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Fithiseán - Vicipéid

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saintréithe_Cáithnínchosúla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Saintréithe Cáithnínchosúla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saintréithe_Cáithnínchosúla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Stair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samhlacha_Luatha_den_Adamh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samhlacha_Luatha_den_Adamh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Samhlacha Luatha den Adamh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samhlacha_Luatha_den_Adamh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samhail_Niels_Bohr_den_Adamh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samhail_Niels_Bohr_den_Adamh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Samhail Niels Bohr den Adamh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samhail_Niels_Bohr_den_Adamh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samhail_Nua_den_Adamh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samhail_Nua_den_Adamh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.1</span> <span>Samhail Nua den Adamh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samhail_Nua_den_Adamh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einstein_agus_an_Iarmhairt_Fhótaileicreach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einstein_agus_an_Iarmhairt_Fhótaileicreach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.2</span> <span>Einstein agus an Iarmhairt Fhótaileicreach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einstein_agus_an_Iarmhairt_Fhótaileicreach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ciallú_Bohr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ciallú_Bohr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.3</span> <span>Ciallú Bohr</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ciallú_Bohr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Na_Línte_Speictreacha_agus_an_tAdamh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Na_Línte_Speictreacha_agus_an_tAdamh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.4</span> <span>Na Línte Speictreacha agus an tAdamh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Na_Línte_Speictreacha_agus_an_tAdamh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Déacht_Toinne_agus_Cáithnín" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Déacht_Toinne_agus_Cáithnín"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.5</span> <span>Déacht Toinne agus Cáithnín</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Déacht_Toinne_agus_Cáithnín-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuiscintí_Nua-aimseartha_agus_a_mBaint_le_Prionsabal_Éiginnteachta_Heisenberg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuiscintí_Nua-aimseartha_agus_a_mBaint_le_Prionsabal_Éiginnteachta_Heisenberg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Tuiscintí Nua-aimseartha agus a mBaint le Prionsabal Éiginnteachta Heisenberg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuiscintí_Nua-aimseartha_agus_a_mBaint_le_Prionsabal_Éiginnteachta_Heisenberg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ainmneacha_na_bhFithiseán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ainmneacha_na_bhFithiseán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ainmneacha na bhFithiseán</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ainmneacha_na_bhFithiseán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-An_Sainmhíniú_Foirmeálta_de_réir_na_Meicnice_Candamaí" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#An_Sainmhíniú_Foirmeálta_de_réir_na_Meicnice_Candamaí"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>An Sainmhíniú Foirmeálta de réir na Meicnice Candamaí</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-An_Sainmhíniú_Foirmeálta_de_réir_na_Meicnice_Candamaí-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaimh_Hidriginchosúla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaimh_Hidriginchosúla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Adaimh Hidriginchosúla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaimh_Hidriginchosúla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Candamuimhreacha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Candamuimhreacha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Candamuimhreacha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Candamuimhreacha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuma_agus_Déanamh_na_bhFithiseán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuma_agus_Déanamh_na_bhFithiseán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Cuma agus Déanamh na bhFithiseán</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuma_agus_Déanamh_na_bhFithiseán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Clár ábhair" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronenorbital" title="Elektronenorbital – Gearmáinis" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektronenorbital" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Gearmáinis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Bascais" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Bascais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitaali" title="Orbitaali – Fionlainnis" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orbitaali" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fionlainnis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitale_%C3%A9lectronique" title="Orbitale électronique – Fraincis" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Orbitale électronique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Fraincis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitaal" title="Orbitaal – Freaslainnis an Tuaiscirt" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Orbitaal" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Freaslainnis an Tuaiscirt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitale" title="Orbitale – Cróitis" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Orbitale" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Cróitis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E8%BB%8C%E9%81%93" title="電子軌道 – Seapáinis" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電子軌道" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Seapáinis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Электрондық орбита – Casaicis" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электрондық орбита" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Casaicis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital%C4%97" title="Orbitalė – Liotuáinis" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Orbitalė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Liotuáinis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit%C4%81le" title="Orbitāle – Laitvis" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Orbitāle" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Laitvis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%BB" title="Электрон үүл – Mongóilis" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Электрон үүл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongóilis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Malaeis" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malaeis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitaal" title="Orbitaal – Ollainnis" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Orbitaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Ollainnis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Nua-Ioruais" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nua-Ioruais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Bocmál" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Bocmál" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Polainnis" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polainnis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitala" title="Orbitala – Slóivéinis" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Orbitala" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slóivéinis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital" title="Orbital – Vítneaimis" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Orbital" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vítneaimis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3355206#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Athraigh na naisc idirtheanga" class="wbc-editpage">Athraigh naisc</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="ga" dir="ltr"><p>Is éard is <b>fithiseán</b> ann ná feidhm <a href="/wiki/Matamaitic" title="Matamaitic">mhatamaiticiúil</a> a thugann cur síos ar iompraíocht an <a href="/wiki/Leictreon" title="Leictreon">leictreoin</a> san <a href="/wiki/Adamh" title="Adamh">adamh</a> nó sa <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3il%C3%ADn" title="Móilín">mhóilín</a>. Is féidir dul i dtuilleamaí na <a href="/wiki/Feidhm_(matamaitic)" title="Feidhm (matamaitic)">feidhme matamaiticiúla</a> sin leis an réigiúin a oibriú amach a gcoinneoidh an leictreon taobh istigh de, ar acht go bhfuil an leictreon ar leibhéal áirithe fuinnimh. Is féidir an dá thuiscint a bhaint as an téarma sin "fithiseán": is é an fheidhm mhatamaiticiúil é, ach is é an réigiún spás freisin ar féidir a theorainneacha a oibriú amach agus tú ag dul i dtuilleamaí na feidhme. Thar aon rud eile, is iad na fithiseáin adamhacha na staideanna éagsúla candamacha i <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scamall_na_leictreon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Scamall na leictreon (níl an leathanach ann)">scamall na leictreon</a> timpeall <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BAicl%C3%A9as_adamhach" title="Núicléas adamhach">núicléas an adaimh</a>. </p><p>Tá áit ar gach fithiseán do dhá leictreon, ar acht is go sáraíonn siad guairne a chéile. Toradh é seo do phrionsabal an eisiaimh, nó prionsabal <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a>, a deir nach féidir le dhá leictreon an staid chandamach chéanna a bheith acu i néal leictreon aon adamh amháin. </p><p>Ba í an tuiscint a bhí ag an bh<a href="/wiki/Fisic" title="Fisic">fisic</a> chlasaiceach ar an adamh ná go raibh na leictreoin ag timpeallú núicléas an adaimh cosúil leis an dóigh a mbíonn na <a href="/wiki/Pl%C3%A1in%C3%A9ad" title="Pláinéad">pláinéid</a> ag dul timpeall na <a href="/wiki/An_Ghrian" class="mw-redirect" title="An Ghrian">Gréine</a>. D'fhorbair an <a href="/wiki/Meicnic_chandamach" title="Meicnic chandamach">mheicnic chandamach</a> toisc gur theastaigh ó na <a href="/wiki/Fisiceoir" title="Fisiceoir">fisiceoir</a>í iompraíocht na leictreon a mhíniú, agus iad ag timpeallú an núicléis. </p><p>Níl an tuiscint chlasaiceach ag teacht go rómhaith leis an réaltacht ar leibhéal na gcáithníní fo-adamhacha, agus mar sin, is fearr "fithiseáin" ná "fithisí" a thabhairt ar na réigiúin ina bhfuil na leictreoin le fáil. San adamh, is féidir áit an leictreoin a shainiú trí luachanna an cheithre uimhir chandamacha a thabhairt: </p> <ul><li>an phríomh-chandamuimhir, a thugann an leictreonsceall a bhfuil an leictreon suite air. In áit na gcandamuimhreacha, is minic a úsáidtear litreacha leis an leictreonsceall a thabhairt: is é an K-sceall an ceann is cóngaraí don núicléas, agus ag dul amach ón núicléas táthar ag dul ar aghaidh san aibítir: K, L, M, N...</li></ul> <ul><li>an chandamuimhir asamatach nó an chandamuimhir fithiseáin, a thugann an leibhéal fuinnimh - an "fosceall" a bhfuil an leictreon suite air, taobh istigh den leictreonsceall. Ar an gcandamuimhir seo a aithnítear an <i>cineál</i> fithiseáin a bhfuil an leictreon suite air. Úsáidtear litreacha anseo freisin: is é an s-leibhéal an leibhéal is laige fuinnimh, agus ina dhiaidh sin, p, d, f, g, h... (i ndiaidh an f, cloítear le hordú aibítreach na litreach).</li></ul> <ul><li>an chandamuimhir mhaighnéadach, a thugann an ceann ar leith de na fithiseáin den chineál chéanna a bhfuil an leictreon suite air.</li></ul> <ul><li>an chandamuimhir ghuairneach, a thugann, cé acu den dá leictreon é a bhfuil áit dóibh san fhithiseán áirithe sin.</li></ul> <p>Má théann dhá fhithiseán as dhá adamh éagsúla le chéile, cruthófar dhá fhithiseán nua: an fithiseán nascach agus an fithiseán frithnascach. Má tá leictreon amháin ar cheachtar den dá fhithiseán, rachaidh siad ar an bhfithiseán nascach, agus ceanglófar nasc comhfhiúsach idir an dá adamh, ó tá an fithiseán nascach ar leibhéal níos laige fuinnimh ná an dá fhithiseán a bhí ann ar dtús. Na leictreoin bhreise áfach, rachaidh siad ar an bhfithiseán frithnascach atá ar leibhéal níos airde ná an dá fhithiseán a bhí ann ar dtús, agus cuirfidh siad an nasc ó mhaith. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Na_Fithiseáin_Adamhacha"><span id="Na_Fithise.C3.A1in_Adamhacha"></span>Na Fithiseáin Adamhacha</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Na Fithiseáin Adamhacha" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Na Fithiseáin Adamhacha"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Domh%C3%A1:Neon_orbitals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Neon_orbitals.png/442px-Neon_orbitals.png" decoding="async" width="442" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Neon_orbitals.png/663px-Neon_orbitals.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Neon_orbitals.png/884px-Neon_orbitals.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>Taispeánann an pictiúr seo na chéad chúig fhithiseán adamhacha: 1s, 2s, 2p<sub>x</sub>, 2p<sub>y</sub>, agus 2p<sub>z</sub>. Léiríonn na dathanna pasanna na tonnfheidhme. Seo iad graif na bhfeidhmeanna <i>ψ(x,y,z)</i> agus iad ag brath ar chomhordanáidí aon leictreon amháin. Le cosúlacht fhadaithe na bhfeidhmeanna <i>ψ(x,y,z)</i><sup>2</sup> a thaispeánann an dlús dóchúlachta ar dhóigh níos dírí, féach graif na d-fhithiseán thíos.</figcaption></figure> <p>Is éard is fithiseán adamhach ann ná feidhm mhatamaiticiúil a thugann cur síos ar iompraíocht thonnchosúil an leictreoin nó na leictreondíse san adamh. Is féidir dul i dtuilleamaí na feidhme seo leis an dóchúlacht a oibriú amach aon leictreon de chuid an adamh a aimsiú in aon réigiún ar leith timpeall an núicléas. Is féidir an téarma a úsáid le tagairt don réigiún féin inar dócha teacht ar an leictreon, má ghlactar leis gurb ionann an chuma atá ar an réigiún sin agus ar an bhfithiseán matamaiticiúil. </p><p>Feidhmeanna matamaiticiúla iad na fithiseáin adamhacha nach bhfuil ag brath ach ar chomhordanáidí aon leictreon amháin. Tugann siad cur síos ar iompraíocht an leictreoin seo mar thonn (de réir thuiscint dhéachúil na candamfhisice, ní féidir cuid de shaintréithe an leictreoin a thuiscint ach dearcadh ar an leictreon mar thonn, mar chandam radaíochta seachas mar choirpín), agus sin é an tuige go dtugtar tonnfheidhmeanna ar na fithiseáin mhatamaiticiúla freisin. </p><p>Is minic a úsáidtear an litir Ghréagach <i>psi</i> (ψ) le tagairt d'fhithiseáin éagsúla. Is iad na fithiseáin réitigh chruinne na cothromóide difreálaí ar a dtugtar tonnchothromóid Schrödinger, ach ní mór cuimhne a choinneáil air go bhfuil an chothromóid sin bunaithe ar adamh na hidrigine, nach bhfuil ach aon leictreon amháin ann – rachadh an chothromóid sin thar acmhainn na matamaiticeoirí féin dá bhfairsingeofaí í le freastal ar adamh a bhfuil níos mó leictreon ann. Mar sin féin, baintear úsáid as samhail hidriginbhunaithe an adaimh le struchtúr na n-adamh eile a thuiscint. </p><p>I gcomhthéacs an amharcléirithe is iad na fithiseáin na bunbhloic thógála sa tsamhail ”leictreon-néil” a úsáidtear le huraiceacht na ceimice a mhúineadh. Tá an tsamhail seo den adamh bunaithe ar an tsamhail tonnmheicnice, ach san am chéanna tá sí i dtuilleamaí na gcáithníní mar choincheap leis na modhanna oibre matamaitice a léiriú a úsáidtear le ballaíocht tuairime a thabhairt ar na tonnfheidhmeanna sna hadaimh il-leictreonacha. Is é sin, taispeánann an tsamhail seo cén áit a mbíonn na leictreoin san adamh (agus sinn ag dearcadh ar na leictreoin mar cháithníní). </p><p>Sa tsamhail theagascúil seo, glactar leis gurb éard atá san adamh ná an núicléas agus na leictreoin atá ag timpeallú an núicléis. Tá na leictreoin dáilte ar na fithiseáin adamhacha, arb ionann iad agus staideanna candamacha na leictreon. Is cáithníní iad na leictreoin a bhfuil lucht leictreach diúltach acu, agus iad i ngéibheann sa réimse leictreach timpeall an núicléis a bhfuil lucht leictreach deimhneach aige – is féidir go bhfuil an réimse leictreach laghdaithe faoi thionchar na leictreon eile, ach sa deireadh, is réimse deimhneach é agus é ag aomadh na leictreon chuig an núicléas. Is í an mheicnic chandamach is cuimsithí a thugann cur síos ar an néal leictreon, ach sa mheicnic chandamach, glactar leis na leictreoin mar thonnta seasta timpeall an núicléis, seachas mar cháithníní. </p><p>Go coitianta roinntear na fithiseáin adamhacha ina gcatagóirí de réir na gcandamuimhreacha <i>n</i>, <i>l</i>, agus <i>m</i>, a fhreagraíonn d'fhuinneamh an leictreoin, dá mhóiminteam uilleach agus do chuidí veicteorach an mhóimintim uilligh sin. Tá a thrí chandamuimhir féin ag gach fithiseán, agus áit ann do leictreon amháin nó dhó. An fithiseán a bhfuil an chandamuimhir uilleach <i>l</i> 0 aige, is é an s-fhithiseán é, más ionann <i>l</i> agus 1, is éard atá againn ná p-fhithiseán, má ardaítear an chandamuimhir go 3, gheofar d-fhithiseán, agus is é an f-fhithiseán an chéad cheann eile. Tá na litreacha sin bunaithe ar shaintréithe na línte speictreascópacha a fhreagraíonn dóibh; <i>sharp</i> (géar), <i>principal</i> (príomh-), <i>diffuse</i> (scaipthe) agus <i>fundamental</i> (bunúsach). Fithiseáin is airde <i>l</i>-uimhir ná na cinn seo, ainmnítear de réir ordú na haibítre iad, cé go bhfágtar an litir j ar lár: <i>s, p, d, f, g, h, i, l...</i> </p><p>An tonnfheidhm a shamhlaítear le néal leictreon an adaimh il-leictreon, is féidir glacadh leis go gcuirtear le chéile í as fithiseáin simplí an adaimh hidrigine, de réir chumraíocht na leictreon – is é sin, an dóigh a bhfuil siad scaipthe ar na fithiseáin hidriginchosúla. </p><p>Ψ<sub>He</sub>(x<sub>1</sub>,y<sub>1</sub>,z<sub>1</sub>,x<sub>2</sub>,y<sub>2</sub>,z<sub>2</sub>) ≈ 1s(x<sub>1</sub>,y<sub>1</sub>,z<sub>1</sub>) • 1s(x<sub>2</sub>,y<sub>2</sub>,z<sub>2</sub>) = 1s<sup>2</sup>. </p><p>Seo mar a léitear an fhoirmle thuas: ”An tonnfheidhm chruinn atá ag brath ar chomhordanáidí comhuaineacha an dá leictreon in adamh an héiliam, is féidir é a neasú mar thoradh dhá fhithiseán den chineál s agus gach ceann acu ag brath ar chomhordanáidí aon leictreon amháin.” (Is é is brí leis an téarma "neasú" ná ballaíocht tuairime a thabhairt atá réasúnta cruinn ó thaobh na matamaitice de.) </p><p>I gcumraíocht den chineál sin roinntear na leictreondíseanna de réir patrún simplí atá bunaithe ar uimhreacha corra agus iad ag dul i méadaíocht (1,3,5,7...). Tagraíonn gach uimhir acu d'fhoireann áirithe de leictreondíseanna a bhfuil fuinneamh agus móiminteam uilleach ar leith acu. An dóigh a dtagann dúile cosúla go ”peiriadach” i ndiaidh a chéile i d<a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1bla_peiriadach" title="Tábla peiriadach">Tábla Peiriadach na nDúl</a>, is toradh nádúrtha é don dóigh a líontar uimhir iomlán na leictreon ar fhoireann iomlán fithiseán de chineál áirithe. </p><p>Gineann fachtóirí uilleacha na bhfithiseán adamhacha Θ(θ) Φ(φ) na feidhmeanna s, p, d agus araile mar fhíortheaglamaí d'armónaigh sféarúla Y<sub>lm</sub>(θ, φ) (is candamuimhreacha iad l agus m anseo). Go tipiciúil tá trí fhoirm mhatamaiticiúil ann do na feidhmeanna gathacha R(r) is féidir a thoghadh mar thúsphointe le saintréithe na n-adamh il-leictreon agus na móilíní a oibriú amach. </p> <ol><li>Na fithiseáin adamhacha ”hidriginchosúla”, tá siad bunaithe ar réiteach cruinn chothromóid Schrödinger d'aon núicléas amháin agus aon leictreon amháin. An chuid den fheidhm atá ag brath ar an bhfad ón núicléas, tá nóid ghathacha aici agus í ag meathlú mar e<sup>(-fad)</sup> ón núicléas.</li> <li>An fithiseán de chineál Slater, níl nóid ghathacha aige, ach meathlaíonn sé ag dul i bhfad ón núicléas díreach cosúil leis an bhfithiseán hidriginchosúil.</li> <li>Níl nóid ghathacha ag an bhfithiseán de chineál Gauss, níl nóid ghathacha aige, agus meathlaíonn sé de réir e<sup>(-fad cearnaithe)</sup>.</li></ol> <p>Cé go mbaintear leas as na fithiseáin hidriginchosúla i gcónaí sa teagasc, ón lá ar tháinig na ríomhairí chun tarrthála do na ceimiceoirí candamacha, is fearr na fithiseáin de chineál Slater a úsáid le taighde a dhéanamh ar na hadaimh agus ar na móilíní dé-adamhacha. Is iad na fithiseáin de chineál Gauss a úsáidtear le tuiscint a fháil ar na móilíní trí-adamhacha agus iladamhacha. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saintréithe_Déacha_na_Leictreon"><span id="Saintr.C3.A9ithe_D.C3.A9acha_na_Leictreon"></span>Saintréithe Déacha na Leictreon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Saintréithe Déacha na Leictreon" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Saintréithe Déacha na Leictreon"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuair a tháinig meicnic an chandaim ar an bhfód mar theoiric san fhisic, tuigeadh do na ceimiceoirí féin nach raibh sé indéanta cur síos a thabhairt ar na leictreoin, agus iad ag timpeallú núicléas an adaimh, mar cháithníní amháin. Cuireann saintréithe áirithe na leictreon tonnta radaíochta i gcuimhne duit, seachas cáithníní damhna. Deirtear go bhfuil déachas toinne agus cáithnín ag baint leis na leictreoin. Sa chiall seo, tá na saintréithe seo leanas ag na leictreoin: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saintréithe_Tonnchosúla"><span id="Saintr.C3.A9ithe_Tonnchos.C3.BAla"></span>Saintréithe Tonnchosúla</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Saintréithe Tonnchosúla" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Saintréithe Tonnchosúla"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ní thimpeallaíonn na leictreoin an núicléas cosúil leis an dóigh a dtimpeallaíonn na pláinéid an ghrian. Ina áit sin, is ann do na leictreoin mar thonnta seasta. An fuinneamh is ísle is féidir don leictreon a ghlacadh, is féidir dearcadh air mar analach na bunmhinicíochta atá ag tonn ar théad. Is féidir ansin staideanna is airde fuinneamh ná sin a chur i gcomparáid le harmónaigh na bunmhinicíochta. </p><p>Ní féidir a rá go bhfuil an leictreon suite i bpointe áirithe, cé go dtugann tonnfheidhm an leictreoin le fios cé chomh dóchúil atá sé idirghníomhú leis an leictreon i bpointe áirithe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saintréithe_Cáithnínchosúla"><span id="Saintr.C3.A9ithe_C.C3.A1ithn.C3.ADnchos.C3.BAla"></span>Saintréithe Cáithnínchosúla</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Saintréithe Cáithnínchosúla" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Saintréithe Cáithnínchosúla"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Is slánuimhir í uimhir na leictreon atá ag timpeallú núicléas áirithe. Is féidir a rá go bhfuil leictreon amháin, dhá leictreon nó – abair – trí leictreon agus dhá scór ag timpeallú an núicléis, ach ní féidir a rá go mbeadh dhá leictreon go leith nó trí cheathrú cuid den leictreon á dhéanamh. </p><p>Is féidir leis na leictreoin léim a ghearradh ó fhithiseán go fithiseán mar a dhéanfadh cáithnín. Má bhuaileann fótón amháin solais nó radaíochta na leictreoin, ní ghearrfaidh ach aon leictreon amháin léim go leibhéal níos airde fuinneamh faoi thionchar an fhótóin sin. </p><p>Coinníonn na leictreoin airíonna cáithnínchosúla mar lucht leictreach agus guairne. Tá an lucht leictreach céanna ag gach tonnstaid agus atá ag an leictreon mar cháithnín, agus tá a guairne scoite féin ag gach tonnstaid (guairne suas nó guairne síos). </p><p>Ní thugann na fithiseáin adamhacha cur síos sásúil ar chuma is ar chosúlacht an atmaisféir seo, ach amháin más adamh atá i gceist nach bhfuil ach aon leictreon amháin ann (is é sin, adamh hidrigine go bunúsach). San adamh ina bhfuil tuilleadh leictreon, is dual do na leictreoin bhreise an spás timpeall an núicléis a líonadh níos cothroime ná in adamh aon leictreon amháin, ionas go bhfuil sé de chlaonadh i néal leictreon an adaimh – an crioslach dóchúlachta, is é sin, an spás ar dócha na leictreoin a aimsiú taobh istigh de – bheith sách sféarúil, is é sin, ar déanamh liathróide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stair">Stair</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Stair" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Stair"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ba é Robert Mulliken thiar sa bhliain 1932 a cheap an téarma úd ”fithiseán” (nó <i>orbital</i> as Béarla). An smaoineamh go bhféadfadh na leictreoin bheith ag rothlú timpeall ar núicléas dlúth agus móiminteam uilleach deifnídeach fúthu, tháinig sé ó Niels Bohr agus é ag argóint ar a shon naoi mbliana déag roimh Mulliken. Chomh luath leis an mbliain 1904 d'fhoilsigh an fisiceoir Seapánach <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hantaro_Nagaoka&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hantaro Nagaoka (níl an leathanach ann)">Hantaro Nagaoka</a> hipitéis faoi iompar na leictreon san adamh agus é ag áitiú gur ag fithisiú an núicléis a bhí siad. An iarracht a rinne na fisiceoirí le tuiscint cheart a fháil ar na ”fithisí” seo, thug sé an-spreagadh d'fhorbairt na meicnice candamaí. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samhlacha_Luatha_den_Adamh">Samhlacha Luatha den Adamh</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Samhlacha Luatha den Adamh" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Samhlacha Luatha den Adamh"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sa bhliain 1897, nuair a d'fhionn J.J. Thomson an leictreon, tuigeadh do na saineolaithe nárbh iad na hadaimh na bloic thógála ba lú sa dúlra, ach go raibh struchtúr inmheánach acu. Rinne na saineolaithe hipitéisí agus teoiricí faoin struchtúr sin, agus iad ag tuairimíocht faoin ról a bheadh ag an leictreon san adamh. Shíl Thomson go raibh na leictreoin ag dul timpeall ar chineál conairí nó fithisí, agus na fithisí sin ag dul trí chineál glóthán a raibh lucht deimhneach aige, le lucht diúltach na leictreon a chothromú. Tugadh ”maróg rísíní” ar an tsamhail seo den adamh, agus ba iad na leictreoin na rísíní. Go dtí an bhliain 1909, ba í an mharóg rísíní an tsamhail den adamh ba mhó glacadh. </p><p>Go gairid i ndiaidh fhionnachtain an leictreoin, chuir an fisiceoir Seapánach Hantaro Nagaoka samhail eile faoi bhráid na saineolaithe ar fud an domhain. Dealraíodh an tsamhail seo le Satarn, pláinéad na bhfáinní. Sa tsamhail seo bhí an lucht deimhneach comhchruinnithe i gcroílár an adaimh, agus na leictreoin á dtimpeallú ar chonairí ciorclacha a bheadh cosúil leis na fáinní timpeall Shatarn. Is beag duine a chuir sonrú i saothar Nagaoka san am, agus bhí an fear féin admhálach go raibh locht amháin ar an teoiric ó thús: de réir na fisice clasaicí, ní féidir le réad a bhfuil lucht leictreach aige gluaiseacht ar chonair chiorclach mar sin, nó is gluaiseacht luasghéaraithe í an ghluaiseacht chiorclach, agus mar sin caithfidh an réad sin fuinneamh a chailleadh agus radaíocht leictreamaighnéadach a astú. Mar sin féin, tháinig sé chun solais de réir a chéile go raibh ”Satarn” ní b'fhearr mar shamhail ná an ”mharóg rísíní”. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samhail_Niels_Bohr_den_Adamh">Samhail Niels Bohr den Adamh</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Samhail Niels Bohr den Adamh" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Samhail Niels Bohr den Adamh"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sa bhliain 1909, fuair <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> amach go raibh an lucht deimhneach comhchruinnithe go dlúth i núicléas an adaimh. Bhombardaigh sé scragall tanaí óir le alfa-cháithníní, a bhfuil lucht leictreach deimhneach acu (inniu, is eol dúinn gurb ionann an t-alfa-cháithnín agus núicléas an héiliam) agus tháinig sé aniar aduaidh air go raibh na cáithníní á scaipeadh go fairsing i ndiaidh dóibh bualadh faoi na hadaimh óir. B'ionann sin is a rá go raibh an lucht sin comhchruinnithe go dlúth in áit amháin, in áit a bheith tanaithe ar fud na ”maróige”.Sa bhliain 1911, d'fhoilsigh Rutherford a chuid torthaí agus an anailís a rinne sé orthu, agus caitheadh an ”mharóg rísíní” i dtraipisí mar shamhail den adamh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Samhail_Nua_den_Adamh">Samhail Nua den Adamh</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Samhail Nua den Adamh" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Samhail Nua den Adamh"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Go gairid ina dhiaidh sin, sa bhliain 1913, mhol <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, dalta iardhochtúireachta de chuid Rutherford, samhail nua den adamh. Sa tsamhail seo, bhí na leictreoin ag timpeallú an núicléis de réir dhlíthe na fisice clasaicí, ach san am, bheadh a móiminteam uilleach candamaithe, is é sin, ní fhéadfadh an móiminteam uilleach ach luachanna scoite neamhleanúnacha a fháil, luachanna a d'fhéadfaí a chur in iúl in aonaid h/2π. Níor cheadaigh an srianadh seo ach luachanna ar leith fuinnimh don leictreon, ach an oiread, agus mar sin, má bhí an leictreon tar éis titim ar an leibhéal ab ísle fuinneamh cheana féin, ní fhéadfadh sé tuilleadh fuinnimh a chailleadh agus é ag timpeallú an núicléis. </p><p>Níos tábhachtaí fós, mhínigh an tsamhail seo cad is cúis leis na línte speictreacha a bhaineann le dúile éagsúla: an líne astaithe, freagraíonn sé don fhuinneamh a thugann an leictreon uaith agus é ag titim ó leibhéal is airde fuinneamh go leibhéal is ísle fuinneamh, agus an líne ionsúite, freagraíonn sé don fhuinneamh a shúnn an leictreon chuige le léim a ghearradh ó leibhéal is ísle fuinneamh go leibhéal is airde fuinneamh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Einstein_agus_an_Iarmhairt_Fhótaileicreach"><span id="Einstein_agus_an_Iarmhairt_Fh.C3.B3taileicreach"></span>Einstein agus an Iarmhairt Fhótaileicreach</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Einstein agus an Iarmhairt Fhótaileicreach" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Einstein agus an Iarmhairt Fhótaileicreach"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An míniú a thug <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> ar an iarmhairt fhótaileictreach tháinig sé isteach úsáideach ag Bohr leis an mbaint a thuiscint atá ag na leibhéil fhuinnimh sna hadaimh le tonnfhad an tsolais a astaítear. Is éard atá i gceist leis an iarmhairt sin ná an dóigh a n-astaítear leictreoin as an damhna faoi thionchar na radaíochta. Ní féidir leis an radaíocht leictreon ar bith a scaoileadh saor ach minicíocht na radaíochta a bheith sách ard, is é sin, tonnfhad na radaíochta a bheith sách íseal. Deirtear go bhfuil minicíocht tairsí ann: nuair a shroichfidh an mhinicíocht an tairseach seo, tosóidh na leictreoin á n-astú i dtoibinne. </p><p>Mhínigh Einstein an iarmhairt seo leis an teoiric nach tonnghluaiseacht leanúnach atá sa solas (ná i radaíocht leictreamaighnéadach ar bith) ach go bhfuil sé comhdhéanta as pacáistí beaga scoite, is é sin, candaim, nó fótóin. Is iad na fótóin is airde minicíocht na cinn is airde fuinneamh, agus le léim áirithe a ghearradh, caithfidh an leictreon an fuinneamh iomlán atá de dhíth air le haghaidh na léime sin – caithfidh sé an fuinneamh sin a fháil in aon phacáiste amháin, in aon fhótón amháin. Ní féidir leis cuid den fhuinneamh a bhaint ón bhfótón seo agus an chuid eile a fháil ón bhfótón úd eile. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ciallú_Bohr"><span id="Ciall.C3.BA_Bohr"></span>Ciallú Bohr</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Ciallú Bohr" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Ciallú Bohr"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bhain Bohr úsáid as an tuiscint seo leis na leibhéil fhuinnimh san adamh a cheangal de thonnfhaid an tsolais a d'astódh an t-adamh. Nuair a tuigeadh an bhaint a bhí ag an dá rud le chéile, chuaigh an <a href="/wiki/Speictreasc%C3%B3pacht" title="Speictreascópacht">speictreascópacht</a>, is é sin, na breathnuithe ar speictream an tsolais a d'astódh an t-adamh (<a href="/wiki/Speictream_ast%C3%BAch%C3%A1in" title="Speictream astúcháin">speictream astúcháin</a>) nó ar speictream an tsolais a shúfadh sé isteach (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Speictream_ions%C3%BAch%C3%A1in&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Speictream ionsúcháin (níl an leathanach ann)">speictream ionsúcháin</a>) – chuaigh na breathnuithe speictreascópacha chun ardtábhachta mar uirlis le tuiscint a fháil ar struchtúr inmheánach an adaimh ó thaobh na leictreon de. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Na_Línte_Speictreacha_agus_an_tAdamh"><span id="Na_L.C3.ADnte_Speictreacha_agus_an_tAdamh"></span>Na Línte Speictreacha agus an tAdamh</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Na Línte Speictreacha agus an tAdamh" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Na Línte Speictreacha agus an tAdamh"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ó lár na naoú haois déag anuas is eol do na fisiceoirí línte scoite a bheith sna speictrim astúcháin agus ionsúcháin, rud a d'fhoghlaim siad ar dhóigh phraiticiúil. Nuair a tháinig samhail <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> den adamh ar an bhfód, d'fhéad sé na línte seo a mhíniú: na línte soilsithe sa speictream astúcháin, d'fhreagair siad do na fótóin a bhí ag titim ó leibhéal ard go leibhéal íseal fuinnimh, agus iad ag astú an difríocht san fhuinneamh mar fhótón nó mar chandam radaíochta; agus na línte dorcha sa speictream ionsúcháin, d'fhreagair siad do na fótóin a bhí na leictreoin a shú isteach leis an léim chéanna a ghearradh sa treo contráilte, ón leibhéal íseal go leibhéal ard. </p><p>San am sin, áfach, ní raibh Bohr ag iarraidh saintréithe tonnchosúla a aithint ar na leictreoin ná iad a fheiceáil mar thonnta damhnacha, nó níor rith an smaoineamh sin le haon duine ach dhá bhliain déag ní ba deireanaí. Mar sin féin, an úsáid a bhain Bohr as luachanna candamaithe an mhóimintim uilligh agus as na leibhéil candamaithe fuinnimh ba mhór an chéim ar aghaidh é agus na fisiceoirí ag iarraidh iompraíocht na leictreon sna hadaimh a thuiscint. Thairis sin, spreag an tsamhail seo den adamh forbairt na meicnice candamaí, ó thug sí le fios gurb iad na srianta candamaithe is aonchúis le neamhleanúnacht na speictream is na leibhéal fuinnimh san adamh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Déacht_Toinne_agus_Cáithnín"><span id="D.C3.A9acht_Toinne_agus_C.C3.A1ithn.C3.ADn"></span>Déacht Toinne agus Cáithnín</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Déacht Toinne agus Cáithnín" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Déacht Toinne agus Cáithnín"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sa bhliain 1924, chuir <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> a theoiric faoi na tonnta damhnacha agus faoin déacht toinne agus cáithnín os comhair an tsaoil mhóir. Is é is impleacht don teoiric seo gur féidir airíonna áirithe na gcáithníní beaga, cosúil leis an leictreon, a mhíniú ach dearcadh ar an gcáithnín mar thonn ar féidir a tonnfhad a dhíorthú as saintréithe an cháithnín de réir foirmle cuíosach simplí. Ar feadh tamaill ghairid, go dtí an bhliain 1926, nuair a d'fhoilsigh Erwin Schrödinger a thonnchothromóid, bhí na fisiceoirí in ann ”tonnfhad” an leictreoin i samhail Bohr a aithint mar fheidhm mhatamaiticiúil a bhí ag brath ar a móiminteam. Mar sin, glacadh leis go raibh leictreon (de réir mar a thuig Bohr é) ag timpeallú an núicléis faoi iolraí leath a thonnfaid de ar chonair chiorclach (inniu féin, teagasctar an tsamhail mhícheart stairiúil seo do na mic léinn, uaireanta). Ar feadh tamaillín b'fhéidir a rá gurbh í samhail seo Bohr den adamh an tsamhail chlasaiceach, agus argóint an tonnfhaid ag cur srianadh breise leis na leictreoin. Caitheadh an tsamhail seo i dtraipisí, áfach, nuair a tháinig an tonnmheicnic thríthoiseach iomlán ina háit sa bhliain 1976. Mar a thuigimid an fhisic inniu is gnách a rá gurbh í samhail Bohr an tsamhail leathchlasaiceach den adamh, agus is é is cúis leis ná go raibh an móiminteam uilleach candamaithe inti – níor tháinig na hipitéisí faoi thonnfhad an leictreoin ar an bhfód ach dhá bhliain déag i ndiaidh do Bohr a shamhail a chur faoi bhráid fhisiceoirí an domhain. </p><p>Mhínigh samhail <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Bohr</a> den adamh na línte i speictream astúcháin agus i speictream ionsúcháin na hidrigine. Na luachanna a thugann samhail Bohr d'fhuinneamh na leictreon sna staideanna n=1, 2, 3... is ionann iad agus na luachanna a thugann fisic ár linne. Scéal eile ar fad nach raibh samhail Bohr in ann saintréithe peiriadacha na ndúl a mhíniú, mar shampla, an chosúlacht in iompraíocht cheimiceach na dtriathghás: an héiliam (dhá leictreon), an neon (deich leictreon) agus an t-argón (ocht leictreon déag), mar shampla. I ndeireadh na dála, ba í fionnachtain na meicnice candamaí nua-aimseartha a shocraigh an scéal, in éineacht le prionsabal Pauli. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tuiscintí_Nua-aimseartha_agus_a_mBaint_le_Prionsabal_Éiginnteachta_Heisenberg"><span id="Tuiscint.C3.AD_Nua-aimseartha_agus_a_mBaint_le_Prionsabal_.C3.89iginnteachta_Heisenberg"></span>Tuiscintí Nua-aimseartha agus a mBaint le Prionsabal Éiginnteachta Heisenberg</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Tuiscintí Nua-aimseartha agus a mBaint le Prionsabal Éiginnteachta Heisenberg" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Tuiscintí Nua-aimseartha agus a mBaint le Prionsabal Éiginnteachta Heisenberg"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sa bhliain 1927, d'fhoilsigh <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> a phrionsabal éiginnteachta. Is éard is ciall don phrionsabal seo ná nach féidir linn gach cineál eolais a fháil amach faoi cháithnín atá chomh beag agus gur féidir dearcadh air mar thonnphaicéad: más eol dúinn cá bhfuil sé, ní heol dúinn cá bhfuil a thriall agus cén luas atá faoi, go bunúsach. Is é an tátal a bhain Bohr as an bprionsabal ná gur dual d'aon tonnphaicéad éiginnteacht na minicíochta agus an tonnfhaid, ó tá spré na minicíochtaí de dhíth leis an bpaicéad féin a chruthú. </p><p>Samhlaítear tonn le móiminteam gach cáithnín sa mheicnic chandamach. Is é foirmiú an tonnphacáiste a shocraíonn cá bhfuil an tonn/an cáithnín sa spás. Má tá cáithnín candam-mheicniúil ceangailte de staid áirithe ní mór dearcadh air mar thonnphacáiste más á shuíomh i bpointe áirithe ar an bhfithiseán atá muid. Más ann don cháithnín ar aon nós, agus íosmhéid méide aige, is é is impleacht dó an tonnfhad a bheith spréite agus íosmhéid a bheith aige, agus má tá íosmhéid ag an tonnfhad, tá íosmhéid ag an móiminteam agus ag an bhfuinneamh chomh maith. Sa mheicnic chandamach, dá laghad an réigiún ina bhfuilimid ag socrú áit an cháithnín, is amhlaidh is mó atá raon na luachanna móimintim a éilíonn an tonnphaicéad comhbhrúite, agus is amhlaidh is mó atá an fuinneamh gluaiseachta. Is é sin, an fuinneamh ceangailte atá de dhíth leis an gcáithnín a choinneáil i ngéibheann i réigiún beag den spás, tá sé ag dul i méadaíocht gan uasteorainn ar bith agus an réigiún sin ag dul i laghad. </p><p>Maidir leis an gceimic, tháinig <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, agus <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_S._Mulliken&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert S. Mulliken (níl an leathanach ann)">Robert S. Mulliken</a>, i measc daoine eile, ar an gconclúid gurbh é ba impleacht do phrionsabal éiginnteachta Heisenberg ná nach féidir a rá go bhfuil an leictreon, má ghlactar leis mar thonnphaicéad – nach féidir a rá go bhfuil sé suite in aon áit chruinn ar an bhfithiseán. Ba é tuairim <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> gur chóir cur síos a thabhairt ar shuíomh an leictreoin trí dháileadh dóchúlachta – is é sin, foirmle mhatamaiticiúil a thabharfadh le fios cé chomh dóchúil is a bheadh sé teacht ar an leictreon i bpointe áirithe den fheidhm mhatamaiticiúil a thugann cur síos ar an tonnphaicéad bainteach. Níor dhual don mheicnic chandamach nua torthaí cruinne a thabhairt: ina n-áit sin, thabharfadh sí le fios cé chomh dóchúil a bheadh sé go bhfaighfí toradh áirithe faoi imthoscaí áirithe. Bhí Heisenberg féin barúlach nach bhfuil ciall ná tábhacht ar bith leis an gcoincheap ”conair an cháithnín atá ag gluaiseacht” murar féidir linn breathnuithe a dhéanamh ar an gcáithnín ná ar a chuid gluaiseachtaí – agus ní féidir, más leictreon taobh istigh den adamh atá i gceist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ainmneacha_na_bhFithiseán"><span id="Ainmneacha_na_bhFithise.C3.A1n"></span>Ainmneacha na bhFithiseán</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=14" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Ainmneacha na bhFithiseán" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Ainmneacha na bhFithiseán"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tugtar ainmneacha na bhfithiseán mar seo: </p><p><i>X</i>cineal<sup><i>y</i></sup> </p><p>San fhoirmle seo is ionann an <i>X</i> agus an leibhéal fuinnimh a fhreagraíonn don phríomhuimhir chandamach <i>n</i>, is é sin, an sceall leictreonach. Is litir cháis íochtair é an ”cineál” a thugann le fios cén fosceall ar a bhfuil an leictreon (cén cineál fithiseáin atá i gceist) agus é ag freagairt don chandanuimhir uilleach <i>l</i>. Is é <i>y</i> uimhir na leictreon ar an bhfosceall sin. </p><p>Mar shampla, is é is ciall le 1<i>s</i><sup>2</sup> (”a haon, s, a dó”) ná go bhfuil dhá leictreon ar an leibhéal fuinnimh is ísle (<i>n</i>=1) agus is é is luach don chandamuimhir uilleach <i>l</i> ná 0. Sa nodaireacht X-ghathach nó <i>X-ray notation</i>, seasann litreacha i gcás uachtair do luachanna na príomh-chandamuimhreach <i>n</i>, ionas gur <i>K</i> a thugtar ar an leictreonsceall a fhreagraíonn do <i>n</i> = 1, más é 2 is luach don <i>n</i>, is í an litir <i>L</i> a thagraíonn don leictreonsceall, agus araile. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="An_Sainmhíniú_Foirmeálta_de_réir_na_Meicnice_Candamaí"><span id="An_Sainmh.C3.ADni.C3.BA_Foirme.C3.A1lta_de_r.C3.A9ir_na_Meicnice_Candama.C3.AD"></span>An Sainmhíniú Foirmeálta de réir na Meicnice Candamaí</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=15" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: An Sainmhíniú Foirmeálta de réir na Meicnice Candamaí" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: An Sainmhíniú Foirmeálta de réir na Meicnice Candamaí"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sa mheicnic chandamach, fairsingítear staid an adaimh, is é sin, dualstaideanna oibreoir Hamilton an adaimh, go cuingreacha líneacha de thorthaí frithshiméadraithe (deitéarmanant Slater) de chuid feidhmeanna aon leictreon. Tugtar ”fithiseáin adamhacha” ar chuidithe spásúla na bhfeidhmeanna aon leictreon seo. Má chuirtear an cuidí guairne san áireamh chomh maith, is éard a bheidh againn ná fithiseáin adamhacha ghuairne. </p><p>San fhisic adamhach, freagraíonn gach líne speictreach adamhach do thrasdul idir dhá chandamstaid (léim chandamach) san adamh. Tá na staideanna ainmnithe le candamuimhreacha a mbíonn baint acu le cumraíochtaí leictreonacha ar leith, is é sin, le scéimeanna lonnaithe na leictreon ar na fithiseáin éagsúla adamhacha. Mar shampla, is í an scéim a thaispeánann lonnú na leictreon (an chumraíocht leictreonach) ar na fithiseáin in adamh an neoin sa bhunstaid ná 1<i>s</i><sup>2</sup> 2<i>s</i><sup>2</sup> 2<i>p</i><sup>6</sup>. </p><p>Is é is impleacht don nodaireacht seo gur soiléir go bhfuil deitéarmanaint Slater níos troime i bhfairsingiú na hidirghníomhaíochta cumraíochta. Mar sin, is coincheap lárnach é coincheap an fhithiseáin adamhaigh má táthar ag iarraidh an próiseas flosctha a amharcléiriú a bhaineann le trasdul leictreoin áirithe san adamh. Mar shampla, is féidir a rá, i dtaobh trasdul ar leith, go gcomhfhreagraíonn sé d'fhloscadh leictreoin ó fhithiseán gafa áirithe go fithiseán folamh áirithe. Mar sin féin, ní mór cuimhne a choinneáil air gur feirmíóin iad na leictreoin agus iad ag géilleadh do phrionsabal Pauli, agus nach féidir iad a aithint ó na leictreoin eile san adamh. Thairis sin, uaireanta bíonn an fairsingiú idirghníomhaíochta cumraíochta an-mhall ag coinbhéirsiú, ionas nach féidir a rá go bhfuil tonnfheidhm shimplí aon deitéarmanant ann ar aon nós. Sin é an rud a tharlaíonn nuair a bhíonn comhghaolú mór leictreon ann. </p><p>Go bunúsach, is tonnfheidhm é an fithiseán adamhach atá bunaithe ar an réamhchoinníoll nach bhfuil ach aon leictreon amháin san adamh. An chuid is mó de na leictreoin sa damhna, áfach, bíonn siad ar fáil in adaimh eile, agus mar sin níl i gceist leis an léargas aon leictreon seo ach ballaíocht tuairime, neastachán, mar a deir an saineolaí. Má bhímid ag déanamh ár marana ar na fithiseáin, tabharfar an neastachán seo – neastachán Hartree agus Fock, mar a thugtar air – mar eochair dúinn, leis na deacrachtaí i dteoiric na bhfithiseán móilíneacha a laghdú. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaimh_Hidriginchosúla"><span id="Adaimh_Hidriginchos.C3.BAla"></span>Adaimh Hidriginchosúla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=16" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Adaimh Hidriginchosúla" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Adaimh Hidriginchosúla"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Is iad na fithiseáin adamhacha is simplí na cinn sin a áirítear do chórais nach bhfuil ach aon leictreon amháin iontu, cosúil leis an adamh hidrigine. Má ianaítear adamh de chuid dúil ar bith eile síos go haon leictreon amháin – is é sin, má bhaintear na leictreoin de gan ach aon cheann acu a fhágáil – beidh sé an-chosúil leis an hidrigin, agus an déanamh céanna ar na fithiseáin. I gcothromóid Schrödinger, mar a leagtar amach don chóras áirithe seo í, córas nach bhfuil ach aon cháithnín deimhneach agus aon cháithnín diúltach ann, - is ionann na fithiseáin adamhacha agus dualstaideanna oibrithe Hamilton don fhuinneamh. Is féidir iad a fháil ar dhóigh anailíseach, is é sin, na fithiseáin a gheobhaidh muid, is torthaí iad do shraith iltéarmach agus d'fheidhmeanna easpónantúla agus triantánacha. </p><p>Má tá dhá leictreon san adamh, nó níos mó, ní féidir na cothromóidí bainteacha a réiteach gan dul i dtuilleamaí modhanna oibre an neastacháin atriallaigh. Tá fithiseáin na n-adamh il-leictreonacha cosúil le fithiseáin na hidrigine ó thaobh a ndéanta de, agus sna samhlacha is simplí glactar leis go bhfuil an déanamh céanna acu. Má dhéantar anailís níos cruinne ná sin ar na fithiseáin, ní mór úsáid a bhaint as na neastacháin uimhriúla. </p><p>In adamh hidriginchosúil ar bith is féidir fithiseán adamhach ar leith a shainmhíniú go neamh-dhébhríoch le luachanna trí chandamuimhir: an phríomh-chandamuimhir <i>n</i>, an chandamuimhir asamatach <i>l</i>, agus an chandamuimhir mhaighnéadach <i>m<sub>l</sub></i>. Na rialacha a chuireann srianta le luachanna na gcandamuimhreach agus a gcuid luachanna fuinnimh, is leor iad le cumraíocht na leictreon sna hadaimh agus le tábla peiriadach na ndúl a mhíniú. </p><p>Is iad na fithiseáin adamhacha staideanna cobhsaí candamacha na n-adamh hidriginchosúil. Go ginearálta, áfach, ní féidir le haon fhithiseán amháin cur síos cuimsitheach a thabhairt ar iompraíocht an leictreoin. Is é an dóigh is fearr le staideanna na leictreon a chur in iúl ná meascáin d'fhithiseáin éagsúla, meascáin agus iad ag brath ar an am – teaglamaí líneacha de na fithiseáin éagsúla. </p><p>Ba é Niels Bohr a cheap an phríomh-chandamuimhir <i>n</i> le haghaidh a shamhlach féin den adamh. Is í an chandamuimhir áirithe seo a shocraíonn ga na fithise cruinne ar a bhfuil an leictreon ag dul timpeall an núicléis, sa tsamhail áirithe seo. Sa mheicnic chandamach nua-aimseartha, áfach, socraíonn an <i>n</i> meánfhad an leictreoin ón núicléas: na leictreoin a bhfuil an luach céanna den <i>n</i> acu, is ionann a meánfhad ón núicléas. Sin é an tuige go ndeirtear go bhfuil na fithiseáin arb ionann luach an <i>n</i> acu – go bhfuil siad ar an leictreonsceall céanna. Na fithiseáin a bhfuil an <i>n</i> agus an <i>l</i> céanna acu, tá baint níos dlúithe fós acu le chéile, agus iad ar an bhfosceall céanna. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Domh%C3%A1:S_states.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/S_states.jpg/275px-S_states.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/S_states.jpg/413px-S_states.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/S_states.jpg/550px-S_states.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>Samhail thrasghearrthach de na s-fhithiseáin. Mar a fheictear, tá struchtúr simplí ag s-fhithiseán an K-scealla, is é sin, an leictreonsceall is cóngaraí don núicléas: níl an tiús dóchúlachta ach ag dul i laghad i bhfad ón núicléas. Na s-fhithiseáin eile, áfach, tá struchtúr casta inmheánach acu, agus iad comhdhéanta as sféir taobh istigh dá chéile. Téann an tiús dóchúlachta i laghad idir na sféir seo.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Candamuimhreacha">Candamuimhreacha</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=17" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Candamuimhreacha" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Candamuimhreacha"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An staid ina bhfuil na leictreoin timpeall an núicléis, is staid chandam-mheicniúil í, agus mar sin ní féidir cur síos a thabhairt ar na leictreoin i dtéarmaí cosúil leis an áit nó leis an móiminteam. Ina áit sin, is gnách dul i dtuilleamaí na gcandamuimhreach, nó tugann na huimhreacha seo aird ar charachtar cáithnínchosúil agus ar charachtar tonnchosúil na leictreon araon. Is féidir fithiseán adamhach a shainaithint go hiomlán trí luachanna an trí chandamuimhir, agus comhfhreagraíonn gach foireann trí chandamuimhir d'aon fhithiseán amháin, ó nach bhfuil ach comhcheangail áirithe luachanna ceadaithe. Seo iad na candamuimhreacha agus na rialacha a shocraíonn a gcuid luachanna ceadaithe: </p><p>An phriomh-chandamuimhir <i>n</i>: is slánuimhir dheimhneach í (<i>n</i> = 1, 2, 3...) agus í ag tagairt d'fhuinneamh an leictreoin. Le fírinne, is féidir don <i>n</i>, go teoiriciúil, gach slánuimhir dheimhneach a bheith mar luach aici, ach ar chúiseanna praiticiúla is annamh a bhíonn uimhreacha arda i gceist. Go ginearálta bíonn a lán fithiseán éagsúil ag baint le gach luach ar leith den <i>n</i>. Uaireanta, tugtar ”leictreonsceall” ar na fithiseáin go léir a bhaineann le luach áirithe den <i>n</i>. </p><p>Tagraíonn an chandamuimhir asamatach <i>l</i> do mhóiminteam uilleach fithiseánach an leictreoin, agus is slánuimhir neamhdhiúltach í (is é sin, is luach incheaptha é 0). Ar sceall áirithe, is iad na luachanna incheaptha atá ag an gcandamuimhir seo ná 0, 1, 2...(<i>n</i>- 1). Más ionann n agus 1, níl ach 0 ceadaithe mar luach don chandamuimhir asamatach, más ionann n agus 2, tá 0 agus 1 ceadaithe agus araile. Na fithiseáin a bhfuil baint acu le luach áirithe den chandamuimhir asamatach, tugtar ”fosceall” orthu in éineacht. </p><p>Tugann an chandamuimhir mhaighnéadach <i>m<sub>l</sub></i> cur síos ar mhóimint mhaighnéadach an leictreoin i do rogha treo, agus is slánuimhir í. Taobh istigh den fhosceall a chomhfhreagraíonn don chandamuimhir asamatach <i>l</i>, is iad na luachanna a cheadaítear don chandamuimhir mhaighnéadach ná -<i>l</i>, -(<i>l</i> – 1), - (<i>l</i> – 2),...-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,..., (<i>l</i> – 2), (<i>l</i> – 1), <i>l</i>. </p><p>Is féidir na torthaí thuas a achoimriú i dtábla. Seasann gach cillín d'fhosceall, agus taobh istigh den chillín tá na luachanna don <i>m<sub>l</sub></i> atá ar fáil san fhosceall áirithe sin. Maidir leis na cillíní folmha, is foscealla iad nach bhfuil ann. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><i>l</i>=0 </th> <th><i>l</i>=1 </th> <th><i>l</i>=2 </th> <th><i>l</i>=3 </th> <th><i>l</i>=4 </th> <th>... </th></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i>=1 </th> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a775f1f323af53e1bc15947559b3cd0e8ec70038" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i>=2 </th> <td>0</td> <td>-1, 0, 1 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i>=3 </th> <td>0</td> <td>-1, 0, 1</td> <td>-2, -1, 0, 1, 2 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i>=4 </th> <td>0</td> <td>-1, 0, 1</td> <td>-2, -1, 0, 1, 2</td> <td>-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 </td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i>=5 </th> <td>0</td> <td>-1, 0, 1</td> <td>-2, -1, 0, 1, 2</td> <td>-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3</td> <td>-4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>... </th> <td>...</td> <td>...</td> <td>...</td> <td>...</td> <td>...</td> <td>... </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Ar luachanna an <i>n</i> agus an <i>l</i> a aithnítear na foscealla. Tugtar luach an <i>n</i> mar uimhir; maidir leis an <i>l</i>, áfach, úsáidtear litreacha: s (<i>l</i> = 0), p (<i>l</i> = 1), d (<i>l</i> = 2), f (<i>l</i> = 3), g (<i>l</i> = 4). Mar shampla, más ionann <i>n</i> agus 2, agus más ionann <i>l</i> agus 0, is é an fosceall atá againn ná 2s. </p><p>Tá candamuimhir <a href="/wiki/Guairne" title="Guairne">guairne</a> ag gach leictreon freisin, <i>s</i>, a thugann cur síos ar ghuairne gach leictreon – guairne suas nó guairne síos. Is iad na luachanna a cheadaítear don <i>s</i> ná +½ agus -½. </p><p>De réir phrionsabal eisiaimh Pauli, ní féidir le dhá leictreon an staid chandamach chéanna a ghlacadh. Is é sin, ní hionann foireann iomlán na gcandamuimhreach ag aon dá leictreon in aon adamh amháin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuma_agus_Déanamh_na_bhFithiseán"><span id="Cuma_agus_D.C3.A9anamh_na_bhFithise.C3.A1n"></span>Cuma agus Déanamh na bhFithiseán</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=18" title="Cuir rannán in eagar: Cuma agus Déanamh na bhFithiseán" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>cuir in eagar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fithise%C3%A1n&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Cuma agus Déanamh na bhFithiseán"><span>athraigh foinse</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Úsáidtear pictiúir shimplí de na fithiseáin le cur síos a thabhairt ar na réigiúin sa spás ar dócha teacht ar an leictreon iontu. Ní féidir leis na léaráidí seo, áfach, an réigiún iomlán a thaispeáint ar féidir an leictreon a aimsiú ann, nó deir an mheicnic chandamach go bhfuil dóchúlacht aimsithe an leictreoin níos mó ná náid pé áit sa spás ina bhfuilimid. Is éard atá i gceist leis na léaráidí, go bunúsach, ná an imlíne, nó an t-imdhromchla, ar a bhfuil luach áirithe tairiseach ag an dlús dóchúlachta |ψ(r,θ,φ)|<sup>2</sup> – 90&#160;%, mar shampla – is é sin, tá dóchúlacht 90&#160;% ann an leictreon a aimsiú taobh istigh den dromchla sin. Cé go bhfuil |ψ|<sup>2</sup> níos mó ná 0 i ngach áit, mar is dual do chearnú an luacha uimhriúil, cuirtear comhartha na tonnfheidhme ψ(r,θ,φ) go minic le gach fo-réigiún i bpictiúr an fhithiseáin. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Domh%C3%A1:D_orbitals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/D_orbitals.svg/275px-D_orbitals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/D_orbitals.svg/413px-D_orbitals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/D_orbitals.svg/550px-D_orbitals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Samhail a thaispeánann conas a líonann na d-fhithiseáin, cúig cinn acu ar fad, an spás timpeall an núicléis.</figcaption></figure> <p>Uaireanta tarraingítear graf ar leith den tonnfheidhm <i>ψ</i> lena pasanna a thaispeáint, in áit an ghraif |<i>ψ(r,θ,φ)</i>|<sup>2</sup> nach léiríonn ach an dlús dóchúlachta gan na pasanna a fhágáil le haithint (nó cailltear na pasanna nuair a iompaítear an uimhir choimpléascach <i>ψ(r,θ,φ)</i> ina luach uimhriúil). Bíonn lóbaí na bhfithiseán níos caoile, níos neamhsféarúla, sna graif |<i>ψ(r,θ,φ)</i>|<sup>2</sup> ná sna graif <i>ψ(r,θ,φ)</i> , ach tá na lóbaí céanna sna háiteanna céanna, agus iad inaitheanta ar gach dóigh. Úsáidtear graif den chineál <i>ψ(r,θ,φ)</i> san alt seo, an chuid is mó, le pasanna na dtonnfheidhmeanna a dhéanamh infheicthe. </p><p>Is féidir dearcadh ar lóba den chineál sin mar phatrún trasnaíochta idir an dá mhodh frithrothlaithe <i>m</i> agus <i>-m</i>, agus an fithiseán á fhortheilgean ar an xy-phlána agus <i>m</i> tonnfhad ag athshonadh ar a imlíne. Tá dhá cheann acu seo do gach luach de chuid an <i>m</i>, is é sin, <i>&lt;m&gt;+&lt;-m&gt;</i> agus <i>&lt;m&gt;-&lt;-m&gt;</i>. Más ionann m agus 0, fithiseán ceartingearach atá i gceist, níl eolas frithrothlaithe ar fáil, agus tá an fithiseán siméadrach timpeall na z-aise. Más ionann l agus 0, níl modhanna frithrothlaithe ann ar aon nós. Níl ach modhanna gathacha ann, agus tá an cruth siméadrach mar sféar. Ag gach luach de chuid an <i>n</i>, tá na nóid ghathacha ag dul i méadaíocht de réir mar atá an <i>l</i> ag dul i laghad. Mar shimpliúchán, is féidir a rá go dtugann an <i>n</i> le fios leibhéal an fhuinnimh, go bhfuil baint ag an <i>l</i> le héalárnacht an fhithiseáin, agus gurb é an <i>m</i> an treoshuíomh. </p><p>Go ginearálta, is é an <i>n</i> a shocraíonn méid agus fuinneamh an fhithiseáin do núicléas áirithe adaimh: tá na fithiseáin ag dul i méadaíocht leis an <i>n</i>. Scéal eile é áfach, má chuirtear dúile ceimiceacha éagsúla i gcomparáid le chéile, go bhfaighfear na fithiseáin a bheith ag crapadh chucu agus an lucht leictreach sa núicléas, <i>Z</i>, ag fás. Mar sin, ní thagann mórán athrú ar mhéid an adaimh ag na dúile troma i bhfarradh is na dúile éadroma, cé go bhfuil líon na leictreon ag fás de réir an <i>Z</i>. </p><p>Tá na <i>s</i>-fhithiseáin aonair (<i>l</i> = 0) ar déanamh an sféir. Más ionann <i>n</i> agus 1, is éard atá againn ná cineál ”dlúthsféar”, is é sin, tá an sféar ag dul chun dlúis in aice leis an núicléas, agus é ag tanú go heaspónantúil ag dul amach ón núicléas. Más ionann <i>n</i> agus 2, nó níos mó, tá an <i>s</i>-fhithiseán comhdhéanta as dromchlaí sféarúla taobh istigh dá chéile. Is é sin, tá tonnstruchtúr gathach ann, agus cuidí gathach síneasóideach ann chomh maith. Is iad na <i>s</i>-fhithiseáin an t-aon cineál fithiseán a bhfuil frithnód (réigiún ard-dlúis tonnfheidhme) acu i lárphointe an núicléis. Na cineálacha eile fithiseán (<i>p</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i> agus araile), tá móiminteam uilleach acu, agus iad ag seachaint an núicléis (tá nód toinne acu ag an núicléas). </p><p>Nuair is ionann <i>n</i> agus 2, is é an déanamh atá ar an trí p-fhithiseán ná gur dhá éileapsóideach atá ann agus pointe tadhlaíochta acu i núicléas an adaimh. Uaireanta, dealraítear an p-fhithiseán le tromán lúith, agus an chuma seo air. Ar gach leictreon, tá dronuillinn idir gach dhá p-fhithiseán, de réir chuingir líneach na luachanna a bhíonn ag an <i>m<sub>l</sub></i>. </p> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐f69cdc8f6‐czcdm Cached time: 20241125064603 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.039 seconds Real time usage: 0.083 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 91/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 0/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 0/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 2/100 Expensive parser function count: 0/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 0/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 36/5000000 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 0.000 1 -total --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key gawiki:pcache:idhash:36234-0!canonical and timestamp 20241125064603 and revision id 1225358. 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