinella">Monoblastozoa (<i>Salinella</i>)</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -44px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbion" title="Symbion">Cycliophora (<i>Symbion</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid"><b>Annelida (segmented worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+K</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca"><b>Mollusca (molluscs)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Kryptotrochozoa" title="Kryptotrochozoa">Kryptotrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea"><b>Nemertea (ribbon worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa s.l.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta or Kamptozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa"><b>Ectoprocta (moss animals)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopoda (lamp shells)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronida (horseshoe worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of Bilateria <a href="/wiki/Bilateria#Phylogeny" title="Bilateria">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xenambulacraria" title="Xenambulacraria">Xenambulacraria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centroneuralia" title="Centroneuralia">Centroneuralia</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Major_groupswithin_phyla" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #f0f0f0;">Major groups<br />within phyla</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">Demosponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">Glass sponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_sponge" title="Calcareous sponge">Calcareous sponges</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidarians</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoans inc. corals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoans inc. jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoans</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">Lancelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">Tunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Echinoderms</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Sea lilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoans inc. starfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoans inc. sea urchins</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_worm" title="Acorn worm">Acorn worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterobranchia" title="Pterobranchia">Pterobranchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromadorea" title="Chromadorea">Chromadorea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoplea" title="Enoplea">Enoplea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secernentea" title="Secernentea">Secernentea</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelicerata" title="Chelicerata">Chelicerates inc. arachnids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">Myriapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapods inc. insects</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminths</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbellaria" title="Turbellaria">Turbellaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Trematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogenea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Ectoproctans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelids</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">Polychaetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitellata" title="Clitellata">Clitellata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">Bivalves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">Chitons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusk_shell" title="Tusk shell">Tusk shells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div> <dl><dd>Phyla with ≥1000 extant species <b>bolded</b></dd> <dd>Potentially <a href="/wiki/Dubious_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubious species">dubious phyla</a> †</dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Echinodermata</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44631" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q44631">Q44631</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Echinodermata">Echinodermata</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Echinodermata/">Echinodermata</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Echinodermata">Echinodermata</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">BioLib: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id14962">14962</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=4">4</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/1926">1926</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1ECHIP">1ECHIP</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/50">50</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/47549">47549</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=158">158</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=156857">156857</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7586">7586</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/31f21a6e-371d-42b9-868c-569f2249ab4a">31f21a6e-371d-42b9-868c-569f2249ab4a</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=451020">451020</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=30739">30739</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1806">1806</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44631#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4182718-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85040701">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Échinodermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12002292z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Échinodermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12002292z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567232">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ostnokožci"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph262572&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Equinodermos"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX527270">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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