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id="toc-Time-sharing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inspiration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inspiration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Inspiration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inspiration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Packet_switching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Packet_switching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Packet switching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Packet_switching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Networks_that_led_to_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Networks_that_led_to_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Networks that led to the Internet </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Networks_that_led_to_the_Internet-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Networks that led to the Internet subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Networks_that_led_to_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NPL_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NPL_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 NPL network </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NPL_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ARPANET" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ARPANET"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 ARPANET </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ARPANET-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merit_Network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merit_Network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Merit Network </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merit_Network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CYCLADES" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CYCLADES"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 CYCLADES </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CYCLADES-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-X.25_and_public_data_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#X.25_and_public_data_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 X.25 and public data networks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-X.25_and_public_data_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UUCP_and_Usenet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UUCP_and_Usenet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 UUCP and Usenet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UUCP_and_Usenet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1973–1989:_Merging_the_networks_and_creating_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1973–1989:_Merging_the_networks_and_creating_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 1973–1989: Merging the networks and creating the Internet </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1973–1989:_Merging_the_networks_and_creating_the_Internet-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1973–1989: Merging the networks and creating the Internet subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1973–1989:_Merging_the_networks_and_creating_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-TCP/IP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#TCP/IP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 TCP/IP </div> </a> <ul id="toc-TCP/IP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_ARPANET_to_NSFNET" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_ARPANET_to_NSFNET"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 From ARPANET to NSFNET </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_ARPANET_to_NSFNET-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_towards_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_towards_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Transition towards the Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_towards_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_networking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_networking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Optical networking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_networking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-TCP/IP_goes_global_(1980s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#TCP/IP_goes_global_(1980s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 TCP/IP goes global (1980s) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-TCP/IP_goes_global_(1980s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-CERN_and_the_European_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CERN_and_the_European_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 CERN and the European Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CERN_and_the_European_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_link_to_the_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_link_to_the_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 The link to the Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_link_to_the_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_"digital_divide"_emerges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_"digital_divide"_emerges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.3 A "digital divide" emerges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_"digital_divide"_emerges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.4 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_and_Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_and_Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.5 Asia and Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_and_Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.6 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990–2003:_Rise_of_the_global_Internet,_Web_1.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990–2003:_Rise_of_the_global_Internet,_Web_1.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 1990–2003: Rise of the global Internet, Web 1.0 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1990–2003:_Rise_of_the_global_Internet,_Web_1.0-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1990–2003: Rise of the global Internet, Web 1.0 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1990–2003:_Rise_of_the_global_Internet,_Web_1.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internet_use_in_wider_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_use_in_wider_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Internet use in wider society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_use_in_wider_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IPv6" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IPv6"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 IPv6 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IPv6-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2004–present:_Web_2.0,_global_ubiquity,_social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2004–present:_Web_2.0,_global_ubiquity,_social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 2004–present: Web 2.0, global ubiquity, social media </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-2004–present:_Web_2.0,_global_ubiquity,_social_media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 2004–present: Web 2.0, global ubiquity, social media subsection </button> <ul id="toc-2004–present:_Web_2.0,_global_ubiquity,_social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Web_2.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_2.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Web 2.0 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_2.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telephone_networks_convert_to_VoIP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telephone_networks_convert_to_VoIP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Telephone networks convert to VoIP </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telephone_networks_convert_to_VoIP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_mobile_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_mobile_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 The mobile revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_mobile_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Networking_in_outer_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Networking_in_outer_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Networking in outer space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Networking_in_outer_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Internet governance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Internet_governance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Internet governance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Internet_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NIC,_InterNIC,_IANA,_and_ICANN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NIC,_InterNIC,_IANA,_and_ICANN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 NIC, InterNIC, IANA, and ICANN </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NIC,_InterNIC,_IANA,_and_ICANN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_Engineering_Task_Force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Internet Engineering Task Force </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_Engineering_Task_Force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-RFCs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RFCs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 RFCs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RFCs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Internet_Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Internet_Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 The Internet Society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Internet_Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Globalization_and_Internet_governance_in_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Globalization_and_Internet_governance_in_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Globalization_and_Internet_governance_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politicization_of_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politicization_of_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Politicization of the Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politicization_of_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Net_neutrality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Net_neutrality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Net neutrality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Net_neutrality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Use and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Email_and_Usenet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Email_and_Usenet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Email and Usenet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Email_and_Usenet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-File_sharing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#File_sharing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 File sharing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-File_sharing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-File_hosting_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#File_hosting_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 File hosting services </div> </a> <ul id="toc-File_hosting_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_piracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_piracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Online piracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_piracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobile_telephone_data_traffic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobile_telephone_data_traffic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Mobile telephone data traffic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobile_telephone_data_traffic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_in_demand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_in_demand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Growth in demand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_in_demand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of the Internet</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" > 48 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA" title="تاريخ الإنترنت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الإنترنت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27Internet" title="Historia d'Internet – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'Internet" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nternetin_tarixi" title="İnternetin tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnternetin tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইন্টারনেটের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইন্টারনেটের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_d%27Internet" title="Història d'Internet – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història d'Internet" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_internetu" title="Dějiny internetu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny internetu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Internets" title="Geschichte des Internets – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Internets" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%8D%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Ιστορία του Διαδικτύου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Διαδικτύου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Internet" title="Historia de Internet – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Internet" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA" title="تاریخ اینترنت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ اینترنت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_d%27Internet" title="Histoire d'Internet – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire d'Internet" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8" title="ઇન્ટરનેટનો ઇતિહાસ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇન્ટરનેટનો ઇતિહાસ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%ED%84%B0%EB%84%B7%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="인터넷의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인터넷의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Համացանցի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համացանցի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="अन्तरजाल का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अन्तरजाल का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Internet" title="Sejarah Internet – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Internet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_di_Internet" title="Storia di Internet – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia di Internet" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%98" title="היסטוריה של האינטרנט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של האינטרנט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಇಂಟರ್ನೆಟ್‌ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಂಟರ್ನೆಟ್‌ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Интернет тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Интернет тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Intaneti" title="Historia ya Intaneti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Intaneti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Интернет тарыхы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Интернет тарыхы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interneta_v%C4%93sture" title="Interneta vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Interneta vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഇന്റർനെറ്റിന്റെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇന്റർനെറ്റിന്റെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Internet" title="Sejarah Internet – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Internet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_internet" title="Geschiedenis van het internet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het internet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="インターネットの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インターネットの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_tarixi" title="Internet tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Internet tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="انٹرنیٹ دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انٹرنیٹ دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%BC_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د انټرنټ تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د انټرنټ تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%8F" title="ប្រវត្តិអ៊ីនធើណេត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រវត្តិអ៊ីនធើណេត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Internetu" title="Historia Internetu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Internetu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Internet" title="História da Internet – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Internet" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_tariyxi" title="Internet tariyxi – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Internet tariyxi" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Internetului" title="Istoria Internetului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Internetului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История Интернета – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Интернета" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_internetit" title="Historia e internetit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e internetit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Историја интернета – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја интернета" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internets_historia" title="Internets historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Internets historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_Internet" title="Kasaysayan ng Internet – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng Internet" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="இணையத்தின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இணையத்தின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="అంతర్జాల చరిత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అంతర్జాల చరిత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%95" title="ประวัติศาสตร์อินเทอร์เน็ต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์อินเทอร์เน็ต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nternetin_tarihi" title="İnternetin tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İnternetin tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%83" title="Історія Інтернету – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Інтернету" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="انٹرنیٹ کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انٹرنیٹ کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Internet" title="Lịch sử Internet – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Internet" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="互联网历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="互联网历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q193315#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="View the content page [c]" 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent,_inverted.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Visualization of Internet routing paths"><img alt="Visualization of Internet routing paths" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/150px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/225px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/300px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">An <a href="/wiki/Opte_Project" title="Opte Project">Opte Project</a> visualization of <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing paths</a> through a portion of the Internet</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">General</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_activism" title="Internet activism">Activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_activism" title="Data activism">Data activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-democracy" title="E-democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">Digital rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_freedom" title="Internet freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena" title="List of Internet phenomena">Internet phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">Net neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_Internet_access" title="Right to Internet access">Right to Internet access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slacktivism" title="Slacktivism">Slacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Internet_usage" title="Global Internet usage">Usage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_vigilantism" title="Internet vigilantism">Vigilantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_community" title="Virtual community">Virtual community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_volunteering" title="Virtual volunteering">Virtual volunteering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Internet_governance" title="Internet governance">Governance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Governance_Forum" title="Internet Governance Forum">IGF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Internet_registry#Number_Resource_Organization" title="Regional Internet registry">NRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">IANA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICANN" title="ICANN">ICANN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">IETF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">ISOC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Information_infrastructure" title="Information infrastructure">Information infrastructure</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_exchange_point" title="Internet exchange point">Internet exchange point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol" title="Internet Message Access Protocol">Internet Message Access Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Services</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microblogging" title="Microblogging">Microblogging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_fax" title="Internet fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_transfer" title="File transfer">File transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_game" title="Online game">Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">Instant messaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podcast" title="Podcast">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">Voice over IP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Web_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search engine">search</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_currently_registered_Internet_domain_names" title="List of the oldest currently registered Internet domain names">Oldest domain names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars" title="Protocol Wars">Protocol Wars</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Guides</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Internet-related_articles" title="Index of Internet-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Internet" title="Outline of the Internet">Outline</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/16px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/24px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/32px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Internet" title="Template:Internet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Internet" title="Template talk:Internet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Internet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Internet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of the Internet has its origin in the efforts of scientists and engineers to build and interconnect <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a>, the set of rules used to communicate between networks and devices on the Internet, arose from research and development in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and involved international collaboration, particularly with researchers in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Abbatep3-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> was an emerging discipline in the late 1950s that began to consider <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> between computer users, and later, the possibility of achieving this over <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">wide area networks</a>. <a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a> developed the idea of a universal network at the <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_Techniques_Office" title="Information Processing Techniques Office">Information Processing Techniques Office</a> (IPTO) of the United States <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> (DoD) <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (ARPA). Independently, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> at the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a> proposed a distributed network based on data in message blocks in the early 1960s, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> conceived of <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a> in 1965 at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL), proposing a national commercial data network in the United Kingdom. ARPA awarded contracts in 1969 for the development of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> project, directed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Taylor (computer scientist)">Robert Taylor</a> and managed by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Lawrence Roberts</a>. ARPANET adopted the packet switching technology proposed by Davies and Baran. The network of <a href="/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processors</a> (IMPs) was built by a team at <a href="/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek,_and_Newman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt, Beranek, and Newman">Bolt, Beranek, and Newman</a>, with the design and specification led by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a>. The host-to-host protocol was specified by a group of graduate students at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Steve_Crocker" title="Steve Crocker">Steve Crocker</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">Jon Postel</a> and others. The ARPANET expanded rapidly across the United States with connections to the United Kingdom and Norway. Several <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching#Packet-switched_networks" title="Packet switching">early packet-switched networks</a> emerged in the 1970s which researched and provided <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">data networking</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Zimmermann" title="Hubert Zimmermann">Hubert Zimmermann</a> pioneered a simplified end-to-end approach to <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> at the <a href="/wiki/INRIA" class="mw-redirect" title="INRIA">IRIA</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Peter Kirstein</a> put internetworking into practice at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> in 1973. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Bob Metcalfe</a> developed the theory behind <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a>. ARPA initiatives and the <a href="/wiki/International_Network_Working_Group" title="International Network Working Group">International Network Working Group</a> developed and refined ideas for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. <a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a>, now at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, and Bob Kahn, now at DARPA, published their research on internetworking in 1974. Through the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Experiment_Note" title="Internet Experiment Note">Internet Experiment Note</a> series and later <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFCs</a> this evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP) and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP), two protocols of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a>. The design included concepts pioneered in the French <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> project directed by Louis Pouzin. The development of packet switching networks was underpinned by mathematical work in the 1970s by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> at UCLA. In the late 1970s, national and international <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a> emerged based on the <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> protocol, designed by <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9mi_Despr%C3%A9s" title="Rémi Després">Rémi Després</a> and others. In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) funded national <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputing</a> centers at several universities in the United States, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> project, thus creating network access to these supercomputer sites for research and academic organizations in the United States. International connections to NSFNET, the emergence of architecture such as the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite#Adoption" title="Internet protocol suite">adoption of TCP/IP</a> on existing networks in the United States and around the world marked the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a> Commercial <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a> (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The optical backbone of the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic, as traffic transitioned to optical networks managed by Sprint, MCI and AT&T in the United States. Research at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> by the British computer scientist <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> in 1989–90 resulted in the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, linking <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> documents into an information system, accessible from any <a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">node</a> on the network.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The dramatic expansion of the capacity of the Internet, enabled by the advent of <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wave division multiplexing</a> (WDM) and the rollout of <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable" title="Fiber-optic cable">fiber optic cables</a> in the mid-1990s, had a revolutionary impact on culture, commerce, and technology. This made possible the rise of near-instant communication by <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">electronic mail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voice_over_Internet_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice over Internet Protocol">voice over Internet Protocol</a> (VoIP) telephone calls, <a href="/wiki/Video_chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Video chat">video chat</a>, and the World Wide Web with its <a href="/wiki/Discussion_forums" class="mw-redirect" title="Discussion forums">discussion forums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Blogs">blogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">social networking services</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">online shopping</a> sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic networks</a> operating at 1 <a href="/wiki/Gbits/sec" class="mw-redirect" title="Gbits/sec">Gbit/s</a>, 10 Gbit/s, and 800 Gbit/s by 2019.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was rapid in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> networks in the year 1993, 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.<a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-11">[11]</a> The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and <a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">social networking services</a>. However, the future of the global network may be shaped by regional differences.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20181015-12">[12]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundations">Foundations</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors">Precursors</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</h4></div> <dl><dd>The practice of transmitting messages between two different places through an electromagnetic medium dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> in the late 19th century, which was the first fully digital communication system. <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraphy">Radiotelegraphy</a> began to be used commercially in the early 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a> became an operational <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a> service in the 1930s. Such systems were limited to <a href="/wiki/Point-to-point_(telecommunications)" title="Point-to-point (telecommunications)">point-to-point communication</a> between two <a href="/wiki/End_system" title="End system">end devices</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information_theory">Information theory</h4></div> <dl><dd>Fundamental theoretical work in <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> technology was developed by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Nyquist" title="Harry Nyquist">Harry Nyquist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Hartley" title="Ralph Hartley">Ralph Hartley</a> in the 1920s. <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a>, as enunciated by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> in 1948, provided a firm theoretical <a href="/wiki/Underpinning" title="Underpinning">underpinning</a> to understand the trade-offs between <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a>, and error-free <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a> in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computers_and_modems">Computers and modems</h4></div> <dl><dd>Early fixed-program <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> in the 1940s were operated manually by entering small programs via <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switches</a> in order to load and run a series of programs. As <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> technology evolved in the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing units</a> and user <a href="/wiki/Computer_terminal" title="Computer terminal">terminals</a> came into use by 1955. The <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a> model was devised, and <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modems</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bell_101_modem" title="Bell 101 modem">Bell 101</a>, allowed <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital data</a> to be transmitted over regular unconditioned <a href="/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">telephone lines</a> at low speeds by the late 1950s. These technologies made it possible to exchange data between <a href="/wiki/Remote_desktop_software" title="Remote desktop software">remote computers</a>. However, a fixed-line link was still necessary; the point-to-point communication model did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems. In addition, the applications were specific and not general purpose. Examples included <a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a> (1958) and <a href="/wiki/Sabre_(travel_reservation_system)" title="Sabre (travel reservation system)">SABRE</a> (1960).</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</h4></div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Strachey" title="Christopher Strachey">Christopher Strachey</a>, who became <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford University's</a> first Professor of <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">Computation</a>, filed a <a href="/wiki/Patent_application" title="Patent application">patent application</a> in the United Kingdom for <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> in February 1959.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-14">[14]</a> In June that year, he gave a paper "Time Sharing in Large Fast Computers" at the <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_for_Information_Processing#History" title="International Federation for Information Processing">UNESCO Information Processing Conference</a> in Paris where he passed the concept on to <a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ctsspg-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Licklider, a vice president at <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.</a> (BBN), promoted the idea of time-sharing as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch processing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:13-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, wrote a memo in 1959 that broadened the concept of time sharing to encompass multiple interactive user sessions, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">Compatible Time-Sharing System</a> (CTSS) implemented at MIT. Other multi-user mainframe systems developed, such as <a href="/wiki/PLATO_(computer_system)" title="PLATO (computer system)">PLATO</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Chicago" title="University of Illinois Chicago">University of Illinois Chicago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In the early 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (ARPA) of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> funded further research into time-sharing at MIT through <a href="/wiki/Project_MAC" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MAC">Project MAC</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inspiration">Inspiration</h3></div> J. C. R. Licklider, while working at BBN, proposed a computer network in his March 1960 paper <a href="/wiki/Man-Computer_Symbiosis" title="Man-Computer Symbiosis">Man-Computer Symbiosis</a>:<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A network of such centers, connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [...] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and symbiotic functions suggested earlier in this paper</blockquote> In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper "On-Line Man-Computer Communication"<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> which was one of the first descriptions of a networked future. In October 1962, Licklider was hired by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Ruina" title="Jack Ruina">Jack Ruina</a> as director of the newly established <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_Techniques_Office" title="Information Processing Techniques Office">Information Processing Techniques Office</a> (IPTO) within ARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of Defense's main computers at <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain" title="Cheyenne Mountain">Cheyenne Mountain</a>, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos in 1963 describing a distributed network to the IPTO staff, whom he called "Members and Affiliates of the <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_Computer_Network" title="Intergalactic Computer Network">Intergalactic Computer Network</a>".<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus for one of his successors, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Taylor (computer scientist)">Robert Taylor</a>, to initiate the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Packet_switching">Packet switching</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_idea_of_the_data_packet_(Baran,_1964)-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg/220px-The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg/330px-The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg/440px-The_idea_of_the_data_packet_%28Baran%2C_1964%29-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="193" /></a><figcaption>The "message block", designed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> in 1962 and refined in 1964, is the first proposal of a <a href="/wiki/Data_packet" class="mw-redirect" title="Data packet">data packet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">Packet switching</a></div> The infrastructure for <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> systems at the time was based on <a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit switching</a>, which requires pre-allocation of a dedicated communication line for the duration of the call. <a href="/wiki/Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegram">Telegram</a> services had developed <a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">store and forward</a> telecommunication techniques. <a href="/wiki/Western_Union" title="Western Union">Western Union</a>'s Automatic Telegraph Switching System <a href="/wiki/Plan_55-A" title="Plan 55-A">Plan 55-A</a> was based on <a href="/wiki/Message_switching" title="Message switching">message switching</a>. The U.S. military's <a href="/wiki/AUTODIN" class="mw-redirect" title="AUTODIN">AUTODIN</a> network became operational in 1962. These systems, like SAGE and SBRE, still required rigid routing structures that were prone to <a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">single point of failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The technology was considered vulnerable for strategic and military use because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of a broken link. In the early 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> of the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a> produced a study of survivable networks for the U.S. military in the event of nuclear war.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Information would be transmitted across a "distributed" network, divided into what he called "message blocks".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pelkey6.1a-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5a-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In addition to being prone to a single point of failure, existing telegraphic techniques were inefficient and inflexible. Beginning in 1965 <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a> in the United Kingdom, developed a more advanced proposal of the concept, designed for high-speed <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networking</a>, which he called <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a>, the term that would ultimately be adopted.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_Hey,_G_Pápay2-34">[34]</a> Packet switching is a technique for transmitting computer data by splitting it into very short, standardized chunks, attaching routing information to each of these chunks, and transmitting them independently through a <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer network</a>. It provides better bandwidth utilization than traditional circuit-switching used for telephony, and enables the connection of computers with different transmission and receive rates. It is a distinct concept to message switching.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Networks_that_led_to_the_Internet">Networks that led to the Internet</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NPL_network">NPL network</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></div> Following discussions with <a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a> in 1965, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> became interested in <a href="/wiki/Data_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Data communications">data communications</a> for computer networks.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts1978-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roberts1995-37">[37]</a> Later that year, at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL) in the United Kingdom, Davies designed and proposed a national commercial data network based on packet switching.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The following year, he described the use of "switching nodes" to act as <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a> in a digital communication network.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The proposal was not taken up nationally but he produced a design for a local network to serve the needs of the NPL and prove the feasibility of packet switching using high-speed data transmission.<a href="#cite_note-K.G._Coffman_&_A.M._Odlyzco-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-B._Steil,_Council_on_Foreign_Relations-42">[42]</a> To deal with packet permutations (due to dynamically updated route preferences) and to datagram losses (unavoidable when fast sources send to a slow destinations), he assumed that "all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control",<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> thus inventing what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end principle</a>. In 1967, he and his team were the first to use the term 'protocol' in a modern data-commutation context.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In 1968,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Davies began building the Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of his multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions.<a href="#cite_note-C._Hempstead,_W._Worthington2-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Technology-47">[47]</a> The network's development was described at a 1968 conference.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Elements of the network became operational in early 1969,<a href="#cite_note-C._Hempstead,_W._Worthington2-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:722-50">[50]</a> the first implementation of packet switching,<a href="#cite_note-:22-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and the NPL network was the first to use high-speed links.<a href="#cite_note-:32-53">[53]</a> Many other packet switching networks built in the 1970s were similar "in nearly all respects" to Davies' original 1965 design.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts1978-36">[36]</a> The Mark II version which operated from 1973 used a layered protocol architecture.<a href="#cite_note-:32-53">[53]</a> In 1976, 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and more were added. The NPL team carried out <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> work on wide-area packet networks, including <a href="/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagrams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_congestion" title="Network congestion">congestion</a>; and research into <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secure_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure communications">secure communications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-C._Hempstead,_W._Worthington2-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:82-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pelkey-56">[56]</a> The network was replaced in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-:32-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ARPANET">ARPANET</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></div> Robert Taylor was promoted to the head of the <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_Techniques_Office" title="Information Processing Techniques Office">Information Processing Techniques Office</a> (IPTO) at <a href="/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA) in 1966. He intended to realize <a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">Licklider</a>'s ideas of an interconnected networking system.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> As part of the IPTO's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for <a href="/wiki/System_Development_Corporation" title="System Development Corporation">System Development Corporation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica,_California" title="Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica</a>, one for <a href="/wiki/Project_Genie" title="Project Genie">Project Genie</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one for the <a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">Compatible Time-Sharing System</a> project at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT).<a href="#cite_note-Markoff_1999-58">[58]</a> Taylor's identified need for networking became obvious from the waste of resources apparent to him. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them.... I said, oh man, it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet.<a href="#cite_note-Markoff_1999-58">[58]</a></blockquote>Bringing in <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Larry Roberts</a> from MIT in January 1967, he initiated a project to build such a network. Roberts and Thomas Merrill had been researching computer <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> over <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">wide area networks</a> (WANs).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Wide area networks emerged during the late 1950s and became established during the 1960s. At the first ACM <a href="/wiki/Symposium_on_Operating_Systems_Principles" title="Symposium on Operating Systems Principles">Symposium on Operating Systems Principles</a> in October 1967, Roberts presented a proposal for the "ARPA net", based on <a href="/wiki/Wesley_A._Clark" title="Wesley A. Clark">Wesley Clark's</a> idea to use <a href="/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processors</a> (IMP) to create a <a href="/wiki/Message_switching" title="Message switching">message switching</a> network.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> At the conference, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scantlebury" title="Roger Scantlebury">Roger Scantlebury</a> presented <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies'</a> work on a hierarchical digital communications network using <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a> and referenced the work of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> at <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND</a>. Roberts incorporated the packet switching and routing concepts of Davies and Baran into the ARPANET design and upgraded the proposed communications speed from 2.4 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s.<a href="#cite_note-:1-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-MCK-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> ARPA awarded the contract to build the network to <a href="/wiki/Bolt_Beranek_%26_Newman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt Beranek & Newman">Bolt Beranek & Newman</a>. The "IMP guys", led by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Heart" title="Frank Heart">Frank Heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a>, developed the routing, flow control, software design and network control.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts1978-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent-66">[66]</a> The first ARPANET link was established between the Network Measurement Center at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) <a href="/wiki/Henry_Samueli_School_of_Engineering_and_Applied_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science">Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science</a> directed by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a>, and the NLS system at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Research_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Research Institute">Stanford Research Institute</a> (SRI) directed by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> in <a href="/wiki/Menlo_Park,_California" title="Menlo Park, California">Menlo Park</a>, California at 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969.<a href="#cite_note-How_ARPANET_Works-67">[67]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"We set up a telephone connection between us and the guys at SRI ...", Kleinrock ... said in an interview: "We typed the L and we asked on the phone, <dl><dd>"Do you see the L?"</dd> <dd>"Yes, we see the L," came the response.</dd> <dd>We typed the O, and we asked, "Do you see the O."</dd> <dd>"Yes, we see the O."</dd> <dd>Then we typed the G, and the system crashed ...</dd></dl> Yet a revolution had begun" ....<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NetValley-69">[69]</a> </blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Azerbaijan,_2004-683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Stamps_of_Azerbaijan%2C_2004-683.jpg/220px-Stamps_of_Azerbaijan%2C_2004-683.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Stamps_of_Azerbaijan%2C_2004-683.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>Postage stamp of Azerbaijan (2004): 35 Years of the Internet, 1969–2004</figcaption></figure> By December 1969, a four-node network was connected by adding the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a> Graphics Department.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In the same year, Taylor helped fund <a href="/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet">ALOHAnet</a>, a system designed by professor <a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Norman Abramson</a> and others at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawai%CA%BBi_at_M%C4%81noa" title="University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa">University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa</a> that transmitted data by radio between seven computers on four islands on <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steve_Crocker" title="Steve Crocker">Steve Crocker</a> formed the "Network Working Group" in 1969 at UCLA. Working with <a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">Jon Postel</a> and others,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> he initiated and managed the <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> (RFC) process, which is still used today for proposing and distributing contributions. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker and published on April 7, 1969. The protocol for establishing links between network sites in the ARPANET, the <a href="/wiki/Network_Control_Protocol_(ARPANET)" title="Network Control Protocol (ARPANET)">Network Control Program</a> (NCP), was completed in 1970. These early years were documented in the 1972 film <a href="/wiki/Computer_Networks:_The_Heralds_of_Resource_Sharing" title="Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing">Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing</a>. Roberts presented the idea of packet switching to the communication professionals, and faced anger and hostility. Before ARPANET was operating, they argued that the router buffers would quickly run out. After the ARPANET was operating, they argued packet switching would never be economic without the government subsidy. Baran faced the same rejection and thus failed to convince the military into constructing a packet switching network.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Early international collaborations via the ARPANET were sparse. Connections were made in 1973 to the Norwegian Seismic Array (<a href="/wiki/NORSAR" title="NORSAR">NORSAR</a>),<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> via a satellite link at the <a href="/wiki/Tanum_Municipality" title="Tanum Municipality">Tanum</a> Earth Station in Sweden, and to <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Peter Kirstein</a>'s research group at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, which provided a gateway to <a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom#History" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">British academic networks</a>, the first international heterogenous <a href="/wiki/Resource_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource sharing">resource sharing</a> network.<a href="#cite_note-:9-76">[76]</a> Throughout the 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock developed the mathematical theory to model and measure the performance of packet-switching technology, building on his earlier work on the application of <a href="/wiki/Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">queueing theory</a> to message switching systems.<a href="#cite_note-Gillies2000-77">[77]</a> By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merit_Network">Merit Network</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a><a href="#cite_note-Merit-79">[79]</a> was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> With initial support from the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Michigan">State of Michigan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host connection was made between the <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a> systems at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann Arbor">Ann Arbor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University" title="Wayne State University">Wayne State University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1970-1979-81">[81]</a> In October 1972 connections to the <a href="/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation" title="Control Data Corporation">CDC</a> mainframe at <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Lansing" class="mw-redirect" title="East Lansing">East Lansing</a> completed the triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the <a href="/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a>, <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> attached hosts, and eventually <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> and additional <a href="/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_Michigan#Public_colleges_and_universities" title="List of colleges and universities in Michigan">public universities in Michigan</a> join the network.<a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1970-1979-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1980-1989-82">[82]</a> All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> project starting in the mid-1980s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-83">[83]</a> In 1972, he began planning the network to explore alternatives to the early ARPANET design and to support <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> research. First demonstrated in 1973, it was the first network to implement the <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end principle</a> conceived by Donald Davies and make the hosts responsible for reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using <a href="/wiki/Datagrams#Packets_vs._datagrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Datagrams">unreliable datagrams</a>. Concepts implemented in this network influenced <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> architecture.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="X.25_and_public_data_networks">X.25 and public data networks</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data network</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv/220px--ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="94" data-mwtitle="ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="512" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="512" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv/ABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=cs&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="cs" label="čeština ‪(cs)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=da&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="da" label="dansk ‪(da)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=it&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AABC_Clarke_predicts_internet_and_PC.ogv&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>1974 interview with <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>, in which he describes a future of ubiquitous networked personal computers</figcaption></figure> Based on international research initiatives, particularly the contributions of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9mi_Despr%C3%A9s" title="Rémi Després">Rémi Després</a>, packet switching network standards were developed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Telegraph_and_Telephone_Consultative_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee">International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee</a> (ITU-T) in the form of <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> and related standards.<a href="#cite_note-:11-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-87">[87]</a> X.25 is built on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual circuits</a> emulating traditional telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became <a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a>, the United Kingdom's high-speed <a href="/wiki/National_research_and_education_network" title="National research and education network">national research and education network</a> (NREN). The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Existing networks, such as <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> in the United States adopted X.25 as well as new <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/DATAPAC" title="DATAPAC">DATAPAC</a> in Canada and <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching#TRANSPAC" title="Packet switching">TRANSPAC</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-:11-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> was supplemented by the <a href="/wiki/X.75" title="X.75">X.75</a> protocol which enabled internetworking between national PTT networks in Europe and commercial networks in North America.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Post Office Telecommunications">British Post Office</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Union" title="Western Union">Western Union International</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a> collaborated to create the first international packet-switched network, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" title="International Packet Switched Service">International Packet Switched Service</a> (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong, and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for business use. <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> offered its Telemail electronic mail service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather than the general email system of the ARPANET. The first public dial-in networks used asynchronous <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a> (TTY) terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the public network. Some networks, such as <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> and <a href="/wiki/CompuServe" title="CompuServe">CompuServe</a>, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a>, used proprietary protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer <a href="/wiki/E-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="E-mail">electronic mail</a> capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer <a href="/wiki/Online_chat" title="Online chat">real-time chat</a> with its <a href="/wiki/CB_Simulator" title="CB Simulator">CB Simulator</a>. Other major dial-in networks were <a href="/wiki/America_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="America Online">America Online</a> (AOL) and <a href="/wiki/Prodigy_(ISP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigy (ISP)">Prodigy</a> that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system">bulletin board system</a> (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as <a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a> which was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hackers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_operator" title="Amateur radio operator">amateur radio operators</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UUCP_and_Usenet">UUCP and Usenet</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></div> In 1979, two students at <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Truscott" title="Tom Truscott">Tom Truscott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Ellis_(computing)" title="Jim Ellis (computing)">Jim Ellis</a>, originated the idea of using <a href="/wiki/Bourne_shell" title="Bourne shell">Bourne shell</a> scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a> connection with nearby <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>. Following public release of the software in 1980, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between <a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a> and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> links or even <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> connections, and the lack of strict use policies compared to later networks like <a href="/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">CSNET</a> and <a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a>. All connects were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sublink_Network" title="Sublink Network">Sublink Network</a>, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies. Sublink Network evolved into one of the first examples of Internet technology coming into use through popular diffusion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1973–1989:_Merging_the_networks_and_creating_the_Internet">1973–1989: Merging the networks and creating the Internet</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_in_February_82.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Internet_map_in_February_82.png/200px-Internet_map_in_February_82.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Internet_map_in_February_82.png/300px-Internet_map_in_February_82.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Internet_map_in_February_82.png/400px-Internet_map_in_February_82.png 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> test network in February 1982</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Internet_Demonstration,_1977.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg/220px-First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg/330px-First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg/440px-First_Internet_Demonstration%2C_1977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>First Internet demonstration, linking the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, <a href="/wiki/PRNET" title="PRNET">PRNET</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SATNET" title="SATNET">SATNET</a> on November 22, 1977</figcaption></figure> With so many different networking methods seeking interconnection, a method was needed to unify them. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a> initiated the <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> project in 1972,<a href="#cite_note-:21-95">[95]</a> building on the work of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> and the ARPANET.<a href="#cite_note-Pelkey8.3-96">[96]</a> An <a href="/wiki/International_Network_Working_Group" title="International Network Working Group">International Network Working Group</a> formed in 1972; active members included <a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a> from <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, Alex McKenzie from <a href="/wiki/Bolt_Beranek_%26_Newman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt Beranek & Newman">BBN</a>, Donald Davies and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scantlebury" title="Roger Scantlebury">Roger Scantlebury</a> from <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">NPL</a>, and Louis Pouzin and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Zimmermann" title="Hubert Zimmermann">Hubert Zimmermann</a> from <a href="/wiki/French_Institute_for_Research_in_Computer_Science_and_Automation" title="French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation">IRIA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-ieee201703-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Pouzin coined the term <a href="/wiki/Catenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Catenet">catenet</a> for concatenated network. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Bob Metcalfe</a> at <a href="/wiki/PARC_(company)" title="PARC (company)">Xerox PARC</a> outlined the idea of <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and <a href="/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a> (PUP) for <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E. Kahn">Bob Kahn</a>, now at <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>, recruited Vint Cerf to work with him on the problem. By 1973, these groups had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> protocol. Instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible.<a href="#cite_note-:3-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-100">[100]</a> Cerf and Kahn published their ideas in May 1974,<a href="#cite_note-:7-101">[101]</a> which incorporated concepts implemented by Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann in the CYCLADES network.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The specification of the resulting protocol, the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission Control Program">Transmission Control Program</a>, was published as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675">675</a> by the Network Working Group in December 1974.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> It contains the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetwork. This software was monolithic in design using two <a href="/wiki/Simplex_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplex communication">simplex communication</a> channels for each user session. With the role of the network reduced to a core of functionality, it became possible to exchange traffic with other networks independently from their detailed characteristics, thereby solving the fundamental problems of internetworking. DARPA agreed to fund the development of prototype software. Testing began in 1975 through concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN and <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> (UCL).<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a> After several years of work, the first demonstration of a gateway between the <a href="/wiki/PRNET" title="PRNET">Packet Radio network</a> (PRNET) in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted by the <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">Stanford Research Institute</a>. On November 22, 1977, a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the SRI's <a href="/wiki/Packet_Radio_Van" title="Packet Radio Van">Packet Radio Van</a> on the Packet Radio Network and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Packet_Satellite_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Packet Satellite Network">Atlantic Packet Satellite Network</a> (SATNET) including a node at UCL.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, using full-duplex channels; between 1976 and 1977, <a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a> and Robert Metcalfe among others, proposed separating TCP's <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> and transmission control functions into two discrete layers,<a href="#cite_note-Panzaris-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pelkey-Dalal-107">[107]</a> which led to the splitting of the Transmission Control Program into the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP) and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP) in version 3 in 1978.<a href="#cite_note-Pelkey-Dalal-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/IPv4" title="IPv4">Version 4</a> was described in <a href="/wiki/IETF" class="mw-redirect" title="IETF">IETF</a> publication RFC 791 (September 1981), 792 and 793. It was installed on <a href="/wiki/SATNET" title="SATNET">SATNET</a> in 1982 and the ARPANET in January 1983 after the DoD made it standard for all military computer networking.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> This resulted in a networking model that became known informally as TCP/IP. It was also referred to as the Department of Defense (DoD) model or DARPA model.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Cerf credits his graduate students Yogen Dalal, Carl Sunshine, <a href="/wiki/Judy_Estrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Judy Estrin">Judy Estrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Le_Lann" title="Gérard Le Lann">Gérard Le Lann</a> with important work on the design and testing.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> DARPA sponsored or encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite#Adoption" title="Internet protocol suite">development of TCP/IP implementations</a> for many operating systems. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg/300px-IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg/450px-IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg/600px-IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Decomposition of the quad-dotted IPv4 address representation to its <a href="/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary numeral system">binary</a> value</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_ARPANET_to_NSFNET">From ARPANET to NSFNET</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InetCirca85.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/InetCirca85.jpg/320px-InetCirca85.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/InetCirca85.jpg/480px-InetCirca85.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/InetCirca85.jpg/640px-InetCirca85.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2180" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN Technologies</a> TCP/IP Internet map of early 1986</figcaption></figure> After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting-edge research and development, not running a communications utility. In July 1975, the network was turned over to the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Communications_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Communications Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a>, also part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>. In 1983, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._military" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. military">U.S. military</a> portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the <a href="/wiki/MILNET" title="MILNET">MILNET</a>. MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only <a href="/wiki/NIPRNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NIPRNET">NIPRNET</a>, in parallel with the SECRET-level <a href="/wiki/SIPRNET" class="mw-redirect" title="SIPRNET">SIPRNET</a> and <a href="/wiki/JWICS" class="mw-redirect" title="JWICS">JWICS</a> for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet. The networks based on the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and a growing number of companies such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">Hewlett-Packard</a>, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were. Data transmission speeds depended upon the type of connection, the slowest being analog telephone lines and the fastest using optical networking technology. Several other branches of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. government</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA), the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF), and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a> (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid-1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=NASA_Science_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NASA Science Network (page does not exist)">NASA Science Network</a>, NSF developed <a href="/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">CSNET</a> and DOE evolved the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Sciences_Network" title="Energy Sciences Network">Energy Sciences Network</a> or ESNet. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NSFNET-backbone-T3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NSFNET-backbone-T3.png/320px-NSFNET-backbone-T3.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NSFNET-backbone-T3.png/480px-NSFNET-backbone-T3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NSFNET-backbone-T3.png/640px-NSFNET-backbone-T3.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992</figcaption></figure> NASA developed the TCP/IP based NASA Science Network (NSN) in the mid-1980s, connecting space scientists to data and information stored anywhere in the world. In 1989, the <a href="/wiki/DECnet" title="DECnet">DECnet</a>-based Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI was established to provide a totally integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all seven continents. In 1981, NSF supported the development of the <a href="/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">Computer Science Network</a> (CSNET). CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a>, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. CSNET played a central role in popularizing the Internet outside the ARPANET.<a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a> In 1986, the NSF created <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a>, a 56 kbit/s <a href="/wiki/Internet_backbone" title="Internet backbone">backbone</a> to support the NSF-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputing</a> centers. The NSFNET also provided support for the creation of regional research and education networks in the United States, and for the connection of university and college campus networks to the regional networks.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The use of NSFNET and the regional networks was not limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s in 1988 under a cooperative agreement with the <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a> in partnership with <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, <a href="/wiki/MCI_Communications" title="MCI Communications">MCI</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Michigan">State of Michigan</a>. The existence of NSFNET and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Federal_Internet_Exchange" title="Federal Internet Exchange">Federal Internet Exchanges</a> (FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to dedicated fiber, optical lasers and optical amplifier systems capable of delivering T3 start up speeds or 45 Mbit/s in 1991. However, the T3 transition by MCI took longer than expected, allowing Sprint to establish a coast-to-coast long-distance commercial Internet service. When NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, its optical networking backbones were handed off to several commercial Internet service providers, including MCI, <a href="/wiki/PSINet" title="PSINet">PSI Net</a> and Sprint.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> As a result, when the handoff was complete, Sprint and its Washington DC Network Access Points began to carry Internet traffic, and by 1996, Sprint was the world's largest carrier of Internet traffic.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The research and academic community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as <a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a> in the United States and <a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a> in the United Kingdom. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_towards_the_Internet">Transition towards the Internet</h3></div> The term "internet" was reflected in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675:<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as a short form of internetworking, when the two terms were used interchangeably. In general, an internet was a collection of networks linked by a common protocol. In the time period when the ARPANET was connected to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> project in the late 1980s, the term was used as the name of the network, Internet, being the large and global TCP/IP network.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Opening the Internet and the fiber optic backbone to corporate and consumers increased demand for network capacity. The expense and delay of laying new fiber led providers to test a fiber bandwidth expansion alternative that had been pioneered in the late 1970s by <a href="/wiki/Optelecom" title="Optelecom">Optelecom</a> using "interactions between light and matter, such as lasers and optical devices used for <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplification</a> and wave mixing".<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> This technology became known as <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wave division multiplexing (WDM)</a>. Bell Labs deployed a 4-channel WDM system in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-Winzer_Neilson_Chraplyvy_2018_p._24190-120">[120]</a> To develop a mass capacity (dense) WDM system, <a href="/wiki/Optelecom" title="Optelecom">Optelecom</a> and its former head of Light Systems Research, <a href="/wiki/David_R._Huber" title="David R. Huber">David R. Huber</a> formed a new venture, <a href="/wiki/Ciena_Corp." class="mw-redirect" title="Ciena Corp.">Ciena Corp.</a>, that deployed the world's first dense WDM system on the Sprint fiber network in June 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Winzer_Neilson_Chraplyvy_2018_p._24190-120">[120]</a> This was referred to as the real start of optical networking.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> As interest in networking grew by needs of collaboration, exchange of data, and access of remote computing resources, the Internet technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. The hardware-agnostic approach in TCP/IP supported the use of existing network infrastructure, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" title="International Packet Switched Service">International Packet Switched Service</a> (IPSS) X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet created simple gateways for the transfer of electronic mail, the most important application of the time. Sites with only intermittent connections used <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a> or <a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a> and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple mail peering, such as allowing access to <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP) sites via UUCP or mail.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Finally, routing technologies were developed for the Internet to remove the remaining centralized routing aspects. The <a href="/wiki/Exterior_Gateway_Protocol" title="Exterior Gateway Protocol">Exterior Gateway Protocol</a> (EGP) was replaced by a new protocol, the <a href="/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" title="Border Gateway Protocol">Border Gateway Protocol</a> (BGP). This provided a meshed topology for the Internet and reduced the centric architecture which ARPANET had emphasized. In 1994, <a href="/wiki/Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing" title="Classless Inter-Domain Routing">Classless Inter-Domain Routing</a> (CIDR) was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of <a href="/wiki/Supernet" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernet">route aggregation</a> to decrease the size of <a href="/wiki/Routing_table" title="Routing table">routing tables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_networking">Optical networking</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/MOS_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS transistor">MOS transistor</a> underpinned the rapid growth of telecommunication bandwidth over the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Jindal-124">[124]</a> To address the need for transmission capacity beyond that provided by <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> and analog copper telephone lines, engineers developed <a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">optical communications</a> systems based on <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable" title="Fiber-optic cable">fiber optic cables</a> powered by <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a> techniques. The concept of lasing arose from a 1917 paper by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation." Einstein expanded upon a dialog with <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> on how <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> absorb and emit <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, part of a thought process that, with input from <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> and others, gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum Mechanics</a>. Specifically, in his <a href="/wiki/Quantum_theory_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum theory of matter">quantum theory</a>, Einstein mathematically determined that light could be generated not only by <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_emission" title="Spontaneous emission">spontaneous emission</a>, such as the light emitted by an <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light</a> or the Sun, but also by <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission" title="Stimulated emission">stimulated emission</a>. Forty years later, on November 13, 1957, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> physics student <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Gould" title="Gordon Gould">Gordon Gould</a> first realized how to make light by stimulated emission through a process of <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplification" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical amplification">optical amplification</a>. He coined the term LASER for this technology—Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Using Gould's light amplification method (patented as "Optically Pumped Laser Amplifier"),<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Maiman" title="Theodore Maiman">Theodore Maiman</a> made the first working laser on May 16, 1960.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Gould co-founded <a href="/wiki/Optelecom" title="Optelecom">Optelecom</a>, Inc. in 1973 to commercialize his inventions in optical fiber telecommunications.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> just as <a href="/wiki/Corning_Glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Corning Glass">Corning Glass</a> was producing the first commercial fiber optic cable in small quantities. Optelecom configured its own fiber lasers and optical amplifiers into the first commercial optical communication systems which it delivered to <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a> and the US Army Missile Defense.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Three years later, <a href="/wiki/GTE" title="GTE">GTE</a> deployed the first optical telephone system in 1977 in Long Beach, California.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> By the early 1980s, optical networks powered by lasers, <a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a> and optical amplifier equipment supplied by <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, <a href="/wiki/NTT_Docomo" title="NTT Docomo">NTT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pirelli" title="Pirelli">Perelli</a> were used by select universities and long-distance telephone providers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TCP/IP_goes_global_(1980s)">TCP/IP goes global (1980s)</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CERN_and_the_European_Internet">CERN and the European Internet</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars" title="Protocol Wars">Protocol Wars</a></div> In 1982, <a href="/wiki/NORSAR" title="NORSAR">NORSAR</a>/<a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Defence_Research_Establishment" title="Norwegian Defence Research Establishment">NDRE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Peter Kirstein's</a> research group at University College London (UCL) left the ARPANET and began to use TCP/IP over SATNET.<a href="#cite_note-:5-100">[100]</a> There were 40 <a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom#Early_years" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">British academic research groups</a> using UCL's link to the ARPANET in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-:9-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Between 1984 and 1988, <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs, and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989, when a transatlantic connection to Cornell University was established.<a href="#cite_note-:6-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-nsf-134">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">Computer Science Network</a> (CSNET) began operation in 1981 to provide networking connections to institutions that could not connect directly to ARPANET. Its first international connection was to Israel in 1984. Soon after, connections were established to computer science departments in Canada, France, and Germany.<a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a> In 1988, the first international connections to <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a> was established by France's <a href="/wiki/French_Institute_for_Research_in_Computer_Science_and_Automation" title="French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation">INRIA</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:02-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piet_Beertema" title="Piet Beertema">Piet Beertema</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Centrum_Wiskunde_%26_Informatica" title="Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica">Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica</a> (CWI) in the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI, visited <a href="/wiki/Ben_Segal_(computer_scientist)" title="Ben Segal (computer scientist)">Ben Segal</a>, CERN's TCP/IP coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of <a href="/wiki/EUnet" title="EUnet">EUnet</a>, the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links), over to TCP/IP. The previous year, Segal had met with <a href="/wiki/Len_Bosack" class="mw-redirect" title="Len Bosack">Len Bosack</a> from the then still small company <a href="/wiki/Cisco_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Cisco Systems">Cisco</a> about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and Segal was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks. The <a href="/wiki/NORDUnet" title="NORDUnet">NORDUnet</a> connection to NSFNET was in place soon after, providing open access for university students in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In January 1989, CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (<a href="/wiki/RIPE" title="RIPE">RIPE</a>), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out coordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperative</a> in Amsterdam. The United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/National_research_and_education_network" title="National research and education network">national research and education network</a> (NREN), <a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a>, began operation in 1984 using the UK's <a href="/wiki/Coloured_Book_protocols" title="Coloured Book protocols">Coloured Book protocols</a> and connected to NSFNET in 1989. In 1991, JANET adopted Internet Protocol on the existing network.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European NREN, <a href="/wiki/DANTE" title="DANTE">EuropaNet</a>, which was built on the X.25 protocol.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Academic_and_Research_Network" title="European Academic and Research Network">European Academic and Research Network</a> (EARN) and <a href="/wiki/TERENA" title="TERENA">RARE</a> adopted IP around the same time, and the European Internet backbone <a href="/wiki/EBONE" title="EBONE">EBONE</a> became operational in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-:6-132">[132]</a> Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were <a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars" title="Protocol Wars">polarized over the issue of which standard</a>, the <a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI model</a> or the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.<a href="#cite_note-ieee201703-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_link_to_the_Pacific">The link to the Pacific</h4></div> South Korea set up a two-node domestic TCP/IP network in 1982, the System Development Network (SDN), adding a third node the following year. SDN was connected to the rest of the world in August 1983 using UUCP (Unix-to-Unix-Copy); connected to CSNET in December 1984;<a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a> and formally connected to the NSFNET in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network <a href="/wiki/JUNET" title="JUNET">JUNET</a> in 1984, connected to CSNET,<a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a> and later to NSFNET in 1989, marking the spread of the Internet to Asia. In Australia, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed in the late 1980s, based on various technologies such as X.25, <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a>Net, and via a CSNET.<a href="#cite_note-:10-23">[23]</a> These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. <a href="/wiki/AARNet" title="AARNet">AARNet</a> was formed in 1989 by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Vice-Chancellors%27_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee">Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee</a> and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia. New Zealand adopted the UK's <a href="/wiki/Coloured_Book_protocols" title="Coloured Book protocols">Coloured Book protocols</a> as an interim standard and established its first international IP connection to the U.S. in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A_"digital_divide"_emerges">A "digital divide" emerges</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/360px-InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/540px-InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/720px-InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_Internet_users" title="List of countries by number of Internet users">Internet users in 2023 as a percentage of a country's population</a></div>Source: <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ITU-IndividualsUsingTheInternet-150">[150]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Global digital divide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/360px-FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/540px-FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg/720px-FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_broadband_Internet_subscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions">Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012</a> as a percentage of a country's population</div>Source: <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FixedBroadbandITUDynamic2012-151">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg/360px-MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg/540px-MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg/720px-MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap_2013.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_broadband_Internet_subscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions">Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012</a> as a percentage of a country's population</div>Source: <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MobleBroadbandITUDynamic2012-152">[152]</a></figcaption></figure> While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> began to experience a <a href="/wiki/Digital_divide#Global_digital_divide" title="Digital divide">digital divide</a> separating them from the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they built organizations for Internet resource administration and to share operational experience, which enabled more transmission facilities to be put into place. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africa">Africa</h4></div> At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25 <a href="/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" title="International Packet Switched Service">IPSS</a> and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications. In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africa's first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services. The data connection was originally carried by a C-Band RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMail's Kampala offices directly to NSN's MAE-West point of presence using a private network from NSN's leased ground station in New Jersey. InfoCom's first satellite connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems. In 1996, a <a href="/wiki/USAID" class="mw-redirect" title="USAID">USAID</a> funded project, the <a href="/wiki/Leland_Initiative" title="Leland Initiative">Leland Initiative</a>, started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, Mozambique, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> gained <a href="/wiki/Satellite_earth_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite earth station">satellite earth stations</a> in 1997, followed by <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> in 1998. Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. <a href="/wiki/AFRINIC" title="AFRINIC">AFRINIC</a>, headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, manages IP address allocation for the continent. As with other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> There are many programs to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between <a href="/wiki/NEPAD" class="mw-redirect" title="NEPAD">New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)</a> and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia_and_Oceania">Asia and Oceania</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/APNIC" title="APNIC">Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC)</a>, headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT).<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In South Korea, VDSL, a last mile technology developed in the 1990s by NextLevel Communications, connected corporate and consumer copper-based telephone lines to the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The People's Republic of China established its first TCP/IP college network, <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_University" title="Tsinghua University">Tsinghua University</a>'s TUNET in 1991. The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>'s Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China">content filter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Japan hosted the annual meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a>, INET'92, in <a href="/wiki/Kobe" title="Kobe">Kobe</a>. Singapore developed <a href="/wiki/TechNet_(computer_network)" title="TechNet (computer network)">TECHNET</a> in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h4></div> As with the other regions, <a href="/wiki/LACNIC" title="LACNIC">the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC)</a> manages the IP address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1990–2003:_Rise_of_the_global_Internet,_Web_1.0">1990–2003: Rise of the global Internet, Web 1.0</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">History of the World Wide Web</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></div> Initially, as with its predecessor networks, the system that would evolve into the Internet was primarily for government and government body use. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use was unclear and subjective. <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a>Net and the X.25 <a href="/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" title="International Packet Switched Service">IPSS</a> had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> and <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> connections. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg/360px-Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg/540px-Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg/720px-Internet_Hosts_Count_log.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><div style="text-align: center;">Number of Internet hosts worldwide: 1969–2019</div>Source: <a href="/wiki/Internet_Systems_Consortium" title="Internet Systems Consortium">Internet Systems Consortium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></figcaption></figure> As a result, during the late 1980s, the first <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a> (ISP) companies were formed. Companies like <a href="/wiki/PSINet" title="PSINet">PSINet</a>, <a href="/wiki/UUNET" title="UUNET">UUNET</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netcom_(USA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Netcom (USA)">Netcom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portal_Software" title="Portal Software">Portal Software</a> were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet News</a> to the public. In 1989, <a href="/wiki/MCI_Mail" title="MCI Mail">MCI Mail</a> became the first commercial email provider to get an experimental gateway to the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> The first commercial dialup ISP in the United States was <a href="/wiki/The_World_(internet_service_provider)" class="mw-redirect" title="The World (internet service provider)">The World</a>, which opened in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In 1992, the U.S. Congress passed the Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act, <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1862(g)">§ 1862(g)</a>, which allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes, thus permitting NSFNET to interconnect with commercial networks.<a href="#cite_note-ogc-00-33r_p6-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-NSFAUPNote1-163">[163]</a> This caused controversy within the research and education community, who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to their needs, and within the community of commercial network providers, who felt that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.<a href="#cite_note-NSFNETHearing1992-164">[164]</a> By 1990, ARPANET's goals had been fulfilled and new networking technologies exceeded the original scope and the project came to a close. New network service providers including <a href="/wiki/PSINet" title="PSINet">PSINet</a>, <a href="/wiki/UUNET#Early_existence" title="UUNET">Alternet</a>, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many others were offering network access to commercial customers. <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange point of the Internet. The <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Internet_eXchange" title="Commercial Internet eXchange">Commercial Internet eXchange</a> (CIX), <a href="/wiki/MAE-East" title="MAE-East">Metropolitan Area Exchanges</a> (MAEs), and later <a href="/wiki/Network_Access_Point" class="mw-redirect" title="Network Access Point">Network Access Points</a> (NAPs) were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks. The final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995, when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> NSF provided initial support for the NAPs and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs. NSF also sponsored the <a href="/wiki/VBNS" class="mw-redirect" title="VBNS">very high speed Backbone Network Service</a> (vBNS) which continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> An event held on 11 January 1994, <a href="/wiki/The_Superhighway_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="The Superhighway Summit">The Superhighway Summit</a> at <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a>'s Royce Hall, was the "first public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field [and] also began the national dialogue about the <a href="/wiki/Information_Superhighway" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Superhighway">Information Superhighway</a> and its implications".<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_use_in_wider_society">Internet use in wider society</h3></div> The invention of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, as an application on the Internet,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> brought many social and commercial uses to what was, at the time, a network of networks for academic and research institutions.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The Web opened to the public in 1991 and began to enter general use in 1993–4, when <a href="/wiki/List_of_websites_founded_before_1995" title="List of websites founded before 1995">websites for everyday use</a> started to become available.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg/220px-Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg/330px-Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg/440px-Russia-Denmark_1993-envelope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2043" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stamped_envelope" title="Stamped envelope">Stamped envelope</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Post" title="Russian Post">Russian Post</a> issued in 1993 with stamp and graphics dedicated to first Russian <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Optical_telecommunications_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">underwater digital optic cable</a> laid in 1993 by <a href="/wiki/Rostelecom" title="Rostelecom">Rostelecom</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kingisepp" title="Kingisepp">Kingisepp</a> to <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a></figcaption></figure> During the first decade or so of the public Internet, the immense changes it would eventually enable in the 2000s were still nascent. In terms of providing context for this period, <a href="/wiki/Cellphone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellphone">mobile cellular devices</a> ("smartphones" and other cellular devices) which today provide near-universal access, were used for business and not a routine household item owned by parents and children worldwide. <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a> in the modern sense had yet to come into existence, laptops were bulky and most households did not have computers. Data rates were slow and most people lacked means to video or digitize video; media storage was transitioning slowly from <a href="/wiki/Analog_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog tape">analog tape</a> to <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical discs</a> (<a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a> and to an extent still, <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Floppy disc">floppy disc</a> to <a href="/wiki/CD" class="mw-redirect" title="CD">CD</a>). Enabling technologies used from the early 2000s such as <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> and <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, technologies such as <a href="/wiki/AJAX" class="mw-redirect" title="AJAX">AJAX</a>, <a href="/wiki/HTML_4" class="mw-redirect" title="HTML 4">HTML 4</a> (and its emphasis on <a href="/wiki/CSS" title="CSS">CSS</a>), and various <a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">software frameworks</a>, which enabled and simplified speed of web development, largely awaited invention and their eventual widespread adoption. The Internet was widely used for <a href="/wiki/Mailing_list" title="Mailing list">mailing lists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">emails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">creating and distributing maps</a> with tools like <a href="/wiki/MapQuest" title="MapQuest">MapQuest</a>, <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a> and early popular <a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">online shopping</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amazon.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon.com">Amazon</a> and <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a> for example), <a href="/wiki/Online_forum" class="mw-redirect" title="Online forum">online forums</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board" title="Bulletin board">bulletin boards</a>, and personal websites and <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a>, and use was growing rapidly, but by more modern standards, the systems used were static and lacked widespread social engagement. It awaited a number of events in the early 2000s to change from a communications technology to gradually develop into a key part of global society's infrastructure. Typical design elements of these "Web 1.0" era websites included:<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Static pages instead of <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_HTML" title="Dynamic HTML">dynamic HTML</a>;<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> content served from <a href="/wiki/Filesystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Filesystem">filesystems</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational databases</a>; pages built using <a href="/wiki/Server_Side_Includes" title="Server Side Includes">Server Side Includes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Common_Gateway_Interface" title="Common Gateway Interface">CGI</a> instead of a <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web application</a> written in a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">dynamic programming language</a>; <a href="/wiki/HTML_3.2" class="mw-redirect" title="HTML 3.2">HTML 3.2</a>-era structures such as <a href="/wiki/Framing_(World_Wide_Web)" class="mw-redirect" title="Framing (World Wide Web)">frames</a> and tables to create page layouts; online <a href="/wiki/Guestbook" title="Guestbook">guestbooks</a>; overuse of <a href="/wiki/GIF" title="GIF">GIF</a> buttons and similar small graphics promoting particular items;<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> and HTML forms sent via <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>. (Support for <a href="/wiki/Server_side_scripting" class="mw-redirect" title="Server side scripting">server side scripting</a> was rare on <a href="/wiki/Shared_server" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared server">shared servers</a> so the usual feedback mechanism was via email, using <a href="/wiki/Mailto" title="Mailto">mailto forms</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Email_client" title="Email client">email program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> During the period 1997 to 2001, the first <a href="/wiki/Speculative_investment" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative investment">speculative investment</a> <a href="/wiki/Investment_bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment bubble">bubble</a> related to the Internet took place, in which <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_company" title="Dot-com company">"dot-com" companies</a> (referring to the "<a href="/wiki/.com" title=".com">.com</a>" <a href="/wiki/Top_level_domain" class="mw-redirect" title="Top level domain">top level domain</a> used by businesses) were propelled to exceedingly high valuations as investors rapidly stoked <a href="/wiki/Stock_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Stock value">stock values</a>, followed by a <a href="/wiki/Market_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Market crash">market crash</a>; the first <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com bubble</a>. However this only temporarily slowed enthusiasm and growth, which quickly recovered and continued to grow. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">history of the World Wide Web</a> up to around 2004 was retrospectively named and described by some as "Web 1.0".<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IPv6">IPv6</h3></div> In the final stage of <a href="/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustion" title="IPv4 address exhaustion">IPv4 address exhaustion</a>, the last IPv4 address block was assigned in January 2011 at the level of the regional Internet registries.<a href="#cite_note-ins-178">[178]</a> IPv4 uses 32-<a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> addresses which limits the <a href="/wiki/Address_space" title="Address space">address space</a> to 232 addresses, i.e. 4294967296 addresses.<a href="#cite_note-:0-108">[108]</a> IPv4 is in the process of replacement by <a href="/wiki/IPv6" title="IPv6">IPv6</a>, its successor, which uses 128-bit addresses, providing 2128 addresses, i.e. 340282366920938463463374607431768211456,<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> a vastly increased address space. The shift to IPv6 is expected to take a long time to complete.<a href="#cite_note-ins-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2004–present:_Web_2.0,_global_ubiquity,_social_media">2004–present: Web 2.0, global ubiquity, social media</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web#Web_2.0" title="History of the World Wide Web">History of the World Wide Web § Web 2.0</a></div> The rapid technical advances that would propel the Internet into its place as a social system, which has completely transformed the way humans interact with each other, took place during a relatively short period from around 2005 to 2010, coinciding with the point in time in which <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">IoT</a> devices surpassed the number of humans alive at some point in the late 2000s. They included: <dl><dd><ul><li>The call to "<a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>" in 2004 (first suggested in 1999),</li> <li>Accelerating adoption and commoditization among households of, and familiarity with, the necessary hardware (such as computers).</li> <li>Accelerating storage technology and data access speeds – <a href="/wiki/Hard_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard drive">hard drives</a> emerged, took over from far smaller, slower <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Floppy disc">floppy discs</a>, and grew from <a href="/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte">megabytes</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gigabyte" title="Gigabyte">gigabytes</a> (and by around 2010, <a href="/wiki/Terabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Terabyte">terabytes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> from hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">kilobytes</a> to gigabytes as typical amounts on a system, and <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, the enabling technology for TCP/IP, moved from common speeds of kilobits to tens of megabits per second, to gigabits per second.</li> <li>High speed Internet and wider coverage of data connections, at lower prices, allowing larger traffic rates, more reliable simpler traffic, and traffic from more locations,</li> <li>The public's accelerating perception of the potential of computers to create new means and approaches to communication, the emergence of social media and websites such as <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> to their later prominence, and global collaborations such as <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> (which existed before but gained prominence as a result),</li> <li>The mobile device revolution, particularly with smartphones and tablet computers becoming widespread, which began to provide easy access to the Internet to much of human society of all ages, in their daily lives, and allowed them to share, discuss, and continually update, inquire, and respond.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-volatile RAM">Non-volatile RAM</a> rapidly grew in size and reliability, and decreased in price, becoming a commodity capable of enabling high levels of computing activity on these small handheld devices as well as <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">solid-state drives</a> (SSD).</li> <li>An emphasis on power efficient processor and device design, rather than purely high processing power; one of the beneficiaries of this was <a href="/wiki/Arm_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arm (company)">Arm</a>, a British company which had focused since the 1980s on powerful but low cost simple microprocessors. <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM architecture family</a> rapidly gained dominance in the market for mobile and embedded devices.</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_2.0">Web 2.0</h3></div> The term "Web 2.0" describes <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">websites</a> that emphasize <a href="/wiki/User-generated_content" title="User-generated content">user-generated content</a> (including user-to-user interaction), <a href="/wiki/Usability" title="Usability">usability</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Web_API" title="Web API">interoperability</a>. It first appeared in a January 1999 article called "Fragmented Future" written by <a href="/wiki/Darcy_DiNucci" title="Darcy DiNucci">Darcy DiNucci</a>, a consultant on <a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">electronic information design</a>, where she wrote:<a href="#cite_note-graham-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-oreilly-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-DiNucci-183">[183]</a> <dl><dd>"The Web we know now, which loads into a <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">browser window</a> in essentially static screenfuls, is only an <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> of the Web to come. The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop. The Web will be understood not as screenfuls of text and graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which interactivity happens. It will [...] appear on your computer screen, [...] on your TV set [...] your car dashboard [...] your cell phone [...] hand-held game machines [...] maybe even your microwave oven."</dd></dl> The term resurfaced during 2002–2004,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knorr,_Eric_2003-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-jrobb.mindplex.org-187">[187]</a> and gained prominence in late 2004 following presentations by <a href="/wiki/Tim_O%27Reilly" title="Tim O'Reilly">Tim O'Reilly</a> and Dale Dougherty at the first <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0_Summit" title="Web 2.0 Summit">Web 2.0 Conference</a>. In their opening remarks, <a href="/wiki/John_Battelle" title="John Battelle">John Battelle</a> and Tim O'Reilly outlined their definition of the "Web as Platform", where software applications are built upon the Web as opposed to upon the desktop. The unique aspect of this migration, they argued, is that "customers are building your business for you".<a href="#cite_note-O'Reilly,_Tim_2004-188">[188]</a> They argued that the activities of users generating content (in the form of ideas, text, videos, or pictures) could be "harnessed" to create value. Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but rather to cumulative changes in the way Web pages are made and used. Web 2.0 describes an approach, in which sites focus substantially upon allowing users to interact and collaborate with each other in a <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> dialogue as creators of <a href="/wiki/User-generated_content" title="User-generated content">user-generated content</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_community" title="Virtual community">virtual community</a>, in contrast to Web sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of <a href="/wiki/Content_(media_and_publishing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Content (media and publishing)">content</a>. Examples of Web 2.0 include <a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">social networking services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wikis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">folksonomies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Video sharing">video sharing</a> sites, <a href="/wiki/Web_service" title="Web service">hosted services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">Web applications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">mashups</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Terry_Flew" title="Terry Flew">Terry Flew</a>, in his 3rd Edition of New Media described what he believed to characterize the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0: <dl><dd>"[The] move from personal websites to blogs and blog site aggregation, from publishing to participation, from web content as the outcome of large up-front investment to an ongoing and interactive process, and from content management systems to links based on tagging (<a href="/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">folksonomy</a>)".<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></dd></dl> This era saw several household names gain prominence through their community-oriented operation – <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>, Twitter, Facebook, <a href="/wiki/Reddit" title="Reddit">Reddit</a> and Wikipedia being some examples. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telephone_networks_convert_to_VoIP">Telephone networks convert to VoIP</h3></div> Telephone systems have been slowly adopting <a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">Voice over IP</a> since 2003. Early experiments proved that voice can be converted to digital packets and sent over the Internet. The packets are collected and converted back to analog voice.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_mobile_revolution">The mobile revolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">History of mobile phones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mobile_web" title="Mobile web">Mobile web</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Responsive_web_design" title="Responsive web design">Responsive web design</a></div> The process of change that generally coincided with "Web 2.0" was itself greatly accelerated and transformed only a short time later by the increasing growth in mobile devices. This mobile revolution meant that computers in the form of smartphones became something many people used, took with them everywhere, communicated with, used for photographs and videos they instantly shared or to shop or seek information "on the move" – and used socially, as opposed to items on a desk at home or just used for work.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Location-based services, services using location and other sensor information, and <a href="/wiki/Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">crowdsourcing</a> (frequently but not always location based), became common, with posts tagged by location, or websites and services becoming location aware. Mobile-targeted websites (such as "m.website.com") became common, designed especially for the new devices used. <a href="/wiki/Netbook" title="Netbook">Netbooks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrabook" title="Ultrabook">ultrabooks</a>, widespread <a href="/wiki/4G" title="4G">4G</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a>, and mobile chips capable or running at nearly the power of desktops from not many years before on far lower power usage, became enablers of this stage of Internet development, and the term "<a href="/wiki/App_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="App (computing)">App</a>" emerged (short for "Application program" or "Program") as did the "<a href="/wiki/App_store" title="App store">App store</a>". This "mobile revolution" has allowed for people to have a nearly unlimited amount of information at all times. With the ability to access the internet from cell phones came a change in the way media was consumed. Media consumption statistics show that over half of media consumption between those aged 18 and 34 were using a smartphone.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Networking_in_outer_space">Networking in outer space</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_Internet" title="Interplanetary Internet">Interplanetary Internet</a></div> The first Internet link into <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> was established on January 22, 2010, when astronaut <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Creamer" title="Timothy Creamer">T. J. Creamer</a> posted the first unassisted update to his Twitter account from the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, marking the extension of the Internet into space.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> (Astronauts at the ISS had used email and Twitter before, but these messages had been relayed to the ground through a NASA data link before being posted by a human proxy.) This personal Web access, which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN, uses the space station's high-speed <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">Ku band</a> microwave link. To surf the Web, astronauts can use a station laptop computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and they can talk to their families and friends on Earth using <a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">Voice over IP</a> equipment.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Communication with spacecraft beyond Earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the <a href="/wiki/Deep_Space_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a>. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured. In the late 1990s NASA and Google began working on a new network protocol, <a href="/wiki/Delay-tolerant_networking" title="Delay-tolerant networking">Delay-tolerant networking</a> (DTN) which automates this process, allows networking of spaceborne transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</a> disrupts the connection. Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP Internet Protocol does. NASA conducted the first field test of what it calls the "deep space internet" in November 2008.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Testing of DTN-based communications between the International Space Station and Earth (now termed Disruption-Tolerant Networking) has been ongoing since March 2009, and was scheduled to continue until March 2014.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> This network technology is supposed to ultimately enable missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable inter-vessel communication might take precedence over vessel-to-Earth downlinks. According to a February 2011 statement by Google's <a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a>, the so-called "Bundle protocols" have been uploaded to NASA's <a href="/wiki/EPOXI" title="EPOXI">EPOXI</a> mission spacecraft (which is in orbit around the Sun) and communication with Earth has been tested at a distance of approximately 80 light seconds.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internet_governance">Internet governance</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_governance" title="Internet governance">Internet governance</a></div> As a <a href="/wiki/Global_network" title="Global network">globally distributed network</a> of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a central governing body. Each constituent network chooses the technologies and protocols it deploys from the technical standards that are developed by the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF).<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> However, successful interoperation of many networks requires certain parameters that must be common throughout the network. For managing such parameters, the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a> (IANA) oversees the allocation and assignment of various technical identifiers.<a href="#cite_note-DDN_NIC-201">[201]</a> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Corporation_for_Assigned_Names_and_Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers">Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers</a> (ICANN) provides oversight and coordination for the two principal <a href="/wiki/Name_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Name space">name spaces</a> in the Internet, the <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">Internet Protocol address space</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NIC,_InterNIC,_IANA,_and_ICANN">NIC, InterNIC, IANA, and ICANN</h3></div> The IANA function was originally performed by USC Information Sciences Institute (ISI), and it delegated portions of this responsibility with respect to numeric network and autonomous system identifiers to the <a href="/wiki/Network_Information_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Network Information Center">Network Information Center</a> (NIC) at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Research_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Research Institute">Stanford Research Institute</a> (SRI International) in <a href="/wiki/Menlo_Park,_California" title="Menlo Park, California">Menlo Park, California</a>. ISI's <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Postel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Postel">Jonathan Postel</a> managed the IANA, served as RFC Editor and performed other key roles until his death in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a> to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a>, created by ISI's <a href="/wiki/Paul_Mockapetris" title="Paul Mockapetris">Paul Mockapetris</a> in 1983.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the <a href="/wiki/Top-level_domain" title="Top-level domain">top-level domains</a> (TLDs) of <a href="/wiki/.mil" title=".mil">.mil</a>, <a href="/wiki/.gov" title=".gov">.gov</a>, <a href="/wiki/.edu" title=".edu">.edu</a>, <a href="/wiki/.org" title=".org">.org</a>, <a href="/wiki/.net" title=".net">.net</a>, <a href="/wiki/.com" title=".com">.com</a> and <a href="/wiki/.us" title=".us">.us</a>, <a href="/wiki/Root_nameserver" class="mw-redirect" title="Root nameserver">root nameserver</a> administration and Internet number assignments under a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> contract.<a href="#cite_note-DDN_NIC-201">[201]</a> In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector <a href="/wiki/Network_Solutions" title="Network Solutions">Network Solutions, Inc.</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> The increasing cultural diversity of the Internet also posed administrative challenges for centralized management of the IP addresses. In October 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 1366,<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> which described the "growth of the Internet and its increasing globalization" and set out the basis for an evolution of the IP registry process, based on a regionally distributed registry model. This document stressed the need for a single Internet number registry to exist in each geographical region of the world (which would be of "continental dimensions"). Registries would be "unbiased and widely recognized by network providers and subscribers" within their region. The RIPE Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) was established as the first RIR in May 1992. The second RIR, the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), was established in Tokyo in 1993, as a pilot project of the Asia Pacific Networking Group.<a href="#cite_note-Cisco-207">[207]</a> Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the <a href="/wiki/InterNIC" title="InterNIC">InterNIC</a> to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by <a href="/wiki/Network_Solutions" title="Network Solutions">Network Solutions</a>; Directory and Database Services would be provided by <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T</a>; and Information Services would be provided by <a href="/wiki/General_Atomics" title="General Atomics">General Atomics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Over time, after consultation with the IANA, the <a href="/wiki/IETF" class="mw-redirect" title="IETF">IETF</a>, <a href="/wiki/RIPE_NCC" title="RIPE NCC">RIPE NCC</a>, <a href="/wiki/APNIC" title="APNIC">APNIC</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Networking_Council" title="Federal Networking Council">Federal Networking Council</a> (FNC), the decision was made to separate the management of domain names from the management of IP numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Cisco-207">[207]</a> Following the examples of RIPE NCC and APNIC, it was recommended that management of IP address space then administered by the InterNIC should be under the control of those that use it, specifically the ISPs, end-user organizations, corporate entities, universities, and individuals. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/American_Registry_for_Internet_Numbers" title="American Registry for Internet Numbers">American Registry for Internet Numbers</a> (ARIN) was established as in December 1997, as an independent, not-for-profit corporation by direction of the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> and became the third Regional Internet Registry.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> In 1998, both the IANA and remaining DNS-related InterNIC functions were reorganized under the control of <a href="/wiki/ICANN" title="ICANN">ICANN</a>, a California <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit corporation">non-profit corporation</a> contracted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">United States Department of Commerce</a> to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. As these tasks involved technical coordination for two principal Internet name spaces (DNS names and IP addresses) created by the IETF, ICANN also signed a memorandum of understanding with the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">IAB</a> to define the technical work to be carried out by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The management of Internet address space remained with the regional Internet registries, which collectively were defined as a supporting organization within the ICANN structure.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> ICANN provides central coordination for the DNS system, including policy coordination for the split registry / registrar system, with competition among registry service providers to serve each top-level-domain and multiple competing registrars offering DNS services to end-users. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_Engineering_Task_Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF) is the largest and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">Internet Architecture Board</a> (IAB), the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Steering_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Engineering Steering Group">Internet Engineering Steering Group</a> (IESG), and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Task_Force" title="Internet Research Task Force">Internet Research Task Force</a> (IRTF). The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specifications. Much of the work of the IETF is organized into Working Groups. Standardization efforts of the Working Groups are often adopted by the Internet community, but the IETF does not control or patrol the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-FYI17-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The IETF grew out of quarterly meetings with U.S. government-funded researchers, starting in January 1986. Non-government representatives were invited by the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of Working Groups was introduced at the fifth meeting in February 1987. The seventh meeting in July 1987 was the first meeting with more than one hundred attendees. In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a>, a professional membership society, was formed and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body. The first IETF meeting outside of the United States was held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in July 1993. Today, the IETF meets three times per year and attendance has been as high as ca. 2,000 participants. Typically one in three IETF meetings are held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US attendees is typically ca. 50%, even at meetings held in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FYI17-212">[212]</a> The IETF is not a legal entity, has no governing board, no members, and no dues. The closest status resembling membership is being on an IETF or Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the Internet community. The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Steering_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Engineering Steering Group">Internet Engineering Steering Group</a> (IESG)<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">Internet Architecture Board</a> (IAB).<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Task_Force" title="Internet Research Task Force">Internet Research Task Force</a> (IRTF) and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Steering_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Research Steering Group">Internet Research Steering Group</a> (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the IAB, focus on longer-term research issues.<a href="#cite_note-FYI17-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="RFCs">RFCs</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFCs</a> are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Originally intended as requests for comments, RFC 1, "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker at <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a> in April 1969. These technical memos documented aspects of ARPANET development. They were edited by <a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">Jon Postel</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/RFC_Editor" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC Editor">RFC Editor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FYI17-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFC4844-218">[218]</a> RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices, experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them. Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that "obsoletes" the original.<a href="#cite_note-FYI17-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFC4844-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Internet_Society">The Internet Society</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a> (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 "to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". With offices near Washington, DC, US, and in Geneva, Switzerland, ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 50,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters" based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world.<a href="#cite_note-isoc.org-220">[220]</a> ISOC provides financial and organizational support to and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies for which it is the organizational home: the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF), the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">Internet Architecture Board</a> (IAB), the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Steering_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Engineering Steering Group">Internet Engineering Steering Group</a> (IESG), and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Task_Force" title="Internet Research Task Force">Internet Research Task Force</a> (IRTF). ISOC also promotes understanding and appreciation of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet model">Internet model</a> of open, transparent processes and consensus-based decision-making.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Globalization_and_Internet_governance_in_the_21st_century">Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century</h3></div> Since the 1990s, the <a href="/wiki/Internet_governance" title="Internet governance">Internet's governance</a> and organization has been of global importance to governments, commerce, civil society, and individuals. The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of the Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day technical aspects of the network. While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles and their decision-making authority are limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny and increasing objections. These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a> in 2000,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> and in September 2009 gaining autonomy from the US government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the U.S. Department of Commerce continued.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Finally, on October 1, 2016, ICANN ended its contract with the United States Department of Commerce National Telecommunications and Information Administration (<abbr>NTIA</abbr>), allowing oversight to pass to the global Internet community.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The IETF, with financial and organizational support from the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internet's ad-hoc standards body and issues <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a>. In November 2005, the <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_on_the_Information_Society" title="World Summit on the Information Society">World Summit on the Information Society</a>, held in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, called for an <a href="/wiki/Internet_Governance_Forum" title="Internet Governance Forum">Internet Governance Forum</a> (IGF) to be convened by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Secretary General">United Nations Secretary General</a>. The IGF opened an ongoing, non-binding conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the technical and academic communities about the future of Internet governance. The first IGF meeting was held in October/November 2006 with follow up meetings annually thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Since WSIS, the term "Internet governance" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>, inventor of the web, was becoming concerned about threats to the web's future and in November 2009 at the IGF in Washington DC launched the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Foundation" title="World Wide Web Foundation">World Wide Web Foundation</a> (WWWF) to campaign to make the web a safe and empowering tool for the good of humanity with access to all.<a href="#cite_note-BBC20080915-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-ARST20091117-231">[231]</a> In November 2019 at the IGF in Berlin, Berners-Lee and the WWWF went on to launch the <a href="/wiki/Contract_for_the_Web" title="Contract for the Web">Contract for the Web</a>, a campaign initiative to persuade governments, companies and citizens to commit to nine principles to stop "misuse" with the warning "If we don't act now - and act together - to prevent the web being misused by those who want to exploit, divide and undermine, we are at risk of squandering" (its potential for good).<a href="#cite_note-CNA20191125-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politicization_of_the_Internet">Politicization of the Internet</h2></div> Due to its prominence and immediacy as an effective means of mass communication, the Internet has also become more <a href="/wiki/Politicized" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicized">politicized</a> as it has grown. This has led in turn, to discourses and activities that would once have taken place in other ways, migrating to being mediated by internet. Examples include political activities such as <a href="/wiki/Mass_protest" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass protest">public protest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canvassing" title="Canvassing">canvassing</a> of support and <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">votes</a>, but also: <ul><li>The spreading of ideas and opinions;</li> <li>Recruitment of followers, and "coming together" of members of the public, for ideas, products, and causes;</li> <li>Providing and widely distributing and sharing information that might be deemed sensitive or relates to <a href="/wiki/Whistleblowing" title="Whistleblowing">whistleblowing</a> (and efforts by specific countries to prevent this by <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">censorship</a>);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Criminal activity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> (and resulting <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> use, together with its facilitation by <a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">mass surveillance</a>);</li> <li>Politically motivated <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Net_neutrality">Net neutrality</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">Net neutrality</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Internet&action=edit">improve this section </a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_the_Internet" title="Talk:History of the Internet">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (April 2015) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> On April 23, 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) was reported to be considering a new rule that would permit <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a> to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a> position.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140423-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140424a-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140511-235">[235]</a> A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be <a href="/wiki/Municipal_broadband" title="Municipal broadband">municipal broadband</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Susan_P._Crawford" title="Susan P. Crawford">Professor Susan Crawford</a>, a legal and technology expert at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140428-236">[236]</a> On May 15, 2014, the FCC decided to consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140515a-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140515b-238">[238]</a> On November 10, 2014, <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">President Obama</a> recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141110-EW-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141114-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-WRD-20150121-DAS-241">[241]</a> On January 16, 2015, <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> presented legislation, in the form of a <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">HR</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_bills_in_the_114th_United_States_Congress" title="List of bills in the 114th United States Congress">discussion draft bill</a>, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation affecting <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a> (ISPs).<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150120-JW-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-HG-20150116-243">[243]</a> On January 31, 2015, <a href="/wiki/AP_News" class="mw-redirect" title="AP News">AP News</a> reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying ("with some caveats") <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier#Telecommunications" title="Common carrier">Title II (common carrier)</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> to the internet in a vote expected on February 26, 2015.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150202a-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150202b-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20150131-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-WP-20150102-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20150102-248">[248]</a> Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_service_provider" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications service provider">telecommunications</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150204-249">[249]</a> and, according to <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wheeler" title="Tom Wheeler">Tom Wheeler</a>, chairman of the FCC, ensure <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WRD-20150204-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150206-251">[251]</a> The FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150224-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150225-253">[253]</a> On February 26, 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a> by applying <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier#Telecommunications" title="Common carrier">Title II (common carrier)</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_policy_of_the_United_States#Broadband_deployment_policy_objectives" title="Telecommunications policy of the United States">Section 706</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934#Telecommunications_Act_of_1996" title="Communications Act of 1934">Telecommunications act of 1996</a> to the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-FCC-20150226-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150226-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20150225-256">[256]</a> The FCC chairman, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wheeler" title="Tom Wheeler">Tom Wheeler</a>, commented, "This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> is a plan to regulate free speech. They both stand for the same concept."<a href="#cite_note-HP-20150226-257">[257]</a> On March 12, 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150312a-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150312b-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FCC-20150315-260">[260]</a> On April 13, 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new "<a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality_in_the_United_States" title="Net neutrality in the United States">Net Neutrality</a>" regulations.<a href="#cite_note-CNET-20150413-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FR-20150413-262">[262]</a> On December 14, 2017, the FCC repealed their March 12, 2015 decision by a 3–2 vote regarding net neutrality rules.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_and_culture">Use and culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Email_and_Usenet">Email and Usenet</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a> has often been called the <a href="/wiki/Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer application</a> of the Internet. It predates the Internet, and was a crucial tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a> to communicate. Although the history is undocumented, among the first systems to have such a facility were the <a href="/wiki/System_Development_Corporation" title="System Development Corporation">System Development Corporation</a> (SDC) <a href="/wiki/AN/FSQ-32" title="AN/FSQ-32">Q32</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">Compatible Time-Sharing System</a> (CTSS) at MIT.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of electronic mail. An experimental inter-system transferred mail on the ARPANET shortly after its creation.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> In 1971 <a href="/wiki/Ray_Tomlinson" title="Ray Tomlinson">Ray Tomlinson</a> created what was to become the standard Internet electronic mail addressing format, using the <a href="/wiki/@" class="mw-redirect" title="@">@ sign</a> to separate mailbox names from host names.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> A number of protocols were developed to deliver messages among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a> and <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s <a href="/wiki/VNET" class="mw-redirect" title="VNET">VNET</a> email system. Email could be passed this way between a number of networks, including <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, <a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a> and <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a>, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the <a href="/wiki/SMTP#History" class="mw-redirect" title="SMTP">history of SMTP</a> protocol. In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve Daniel and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Truscott" title="Tom Truscott">Tom Truscott</a> in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as <a href="/wiki/Newsgroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Newsgroup">newsgroups</a>, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via <a href="/wiki/Electronic_mailing_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic mailing list">mailing lists</a>, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers mailing list). During the early years of the Internet, email and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to distribute files using the 'alt.binary' groups. Also, <a href="/wiki/FTPmail" title="FTPmail">FTP e-mail gateways</a> allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to download files using ftp commands written inside email messages. The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent by email; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time. After the popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="File_sharing">File sharing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer_file_sharing" title="Peer-to-peer file sharing">Peer-to-peer file sharing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing" title="Timeline of file sharing">Timeline of file sharing</a></div> Resource or file sharing has been an important activity on computer networks from well before the Internet was established and was supported in a variety of ways including <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin board systems">bulletin board systems</a> (1978), <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a> (1980), <a href="/wiki/Kermit_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kermit (software)">Kermit</a> (1981), and many others. The <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in 1985 and is still in use today.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> A variety of tools were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users discover files they might want to transfer, including the <a href="/wiki/Wide_Area_Information_Server" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide Area Information Server">Wide Area Information Server</a> (WAIS) in 1991, <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a> in 1991, <a href="/wiki/Archie_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Archie search engine">Archie</a> in 1991, <a href="/wiki/Veronica_(search_engine)" title="Veronica (search engine)">Veronica</a> in 1992, <a href="/wiki/Jughead_(search_engine)" title="Jughead (search engine)">Jughead</a> in 1993, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Relay Chat">Internet Relay Chat</a> (IRC) in 1988, and eventually the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> (WWW) in 1991 with <a href="/wiki/Web_directories" class="mw-redirect" title="Web directories">Web directories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_search_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search engines">Web search engines</a>. In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer_file_sharing" title="Peer-to-peer file sharing">peer-to-peer file sharing</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Napster used a central server for indexing and peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of files was decentralized. A variety of peer-to-peer file sharing programs and services with different levels of decentralization and <a href="/wiki/Anonymity_application" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymity application">anonymity</a> followed, including: <a href="/wiki/Gnutella" title="Gnutella">Gnutella</a>, <a href="/wiki/EDonkey2000" title="EDonkey2000">eDonkey2000</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Freenet">Freenet</a> in 2000, <a href="/wiki/FastTrack" title="FastTrack">FastTrack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limewire" class="mw-redirect" title="Limewire">Limewire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent_(software)" title="BitTorrent (software)">BitTorrent</a> in 2001, and Poisoned in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> All of these tools are general purpose and can be used to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music files, software, and later movies and videos are major uses.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> And while some of this sharing is legal, large portions are not. Lawsuits and other legal actions caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, <a href="/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a> in 2006, and Limewire in 2010 to shut down or refocus their efforts.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a>, founded in Sweden in 2003, continues despite a <a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay_trial" title="The Pirate Bay trial">trial and appeal in 2009 and 2010</a> that resulted in jail terms and large fines for several of its founders.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> File sharing remains contentious and controversial with charges of theft of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> on the one hand and charges of <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> on the other.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="File_hosting_services">File hosting services</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/File-hosting_service" title="File-hosting service">File-hosting service</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a>. Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+the+Internet%22">"History of the Internet"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+the+Internet%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+the+Internet%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+the+Internet%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+the+Internet%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+the+Internet%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> File hosting allowed for people to expand their computer's hard drives and "host" their files on a server. Most file hosting services offer free storage, as well as larger storage amount for a fee. These services have greatly expanded the internet for business and personal use. <a href="/wiki/Google_Drive" title="Google Drive">Google Drive</a>, launched on April 24, 2012, has become the most popular file hosting service. Google Drive allows users to store, edit, and share files with themselves and other users. Not only does this application allow for file editing, hosting, and sharing. It also acts as Google's own free-to-access office programs, such as <a href="/wiki/Google_Docs" title="Google Docs">Google Docs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google_Slides" title="Google Slides">Google Slides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Google_Sheets" title="Google Sheets">Google Sheets</a>. This application served as a useful tool for University professors and students, as well as those who are in need of <a href="/wiki/Cloud_storage" title="Cloud storage">Cloud storage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dropbox_(service)#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Dropbox (service)">Dropbox</a>, released in June 2007 is a similar file hosting service that allows users to keep all of their files in a folder on their computer, which is synced with Dropbox's servers. This differs from Google Drive as it is not web-browser based. Now, Dropbox works to keep workers and files in sync and efficient.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mega_(service)" title="Mega (service)">Mega</a>, having over 200 million users, is an encrypted storage and communication system that offers users free and paid storage, with an emphasis on privacy.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> Being three of the largest file hosting services, Google Drive, Dropbox, and Mega all represent the core ideas and values of these services. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Online_piracy">Online piracy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Online_piracy" title="Online piracy">Online piracy</a></div> The earliest form of online piracy began with a P2P (peer to peer) music sharing service named <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a>, launched in 1999. Sites like <a href="/wiki/LimeWire" title="LimeWire">LimeWire</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent" title="BitTorrent">BitTorrent</a> allowed for anyone to engage in online piracy, sending ripples through the media industry. With online piracy came a change in the media industry as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mobile_telephone_data_traffic">Mobile telephone data traffic</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mobile_web" title="Mobile web">Mobile web</a></div> Total global mobile data traffic reached 588 exabytes during 2020,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-281">[281]</a> a 150-fold increase from 3.86 exabytes/year in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Most recently, smartphones accounted for 95% of this mobile data traffic with video accounting for 66% by type of data.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-281">[281]</a> Mobile traffic travels by radio frequency to the closest cell phone tower and its base station where the radio signal is converted into an optical signal that is transmitted over high-capacity optical networking systems that convey the information to data centers. The optical backbones enable much of this traffic as well as a host of emerging mobile services including the Internet of things, 3-D virtual reality, gaming and autonomous vehicles. The most popular mobile phone application is texting, of which 2.1 trillion messages were logged in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> The texting phenomenon began on December 3, 1992, when Neil Papworth sent the first text message of "Merry Christmas" over a commercial cell phone network to the CEO of Vodafone.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity was the <a href="/wiki/Nokia_9000_Communicator" title="Nokia 9000 Communicator">Nokia 9000 Communicator</a>, launched in Finland in 1996. The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that model, and network providers started to develop systems and services conveniently accessible on phones. <a href="/wiki/NTT_DoCoMo" class="mw-redirect" title="NTT DoCoMo">NTT DoCoMo</a> in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, <a href="/wiki/I-mode" title="I-mode">i-mode</a>, in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone Internet services. In 2001, the mobile phone email system by Research in Motion (now <a href="/wiki/BlackBerry_Limited" title="BlackBerry Limited">BlackBerry Limited</a>) for their <a href="/wiki/BlackBerry" title="BlackBerry">BlackBerry</a> product was launched in America. To make efficient use of the small screen and <a href="/wiki/Telephone_keypad" title="Telephone keypad">tiny keypad</a> and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a specific document and networking model was created for mobile devices, the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_Application_Protocol" title="Wireless Application Protocol">Wireless Application Protocol</a> (WAP). Most mobile device Internet services operate using WAP. The growth of mobile phone services was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya, the Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic users accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC. The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet access was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20–30% in most Western countries.<a href="#cite_note-DasguptaLall2001-286">[286]</a> The cross-over occurred in 2008, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_in_demand">Growth in demand</h2></div> Global Internet traffic continues to grow at a rapid rate, rising 23% from 2020 to 2021<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> when the number of active Internet users reached 4.66 billion people, representing half of the global population. Further demand for data, and the capacity to satisfy this demand, are forecast to increase to 717 terabits per second in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> This capacity stems from the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">WDM</a> systems that are the common basis of virtually every metro, regional, national, international and submarine telecommunications networks.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> systems have been installed throughout the 5 billion kilometers of <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optic">fiber optic</a> lines deployed around the world.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Continued growth in traffic is expected for the foreseeable future from a combination of new users, increased mobile phone adoption, machine-to-machine connections, connected homes, 5G devices and the burgeoning requirement for cloud and Internet services such as <a href="/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)">Amazon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple_Music" title="Apple Music">Apple Music</a> and <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars#Historiography" title="Protocol Wars">Protocol Wars § Historiography</a></div> There are nearly insurmountable problems in supplying a <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> of the Internet's development. The process of digitization represents a twofold challenge both for historiography in general and, in particular, for historical communication research.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> A sense of the difficulty in documenting early developments that led to the internet can be gathered from the quote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"The Arpanet period is somewhat well documented because the corporation in charge – <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a> – left a physical record. Moving into the <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> era, it became an extraordinarily decentralized process. The record exists in people's basements, in closets. ... So much of what happened was done verbally and on the basis of individual trust."<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Doug_Gale" title="Doug Gale">Doug Gale</a> (2007)<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Notable works on the subject were published by <a href="/wiki/Katie_Hafner" title="Katie Hafner">Katie Hafner</a> and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet (1996), <a href="/wiki/Roy_Rosenzweig" title="Roy Rosenzweig">Roy Rosenzweig</a>, Wizards, Bureaucrats, Warriors, and Hackers: Writing the History of the Internet (1998), and <a href="/wiki/Janet_Abbate" title="Janet Abbate">Janet Abbate</a>, Inventing the Internet (2000).<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Most scholarship and literature on the Internet lists ARPANET as the prior network that was iterated on and studied to create it,<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> although other early computer networks and experiments existed alongside or before ARPANET.<a href="#cite_note-:42-296">[296]</a> These histories of the Internet have since been characterized as <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleologies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a>; that is, they take the present to be the end point toward which history has been unfolding based on a single cause: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In the case of Internet history, the epoch-making event is usually said to be the demonstration of the 4-node ARPANET network in 1969. From that single happening the global Internet developed.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Martin_Campbell-Kelly" title="Martin Campbell-Kelly">Martin Campbell-Kelly</a>, Daniel D. Garcia-Swartz<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a></cite></div></blockquote> In addition to these characteristics, historians have cited methodological problems arising in their work: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Internet history" ... tends to be too close to its sources. Many Internet pioneers are alive, active, and eager to shape the histories that describe their accomplishments. Many museums and historians are equally eager to interview the pioneers and to publicize their stories.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Andrew L. Russell (2012)<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/42px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/56px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/25px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/37px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/50px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_email" title="History of email">History of email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hypertext" title="History of hypertext">History of hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Internet-related_articles" title="Index of Internet-related articles">Index of Internet-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_activism" title="Internet activism">Internet activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">List of Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MH_%26_xmh:_Email_for_Users_%26_Programmers" title="MH & xmh: Email for Users & Programmers">MH & xmh: Email for Users & Programmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerds_2.0.1" title="Nerds 2.0.1">Nerds 2.0.1</a> A Brief History of the Internet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Internet,_nobody_knows_you%27re_a_dog" title="On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog">On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Internet" title="Outline of the Internet">Outline of the Internet</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Abbatep3-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Abbatep3_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbate1999">Abbate 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9BfZxFZpElwC&pg=PA3">3</a> "The manager of the ARPANET project, Lawrence Roberts, assembled a large team of computer scientists ... and he drew on the ideas of network experimenters in the United States and the United Kingdom. Cerf and Kahn also enlisted the help of computer scientists from England, France and the United States" </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329134941/https://www.sri.com/newsroom/press-releases/computer-history-museum-sri-international-and-bbn-celebrate-40th-anniversary">"The Computer History Museum, SRI International, and BBN Celebrate the 40th Anniversary of First ARPANET Transmission, Precursor to Today's Internet"</a>. SRI International. October 27, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sri.com/newsroom/press-releases/computer-history-museum-sri-international-and-bbn-celebrate-40th-anniversary">the original</a> on March 29, 2019. Retrieved September 25, 2017. <q>But the ARPANET itself had now become an island, with no links to the other networks that had sprung up. By the early 1970s, researchers in France, the UK, and the U.S. began developing ways of connecting networks to each other, a process known as internetworking.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Computer+History+Museum%2C+SRI+International%2C+and+BBN+Celebrate+the+40th+Anniversary+of+First+ARPANET+Transmission%2C+Precursor+to+Today%27s+Internet&rft.pub=SRI+International&rft.date=2009-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sri.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fpress-releases%2Fcomputer-history-museum-sri-international-and-bbn-celebrate-40th-anniversary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFby_Vinton_Cerf,_as_told_to_Bernard_Aboba1993" class="citation web cs1">by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042220/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html">"How the Internet Came to Be"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html">the original</a> on September 26, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017. <q>We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Internet+Came+to+Be&rft.date=1993&rft.au=by+Vinton+Cerf%2C+as+told+to+Bernard+Aboba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de%2Ftmp%2Fcdrom-oss%2FCerfHowInternetCame2B.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internethalloffame.org/blog/2015/10/19/untold-internet">"The Untold Internet"</a>. Internet Hall of Fame. October 19, 2015. Retrieved April 3, 2020. <q>many of the milestones that led to the development of the modern Internet are already familiar to many of us: the genesis of the ARPANET, the implementation of the standard network protocol TCP/IP, the growth of LANs (Large Area Networks), the invention of DNS (the Domain Name System), and the adoption of American legislation that funded U.S. Internet expansion—which helped fuel global network access—to name just a few.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Hall+of+Fame&rft.atitle=The+Untold+Internet&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internethalloffame.org%2Fblog%2F2015%2F10%2F19%2Funtold-internet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/37795/rtfm.pdf">"Study into UK IPv4 and IPv6 allocations"</a> (PDF). Reid Technical Facilities Management LLP. 2014. <q>As the network continued to grow, the model of central co-ordination by a contractor funded by the US government became unsustainable. Organisations were using IP-based networking even if they were not directly connected to the ARPAnet. They needed to get globally unique IP addresses. The nature of the ARPAnet was also changing as it was no longer limited to organisations working on ARPA-funded contracts. The US National Science Foundation set up a national IP-based backbone network, NSFnet, so that its grant-holders could be interconnected to supercomputer centres, universities and various national/regional academic/research networks, including ARPAnet. 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Retrieved January 26, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topics+for+Discussion+at+the+Forthcoming+Meeting%2C+Memorandum+For%3A+Members+and+Affiliates+of+the+Intergalactic+Computer+Network&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Advanced+Research+Projects+Agency&rft.date=1963-04-23&rft.au=Licklider%2C+J.+C.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kurzweilai.net%2Fmemorandum-for-members-and-affiliates-of-the-intergalactic-computer-network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191017134454/https://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_licklider.htm">"J.C.R. Licklider and the Universal Network"</a>. The Internet. 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_licklider.htm">the original</a> on October 17, 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet&rft.atitle=J.C.R.+Licklider+and+the+Universal+Network&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livinginternet.com%2Fi%2Fii_licklider.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPress" class="citation web cs1">Press, Gil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2015/01/02/a-very-short-history-of-the-internet-and-the-web-2/">"A Very Short History Of The Internet And The Web"</a>. Forbes. Retrieved January 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=A+Very+Short+History+Of+The+Internet+And+The+Web&rft.aulast=Press&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fgilpress%2F2015%2F01%2F02%2Fa-very-short-history-of-the-internet-and-the-web-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_23-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_csnet.htm">"CSNET, Computer Science Network"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CSNET%2C+Computer+Science+Network&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livinginternet.com%2Fi%2Fii_csnet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2005" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Byung-Keun (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lESrw3neDokC&pg=PA52">Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology</a>. Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-675-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-675-0"><bdi>978-1-84542-675-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internationalising+the+Internet+the+Co-evolution+of+Influence+and+Technology&rft.pages=51-55&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84542-675-0&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Byung-Keun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlESrw3neDokC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaran1960" class="citation report cs1">Baran, Paul (May 27, 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P1995.pdf">Reliable Digital Communications Using Unreliable Network Repeater Nodes</a> (PDF) (Report). The RAND Corporation. p. 1. Retrieved July 25, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Reliable+Digital+Communications+Using+Unreliable+Network+Repeater+Nodes&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=The+RAND+Corporation&rft.date=1960-05-27&rft.aulast=Baran&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Frand%2Fpubs%2Fpapers%2F2008%2FP1995.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html">"About Rand"</a>. Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet. Retrieved July 25, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Paul+Baran+and+the+Origins+of+the+Internet&rft.atitle=About+Rand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fbaran.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelkey6.1a-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Pelkey6.1a_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelkey" class="citation book cs1">Pelkey, James L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyofcomputercommunications.info/section/6.1/the-communications-subnet-bbn-1969/">"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969"</a>. Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988. <q>As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.1+The+Communications+Subnet%3A+BBN+1969&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Capitalism+and+Innovation%3A+A+History+of+Computer+Communications+1968%E2%80%931988&rft.aulast=Pelkey&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoryofcomputercommunications.info%2Fsection%2F6.1%2Fthe-communications-subnet-bbn-1969%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber1993" class="citation journal cs1">Barber, Derek (Spring 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res05.htm#f">"The Origins of Packet Switching"</a>. The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (5). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403">0958-7403</a>. Retrieved September 6, 2017. <q>There had been a paper written by [Paul Baran] from the Rand Corporation which, in a sense, foreshadowed packet switching in a way for speech networks and voice networks</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bulletin+of+the+Computer+Conservation+Society&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Packet+Switching&rft.ssn=spring&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0958-7403&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.man.ac.uk%2FCCS%2Fres%2Fres05.htm%23f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5a-29"><a href="#cite_ref-:5a_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldrop2018" class="citation book cs1">Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eRnBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT285">The Dream Machine</a>. Stripe Press. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-953953-36-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-953953-36-0"><bdi>978-1-953953-36-0</bdi></a>. <q>Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dream+Machine&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=Stripe+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-953953-36-0&rft.aulast=Waldrop&rft.aufirst=M.+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeRnBEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nethistory.info/Archives/packets.html">"On packet switching"</a>. Net History. Retrieved January 8, 2024. <q>[Scantlebury said] Clearly Donald and Paul Baran had independently come to a similar idea albeit for different purposes. Paul for a survivable voice/telex network, ours for a high-speed computer network.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Net+History&rft.atitle=On+packet+switching&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nethistory.info%2FArchives%2Fpackets.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._Ed_Smith,_FBCS,_FITP,_University_of_the_Third_Age;_Mr_Chris_Miller_BSc.;_Prof_Jim_Norton_OBE,_FREng,_University_of_Sheffield" class="citation web cs1">Dr. Ed Smith, FBCS, FITP, University of the Third Age; Mr Chris Miller BSc.; Prof Jim Norton OBE, FREng, University of Sheffield. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npl.co.uk/getattachment/about-us/History/Famous-faces/Donald-Davies/UK-role-in-Packet-Switching-(1).pdf">"Packet Switching: The first steps on the road to the information society"</a> (PDF). National Physical Laboratory.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Physical+Laboratory&rft.atitle=Packet+Switching%3A+The+first+steps+on+the+road+to+the+information+society&rft.au=Dr.+Ed+Smith%2C+FBCS%2C+FITP%2C+University+of+the+Third+Age%3B+Mr+Chris+Miller+BSc.%3B+Prof+Jim+Norton+OBE%2C+FREng%2C+University+of+Sheffield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npl.co.uk%2Fgetattachment%2Fabout-us%2FHistory%2FFamous-faces%2FDonald-Davies%2FUK-role-in-Packet-Switching-%281%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA115440.pdf">A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade</a> (PDF) (Report). Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc. April 1, 1981. pp. 53 of 183 (III-11 on the printed copy). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121201013642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA115440">Archived</a> from the original on December 1, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+ARPANET%3A+The+First+Decade&rft.pages=53+of+183+%28III-11+on+the+printed+copy%29&rft.pub=Bolt%2C+Beranek+%26+Newman+Inc.&rft.date=1981-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA115440.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:62-33"><a href="#cite_ref-:62_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates1997" class="citation book cs1">Yates, David M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ToMfAQAAIAAJ&q=packet+switch">Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945-1995</a>. National Museum of Science and Industry. p. 132-4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901805-94-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901805-94-2"><bdi>978-0-901805-94-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turing%27s+Legacy%3A+A+History+of+Computing+at+the+National+Physical+Laboratory+1945-1995&rft.pages=132-4&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Science+and+Industry&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-901805-94-2&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DToMfAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dpacket%2Bswitch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Hey,_G_Pápay2-34"><a href="#cite_ref-A_Hey,_G_Pápay2_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA_Hey,_G_Pápay2014" class="citation book cs1">A Hey, G Pápay (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201">The Computing Universe: A Journey through a Revolution</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521766456" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521766456"><bdi>978-0521766456</bdi></a>. Retrieved August 16, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Computing+Universe%3A+A+Journey+through+a+Revolution&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0521766456&rft.au=A+Hey%2C+G+P%C3%A1pay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrMkBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthfield1995" class="citation news cs1">Ruthfield, Scott (September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=332198.332202&coll=portal&dl=ACM">"The Internet's History and Development From Wartime Tool to the Fish-Cam"</a>. Crossroads. Vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 2–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F332198.332202">10.1145/332198.332202</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071018045734/http://www.acm.org/crossroads/xrds2-1/inet-history.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crossroads&rft.atitle=The+Internet%27s+History+and+Development+From+Wartime+Tool+to+the+Fish-Cam&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-4&rft.date=1995-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F332198.332202&rft.aulast=Ruthfield&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D332198.332202%26coll%3Dportal%26dl%3DACM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts1978-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts1978_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts1978_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts1978_36-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, L.G. (1978). "The evolution of packet switching". Proceedings of the IEEE. 66 (11): 1307–1313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141">10.1109/PROC.1978.11141</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26876676">26876676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+packet+switching&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1307-1313&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26876676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=L.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts1995-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Roberts1995_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1995" class="citation web cs1">Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. 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Retrieved April 13, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+ARPANET+%26+Computer+Networks&rft.date=1995-05&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Dr.+Lawrence+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Farpanet-computernet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmondson-Yurkanan2007" class="citation journal cs1">Edmondson-Yurkanan, Chris (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1230819.1230840">"SIGCOMM's archaeological journey into networking's past"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 50 (5): 63–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1230819.1230840">10.1145/1230819.1230840</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>. <q>In his first draft dated Nov. 10, 1965 [5], Davies forecast today's "killer app" for his new communication service: "The greatest traffic could only come if the public used this means for everyday purposes such as shopping... People sending enquiries and placing orders for goods of all kinds will make up a large section of the traffic... Business use of the telephone may be reduced by the growth of the kind of service we contemplate."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=SIGCOMM%27s+archaeological+journey+into+networking%27s+past&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=63-68&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1230819.1230840&rft.issn=0001-0782&rft.aulast=Edmondson-Yurkanan&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1145%2F1230819.1230840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1966" class="citation web cs1">Davies, D. W. 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Retrieved April 13, 2016. <q>Then in June 1966, Davies wrote a second internal paper, "Proposal for a Digital Communication Network" In which he coined the word packet,- a small sub part of the message the user wants to send, and also introduced the concept of an "Interface computer" to sit between the user equipment and the packet network.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+ARPANET+%26+Computer+Networks&rft.date=1995-05&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Dr.+Lawrence+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Farpanet-computernet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-K.G._Coffman_&_A.M._Odlyzco-41"><a href="#cite_ref-K.G._Coffman_&_A.M._Odlyzco_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.G._Coffman_&_A.M._Odlyzco2002" class="citation book cs1">K.G. 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BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Celebrating+40+years+of+the+net&rft.date=2009-10-29&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F8331253.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithMillerNorton" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Ed; Miller, Chris; Norton, Jim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npl.co.uk/getattachment/about-us/History/Famous-faces/Donald-Davies/UK-role-in-Packet-Switching-(1).pdf.aspx">"Packet Switching: The first steps on the road to the information society"</a>. <q>Its development was described at a 1968 conference, two years before similar progress on ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet, was demonstrated</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Packet+Switching%3A+The+first+steps+on+the+road+to+the+information+society&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft.au=Miller%2C+Chris&rft.au=Norton%2C+Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npl.co.uk%2Fgetattachment%2Fabout-us%2FHistory%2FFamous-faces%2FDonald-Davies%2FUK-role-in-Packet-Switching-%281%29.pdf.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7541123.stm">"The accelerator of the modern age"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.topquark.co.uk/conf/IAP2001.html">the original</a> on August 7, 2003. Retrieved June 13, 2024. <q>The system first went 'live' early in 1969</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=NPL%2C+Packet+Switching+and+the+Internet&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Rayner&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Barber%2C+Derek&rft.au=Scantlebury%2C+Roger&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.topquark.co.uk%2Fconf%2FIAP2001.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-51"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_SJosiah_C1986" class="citation journal cs1">John S, Quarterman; Josiah C, Hoskins (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F6617.6618">"Notable computer networks"</a>. 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Chapter Two: In the Air. Inc. Magazine. 35:55 minutes in. <q>Leonard Kleinrock: Donald Davies ... did make a single node packet switch before ARPA did</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computer+Freaks&rft.series=Chapter+Two%3A+In+the+Air&rft.pub=Inc.+Magazine&rft.date=2023-06-22&rft.aulast=Haughney+Dare-Bryan&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fcomputerfreaks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_53-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCambell-Kelly1987" class="citation journal cs1">Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DataCommunicationsAtTheNationalPhysicalLaboratory">"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965–1975)"</a>. Annals of the History of Computing. 9 (3/4): 221–247. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1987.10023">10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8172150">8172150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=Data+Communications+at+the+National+Physical+Laboratory+%281965%E2%80%931975%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=221-247&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.1987.10023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8172150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cambell-Kelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDataCommunicationsAtTheNationalPhysicalLaboratory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801152456/http://www.rogerdmoore.ca/PS/NPLPh/NPL1974A.html">"The National Physical Laboratory Data Communications Netowrk"</a>. 1974. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rogerdmoore.ca/PS/NPLPh/NPL1974A.html">the original</a> on August 1, 2020. Retrieved September 5, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+National+Physical+Laboratory+Data+Communications+Netowrk&rft.date=1974&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frogerdmoore.ca%2FPS%2FNPLPh%2FNPL1974A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:82-55"><a href="#cite_ref-:82_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1982" class="citation thesis cs1">Clarke, Peter (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/35864/2/Clarke-PN-1982-PhD-Thesis.pdf">Packet and circuit-switched data networks</a> (PDF) (PhD thesis). Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Packet+and+circuit-switched+data+networks&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Department+of+Electrical+Engineering%2C+Imperial+College+of+Science+and+Technology%2C+University+of+London&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspiral.imperial.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2F10044%2F1%2F35864%2F2%2FClarke-PN-1982-PhD-Thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> "As well as the packet switched network actually built at NPL for communication between their local computing facilities, some simulation experiments have been performed on larger networks. A summary of this work is reported in [69]. The work was carried out to investigate networks of a size capable of providing data communications facilities to most of the U.K. ... Experiments were then carried out using a method of flow control devised by Davies [70] called 'isarithmic' flow control. ... The simulation work carried out at NPL has, in many respects, been more realistic than most of the ARPA network theoretical studies." </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelkey-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Pelkey_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelkey" class="citation book cs1">Pelkey, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210617093154/https://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/6/6.3-CYCLADESNetworkLouisPouzin1-72.html">"6.3 CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin 1971–1972"</a>. Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988. 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Retrieved February 3, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.3+CYCLADES+Network+and+Louis+Pouzin+1971%E2%80%931972&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Capitalism+and+Innovation%3A+A+History+of+Computer+Communications+1968%E2%80%931988&rft.aulast=Pelkey&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofcomputercommunications.info%2FBook%2F6%2F6.3-CYCLADESNetworkLouisPouzin1-72.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHafnerLyon1998">Hafner & Lyon 1998</a>, pp. 39–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-Markoff_1999-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Markoff_1999_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markoff_1999_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoff1999" class="citation news cs1">Markoff, John (December 20, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html">"An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050304045456/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2005. Retrieved March 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Internet+Pioneer+Ponders+the+Next+Revolution&rft.date=1999-12-20&rft.aulast=Markoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nytimes.com%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flibrary%2Ftech%2F99%2F12%2Fbiztech%2Farticles%2F122099outlook-bobb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsMarrill1966" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a>; Marrill, Tom (October 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020401051508/http://www.packet.cc/files/toward-coop-net.html">Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers</a>. Fall AFIPS Conference. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.packet.cc/files/toward-coop-net.html">the original</a> on April 1, 2002. Retrieved September 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Toward+a+Cooperative+Network+of+Time-Shared+Computers&rft.date=1966-10&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Marrill%2C+Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Ftoward-coop-net.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPress2015" class="citation web cs1">Press, Gil (January 2, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2015/01/02/a-very-short-history-of-the-internet-and-the-web-2/">"A Very Short History Of The Internet And The Web"</a>. Forbes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150109145400/https://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2015/01/02/a-very-short-history-of-the-internet-and-the-web-2/">Archived</a> from the original on January 9, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2020. <q>Roberts' proposal that all host computers would connect to one another directly ... was not endorsed ... Wesley Clark ... suggested to Roberts that the network be managed by identical small computers, each attached to a host computer. Accepting the idea, Roberts named the small computers dedicated to network administration 'Interface Message Processors' (IMPs), which later evolved into today's routers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=A+Very+Short+History+Of+The+Internet+And+The+Web&rft.date=2015-01-02&rft.aulast=Press&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fgilpress%2F2015%2F01%2F02%2Fa-very-short-history-of-the-internet-and-the-web-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200202062940/https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/extra4/sloan/mousesite/EngelbartPapers/B1_F20_CompuMtg.html">SRI Project 5890-1; Networking (Reports on Meetings)</a>, Stanford University, 1967, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/extra4/sloan/mousesite/EngelbartPapers/B1_F20_CompuMtg.html">the original</a> on February 2, 2020, retrieved February 15, 2020, <q>W. Clark's message switching proposal (appended to Taylor's letter of April 24, 1967 to Engelbart)were reviewed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SRI+Project+5890-1%3B+Networking+%28Reports+on+Meetings%29&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2FSUL%2Flibrary%2Fextra4%2Fsloan%2Fmousesite%2FEngelbartPapers%2FB1_F20_CompuMtg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1967" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Lawrence (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/teaching/sp07/sys_seminar/arpanet.pdf">"Multiple computer networks and intercomputer communication"</a> (PDF). Multiple Computer Networks and Intercomputer Communications. pp. 3.1–3.6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F800001.811680">10.1145/800001.811680</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17409102">17409102</a>. <q>Thus the set of IMP's, plus the telephone lines and data sets would constitute a message switching network</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Multiple+computer+networks+and+intercomputer+communication&rft.btitle=Multiple+Computer+Networks+and+Intercomputer+Communications&rft.pages=3.1-3.6&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F800001.811680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17409102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.mpi-sws.org%2F~gummadi%2Fteaching%2Fsp07%2Fsys_seminar%2Farpanet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170906091936/http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=328">"Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies"</a>. 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Paul Baran"</a>. WIRED. <q>He was very conscious of people mistaken belief that the work he did at RAND somehow led to the creation of the ARPAnet. It didn't, and he was very honest about that.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=What+Do+the+H-Bomb+and+the+Internet+Have+in+Common%3F+Paul+Baran&rft.date=2012-09-03&rft.aulast=Metz&rft.aufirst=Cade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2012%2F09%2Fwhat-do-the-h-bomb-and-the-internet-have-in-common-paul-baran%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent-66"><a href="#cite_ref-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent1990" class="citation book cs1">F.E. Froehlich, A. 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Burlington, Massachusetts: Focal Press. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-81062-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-81062-1"><bdi>978-0-240-81062-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Technology+Update+and+Fundamentals&rft.place=Burlington%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=289&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-240-81062-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=August+E.&rft.au=Meadows%2C+Jennifer+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7XAZnpCfQnEC%26q%3D1981%2B213%2Barpanet%2Bhosts%26pg%3DPT289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merit-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Merit_79-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network, Inc.</a> is an independent non-profit 501(c)(3) corporation governed by Michigan's public universities. 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Retrieved May 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE&rft.atitle=Meet+Mr.+Internet%3A+Vint+Cerf+-+IEEE+Spectrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fvint-cerf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.std.com/">"The World internet provider"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gao.gov/new.items/og00033r.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on June 15, 2009. Retrieved June 5, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OGC-00-33R+Department+of+Commerce%3A+Relationship+with+the+Internet+Corporation+for+Assigned+Names+and+Numbers&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Government+Accountability+Office&rft.date=2000-07-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fnew.items%2Fog00033r.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSFAUPNote1-163"><a href="#cite_ref-NSFAUPNote1_163-0">^</a> Even after the appropriations act was amended in 1992 to give NSF more flexibility with regard to commercial traffic, NSF never felt that it could entirely do away with its <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network#Acceptable_Use_Policy_(AUP)" title="National Science Foundation Network">Acceptable Use Policy</a> and its restrictions on commercial traffic, see the response to Recommendation 5 in NSF's response to the Inspector General's review (an April 19, 1993 memo from Frederick Bernthal, Acting Director, to Linda Sundro, Inspector General, that is included at the end of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/stis1993/oig9301/oig9301.txt">Review of NSFNET</a>, Office of the Inspector General, National Science Foundation, March 23, 1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-NSFNETHearing1992-164"><a href="#cite_ref-NSFNETHearing1992_164-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED350986&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&accno=ED350986&_nfls=false">Management of NSFNET</a>, a transcript of the March 12, 1992 hearing before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, Second Session, Hon. <a href="/wiki/Rick_Boucher" title="Rick Boucher">Rick Boucher</a>, subcommittee chairman, presiding </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://merit.edu/research/nsfnet_article.php">"Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025735/http://merit.edu/research/nsfnet_article.php">Archived</a> January 1, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Susan R. Harris, PhD, and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walthowe.com/history/">"Walt's Internet History | Walt's World"</a>. walthowe.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=walthowe.com&rft.atitle=Walt%27s+Internet+History+%26%23124%3B+Walt%27s+World&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwalthowe.com%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://w2.eff.org/Infrastructure/Govt_docs/nsf_nren.rfp">NSF Solicitation 93-52</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305030153/http://w2.eff.org/Infrastructure/Govt_docs/nsf_nren.rfp">Archived</a> March 5, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Network Access Point Manager, Routing Arbiter, Regional Network Providers, and Very High Speed Backbone Network Services Provider for NSFNET and the NREN(SM) Program, May 6, 1993 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090526024957/http://www.digitalcenter.org/webreport94/apph.htm">"UCLA Center for Communication Policy"</a>. 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Network World interview with Vint Cerf. February 18, 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.networkworld.com/news/2011/021811-cerf-interplanetary-internet.html">the original</a> on May 24, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Network+World+interview+with+Vint+Cerf&rft.atitle=Cerf%3A+2011+will+be+proving+point+for+%27InterPlanetary+Internet%27&rft.date=2011-02-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F021811-cerf-interplanetary-internet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1958">"Internet Architecture"</a>. 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January 5, 1993.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIS+Manager+Award+Announced&rft.date=1993-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ripe.net%2Fripe%2Fmail%2Farchives%2Flir-wg%2F1993-January%2F000028.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=102819">"Internet Moves Toward Privatization"</a>. www.nsf.gov. 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Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Technical Work of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2860">10.17487/RFC2860</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2860">2860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memorandum+of+Understanding+Concerning+the+Technical+Work+of+the+Internet+Assigned+Numbers+Authority&rft.atitle=RFC+2860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC2860&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc2860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icann.org/en/about/governance/bylaws">"ICANN Bylaws"</a>. 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The American Historical Review. 103 (5): 1530–1552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2649970">10.2307/2649970</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2649970">2649970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Wizards%2C+Bureaucrats%2C+Warriors%2C+and+Hackers%3A+Writing+the+History+of+the+Internet&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1530-1552&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2649970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2649970%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosenzweig&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2014" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Andrew L. (2014). Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91661-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91661-5"><bdi>978-1-139-91661-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Open+Standards+and+the+Digital+Age%3A+History%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Networks&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-91661-5&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Andrew+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2010" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, Johnny (2010). A history of the Internet and the digital future. London, England: Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-777-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-777-0"><bdi>978-1-86189-777-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Internet+and+the+digital+future&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-777-0&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=Johnny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_GreeneLarry_James_LandweberGeorge_Strawn2003" class="citation web cs1">Thomas Greene; Larry James Landweber; George Strawn (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/fsnsf_internet.htm">"A Brief History of NSF and the Internet"</a>. National Science Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+NSF+and+the+Internet&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Thomas+Greene&rft.au=Larry+James+Landweber&rft.au=George+Strawn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fod%2Flpa%2Fnews%2F03%2Ffsnsf_internet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Internet" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/">Internet History Timeline</a> – <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/">Histories of the Internet</a> – <a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIQjrMHTv4">History of the Internet</a>, a short animated film (2009)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a> and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a 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Template:Harvnb"," 5.68% 222.107 31 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.68% 222.071 17 Template:Cite_ietf"," 4.06% 158.534 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.94% 153.997 1 Template:Internet"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.611","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":12264989,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA_Hey,_G_Pápay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbbate1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrianarisoa2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFB._Carpenter2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFB._Steil,_Council_on_Foreign_Relations2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaran1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarber1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarras2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeranek2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertolotti2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyadzhieva2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._HuitemaJ._PostelS._Crocker1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCNA_Staff2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCambell-Kelly1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCambell-Kelly2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarr2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCerf1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCerfDalalSunshine1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCerfKahn1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClassenKinnebrockLöblich2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbató1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCouldry2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCouncilSciencesBoardApplications1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCvijeticDjordjevic2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_RoessnerBarry_BozemanIrwin_FellerChristopher_Hill1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesBressan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeNardis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiNucci1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDr._Ed_Smith,_FBCS,_FITP,_University_of_the_Third_Age;_Mr_Chris_Miller_BSc.;_Prof_Jim_Norton_OBE,_FREng,_University_of_Sheffield\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmondson-Yurkanan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEveleth2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFCC_Staff2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFederal_Communications_Commission2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlaherty2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlew2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFluckiger2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFung2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarwinLincoln2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilliesCailliau2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrantMeadows2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrobeEiselt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGromov1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._Alvestrand2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHafnerLyon1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauben2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaughney_Dare-Bryan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempsteadWorthington2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilbertLópez2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillebrand2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIkram1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._C._R._Licklider1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._C._R._Licklider_and_Welden_Clark1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._PostelJ._Reynolds1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJindal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_SJosiah_C1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJon_Postel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJurgensonRitzer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK.G._Coffman_\u0026amp;_A.M._Odlyzco2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKang2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKangovi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_P._Birman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilnam_ChonHyunje_ParkKyungran_KangYoungeum_Lee\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirstein1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnorr2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKobie,_Nicole2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL._Daigle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehtisalo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLicklider,_J._C._R.1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebelson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLohr2015\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFMarkoff1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauldin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenzie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenta1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenta2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisiroglu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMueller2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNYT_Editorial_Board2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaughton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeumann1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolledo\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Reilly2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOgg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._HoffmanS._Harris2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanzaris2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelkey\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPelkey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPouzin1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPress\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPress2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurton1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabkinEisenach2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaynerBarberScantleburyWilkinson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReisinger2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhoads2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsMarrill1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenzweig1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRuiz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuizLohr2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuthfield1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRybczynski2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._FloydV._PaxsonA._Falk2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalehTeich2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScantleburyWilkinson,_P.T.1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaferThierry2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegal1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSepulveda2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShrumBensonBijkerBrunnstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithMillerNorton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSociety2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSommer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2015\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFStrickland2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSusmita_DasguptaSomik_V._LallDavid_Wheeler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT._J._Creamer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanenbaum1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Editorial_Board2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Editorial_Board2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_GreeneLarry_James_LandweberGeorge_Strawn2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnsoyShanahan1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVint_CerfYogen_DalalCarl_Sunshine1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFViswanathanDutt_MathurYammiyavar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldrop2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisman2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinzerNeilsonChraplyvy2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyatt2014\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFYates1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmermann1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFby_Vinton_Cerf,_as_told_to_Bernard_Aboba1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFtsbedh\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 18,\n [\"Citation\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite court\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite ietf\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite mailing list\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 48,\n [\"Cite patent\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite tweet\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 108,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Internet\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gaps\"] = 2,\n [\"Globalize\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 7,\n [\"IETF RFC\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 19,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Primary sources\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Telecommunications\"] = 1,\n [\"Usc\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"User-generated inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","440","16.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","14.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","11.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","6.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","5.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","120","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","3.0"],["(for generator)","60","2.2"],["[others]","720","26.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-h7pn7","timestamp":"20241122140402","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of the 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