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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_and_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Radio and television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_and_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermionic_valves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermionic_valves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Thermionic valves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermionic_valves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer_networks_and_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_networks_and_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Computer networks and the Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_networks_and_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_of_transmission_capacity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_transmission_capacity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Growth of transmission capacity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_transmission_capacity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Technical concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technical_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technical concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technical_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Basic elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analogue_versus_digital_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analogue_versus_digital_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Analogue versus digital communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analogue_versus_digital_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_channels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_channels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Communication channels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_channels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Modulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telecommunication_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunication_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Telecommunication networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunication_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Societal impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Societal impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Microeconomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macroeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macroeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Macroeconomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macroeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Social impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Entertainment, news, and advertising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Modern media</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern media subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Worldwide_equipment_sales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide_equipment_sales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Worldwide equipment sales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide_equipment_sales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telephone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telephone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Telephone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telephone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_and_television_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_and_television_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Radio and television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_and_television_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Local area networks and wide area networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Telecommunications</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 118 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-118" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">118 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasie" title="Telekommunikasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Telekommunikasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF" title="اتصال عن بعد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اتصال عن بعد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Telecomunicación – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Telecomunicación" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Telecomunicación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Telecomunicación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasiya" title="Telekommunikasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Telekommunikasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="টেলিযোগাযোগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টেলিযোগাযোগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-s%C3%ACn" title="Tiān-sìn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-sìn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C_(%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сувязь (тэхніка) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сувязь (тэхніка)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C_(%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сувязь (тэхніка) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сувязь (тэхніка)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Telekomunikasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Далекосъобщения – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Далекосъобщения" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije" title="Telekomunikacije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Telekomunikacije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellgehenterezhio%C3%B9" title="Pellgehenterezhioù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Pellgehenterezhioù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3" title="Telecomunicació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Telecomunicació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikace" title="Telekomunikace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Telekomunikace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Telekommunikation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Telekommunikation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikatsioon" title="Telekommunikatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Telekommunikatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Τηλεπικοινωνίες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τηλεπικοινωνίες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Telecomunicación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Telecomunicación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikado" title="Telekomunikado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Telekomunikado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikazio" title="Telekomunikazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Telekomunikazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="مخابرات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مخابرات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications" title="Télécommunications – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Télécommunications" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicazion" title="Telecomunicazion – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Telecomunicazion" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teileachumars%C3%A1id" title="Teileachumarsáid – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teileachumarsáid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cian-chonaltradh" title="Cian-chonaltradh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cian-chonaltradh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicaci%C3%B3ns" title="Telecomunicacións – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Telecomunicacións" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E4%BF%A1" title="電信 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電信" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0_%ED%86%B5%EC%8B%A0" title="전기 통신 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기 통신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadarwa" title="Sadarwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sadarwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հեռահաղորդակցություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հեռահաղորդակցություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="दूरसंचार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दूरसंचार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacija" title="Telekomunikacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Telekomunikacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomuniko" title="Telekomuniko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Telekomuniko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="টেলিযোগাযোগ – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="টেলিযোগাযোগ" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasi" title="Telekomunikasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Telekomunikasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Telecommunication" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezokuxhumakude" title="Ezokuxhumakude – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ezokuxhumakude" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjarskipti" title="Fjarskipti – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fjarskipti" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicazione" title="Telecomunicazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Telecomunicazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="טלקומוניקציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טלקומוניקציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%86" title="ದೂರಸಂವಹನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ದೂರಸಂವಹನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტელეკომუნიკაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტელეკომუნიკაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Телекоммуникация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Телекоммуникация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawasiliano_ya_simu" title="Mawasiliano ya simu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mawasiliano ya simu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekominikasyon" title="Telekominikasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Telekominikasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9kominikasyon" title="Télékominikasyon – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Télékominikasyon" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomun%C3%AEkasyon" title="Telekomunîkasyon – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Telekomunîkasyon" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Телекоммуникация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Телекоммуникация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasion" title="Telekomunikasion – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Telekomunikasion" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1" title="ໂທລະຄົມມະນາຄົມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໂທລະຄົມມະນາຄົມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatio" title="Telecommunicatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Telecommunicatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telesakari" title="Telesakari – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Telesakari" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikatioun" title="Telekommunikatioun – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Telekommunikatioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacija" title="Telekomunikacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Telekomunikacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatie" title="Telecommunicatie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Telecommunicatie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1vk%C3%B6zl%C3%A9s" title="Távközlés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Távközlés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifandraisan-davitra" title="Fifandraisan-davitra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fifandraisan-davitra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="വിദൂരാശയവിനിമയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിദൂരാശയവിനിമയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasi" title="Telekomunikasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Telekomunikasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasi" title="Telekomunikasi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Telekomunikasi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C3%A7on" title="Telecomunicaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Telecomunicaçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BD%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဆက်သွယ်ရေးစနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆက်သွယ်ရေးစနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicatie" title="Telecommunicatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Telecommunicatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="दूरसञ्चार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="दूरसञ्चार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1" title="通信 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="通信" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasjon" title="Telekommunikasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Telekommunikasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikasjon" title="Telekommunikasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Telekommunikasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicacions" title="Telecomunicacions – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Telecomunicacions" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Электрокыл – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Электрокыл" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr_aloqa" title="Elektr aloqa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektr aloqa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਦੂਰ ਸੰਚਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੂਰ ਸੰਚਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ٹیلی مواصلات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹیلی مواصلات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%91%E1%80%AC%EA%A9%BB%E1%80%86%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%EA%A9%BB" title="ထာꩻဆှိုပ်စပ်ꩻ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ထာꩻဆှိုပ်စပ်ꩻ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicacion" title="Telecomunicacion – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Telecomunicacion" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="مخابرات – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مخابرات" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telikomiunikieshan" title="Telikomiunikieshan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Telikomiunikieshan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacja" title="Telekomunikacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Telekomunikacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Telecomunicações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Telecomunicações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunica%C8%9Bie" title="Telecomunicație – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Telecomunicație" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia_da_la_telecommunicaziun" title="Istorgia da la telecommunicaziun – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Istorgia da la telecommunicaziun" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karuwillanakuna" title="Karuwillanakuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Karuwillanakuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97" title="Телекомунікації – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Телекомунікації" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C" title="Электросвязь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электросвязь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicatzione" title="Telecomunicatzione – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Telecomunicatzione" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikimet" title="Telekomunikimet – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Telekomunikimet" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="විදුලි සංදේශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විදුලි සංදේශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Telecommunication" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A_%DA%AA%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86" title="ٽيلي ڪميونيڪيشن – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٽيلي ڪميونيڪيشن" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunik%C3%A1cie" title="Telekomunikácie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Telekomunikácie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije" title="Telekomunikacije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Telekomunikacije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isgaarsiinta" title="Isgaarsiinta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Isgaarsiinta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="دوورپەیوەندی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دوورپەیوەندی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Телекомуникације – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Телекомуникације" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikacije" title="Telekomunikacije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Telekomunikacije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9komunikasi" title="Télékomunikasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Télékomunikasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televiestint%C3%A4" title="Televiestintä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Televiestintä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekommunikation" title="Telekommunikation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Telekommunikation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Telekomunikasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="தொலைத்தொடர்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொலைத்தொடர்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Телекоммуникация – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Телекоммуникация" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="దూరప్రసారం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="దూరప్రసారం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1" title="โทรคมนาคม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โทรคมนาคม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Мухобирот – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мухобирот" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekom%C3%BCnikasyon" title="Telekomünikasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Telekomünikasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika_we_aragatna%C5%9Fyk_in%C5%BEenerligi" title="Elektronika we aragatnaşyk inženerligi – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Elektronika we aragatnaşyk inženerligi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97" title="Телекомунікації – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Телекомунікації" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ٹیلی مواصلات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹیلی مواصلات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C5%82ecomunicasion" title="Tełecomunicasion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Tełecomunicasion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%85n_th%C3%B4ng" title="Viễn thông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Viễn thông" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Telekomunikasyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%BF%A1" title="电信 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电信" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="טעלעקאמוניקאציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טעלעקאמוניקאציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cb%C3%A1nis%E1%BB%8D%CC%80r%E1%BB%8D%CC%80-%E1%BB%8D%CC%80%E1%BB%8D%CC%81k%C3%A1n" title="Ìbánisọ̀rọ̀-ọ̀ọ́kán – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìbánisọ̀rọ̀-ọ̀ọ́kán" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%A8%8A" title="電訊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電訊" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunikasyon" title="Telekomunikasyon – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Telekomunikasyon" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Telecommunication" redirects here. For the A Flock of Seagulls song, see <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_(song)" title="Telecommunication (song)">Telecommunication (song)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg/330px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg/495px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg/660px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earth_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth station">Earth station</a> at the satellite communication facility <a href="/wiki/Raisting_Earth_Station" title="Raisting Earth Station">Raisting Earth Station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Raisting" title="Raisting">Raisting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Telecommunication</b>, often used in its plural form or abbreviated as <b>telecom</b>, is the transmission of information with an immediacy comparable to face-to-face communication. As such, slow communications technologies like <a href="/wiki/Postal_mail" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal mail">postal mail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_tube" title="Pneumatic tube">pneumatic tubes</a> are excluded from the definition.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Transmission_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission media">transmission media</a> have been used for telecommunications throughout history, from <a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">smoke signals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beacon" title="Beacon">beacons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaphore telegraph">semaphore telegraphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal flag">signal flags</a>, and optical <a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">heliographs</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_wire" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical wire">wires</a> and empty space made to carry electromagnetic signals. These paths of transmission may be divided into <a href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication channels</a> for <a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">multiplexing</a>, allowing for a single medium to transmit several concurrent <a href="/wiki/Session_(computer_science)" title="Session (computer science)">communication sessions</a>. Several methods of long-distance communication before the modern era used sounds like <a href="/wiki/Drum_(communication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Drum (communication)">coded drumbeats</a>, the blowing of <a href="/wiki/Horn_(instrument)" title="Horn (instrument)">horns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Whistle" title="Whistle">whistles</a>. Long-distance technologies invented during the 20th and 21st centuries generally use electric power, and include the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>. </p><p>Early telecommunication networks used metal wires as the medium for transmitting signals. These networks were used for <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraphy</a> and telephony for many decades. In the first decade of the 20th century, a revolution in <a href="/wiki/Wireless_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless communication">wireless communication</a> began with breakthroughs including those made in <a href="/wiki/Radio_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio communications">radio communications</a> by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a>, who won the 1909 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>. Other early pioneers in electrical and electronic telecommunications include co-inventors of the telegraph <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a>, numerous <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_telephone" title="Invention of the telephone">inventors and developers of the telephone</a> including <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Reis">Philipp Reis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, inventors of radio <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Armstrong">Edwin Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>, as well as inventors of television like <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a>. </p><p>Since the 1960s, the proliferation of digital technologies has meant that <a href="/wiki/Human_voice" title="Human voice">voice</a> communications have gradually been supplemented by data. The physical limitations of metallic media prompted the development of optical fibre.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, a technology independent of any given medium, has provided global access to services for individual users and further reduced location and time limitations on communications. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Telecommunication</i> is a compound noun of the Greek prefix <i>tele-</i> (τῆλε), meaning <i>distant</i>, <i>far off</i>, or <i>afar</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Latin verb <i>communicare</i>, meaning <i>to share</i>. Its modern use is adapted from the French,<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because its written use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer and novelist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Estauni%C3%A9" title="Édouard Estaunié">Édouard Estaunié</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Communication</i> was first used as an English word in the late 14th century. It comes from Old French comunicacion (14c., Modern French communication), from Latin communicationem (nominative communication), noun of action from past participle stem of communicare, "to share, divide out; communicate, impart, inform; join, unite, participate in," literally, "to make common", from communis".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></div> <p>At the 1932 <a href="/wiki/ITU_Plenipotentiary_Conference" title="ITU Plenipotentiary Conference">Plenipotentiary Telegraph Conference</a> and the International Radiotelegraph Conference in Madrid, the two organizations merged to form the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They defined <i>telecommunication</i> as "any telegraphic or telephonic communication of signs, signals, writing, facsimiles and sounds of any kind, by wire, wireless or other systems or processes of electric signaling or visual signaling (semaphores)." </p><p>The definition was later reconfirmed, according to Article 1.3 of the <a href="/wiki/ITU_Radio_Regulations" title="ITU Radio Regulations">ITU Radio Regulations</a>, which defined it as "Any <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emission_(radiocommunications)" title="Emission (radiocommunications)">emission</a> or reception of signs, signals, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by <a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">wire</a>, radio, optical, or other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic">electromagnetic</a> systems". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beacons_and_pigeons">Beacons and pigeons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Beacons and pigeons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OptischerTelegraf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/170px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/255px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/340px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A replica of one of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Chappe's</a> <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaphore tower">semaphore towers</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Homing_pigeon" title="Homing pigeon">Homing pigeons</a> have been used throughout history by different cultures. <a href="/wiki/Pigeon_post" title="Pigeon post">Pigeon post</a> had <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> roots and was later used by the Romans to aid their military. <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> claimed <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Levi_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> also conveyed the names of the victors at the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> to various cities using homing pigeons.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in <a href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. And in 1849, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Julius_Reuter" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Julius Reuter">Paul Julius Reuter</a> started a pigeon service to fly stock prices between <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Middle Ages, chains of <a href="/wiki/Beacon" title="Beacon">beacons</a> were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit of information, so the meaning of the message such as "the enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon in advance. One notable instance of their use was during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, when a beacon chain relayed a signal from <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1792, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a>, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a> system (or <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaphore line">semaphore line</a>) between <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a> and Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres (six to nineteen miles). As a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telegraph_and_telephone">Telegraph and telephone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Telegraph and telephone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 25, 1837, the first commercial <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> was demonstrated by English inventor Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">William Fothergill Cooke</a> and English scientist Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both inventors viewed their device as "an improvement to the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph" and not as a new device.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on September 2, 1837. <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">His code</a> was an important advance over Wheatstone's signaling method. The first <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</a> was successfully completed on July 27, 1866, allowing transatlantic telecommunication for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conventional telephone was patented by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Bell</a> in 1876. <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a> also filed a caveat for it in 1876. Gray abandoned his caveat and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had filed his caveat for the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to document the idea and test it in a telephone.[88]<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a> invented a device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line nearly 30 years before in 1849, but his device was of little practical value because it relied on the <a href="/wiki/Electrophonic_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrophonic effect">electrophonic effect</a> requiring users to place the receiver in their mouths to "hear".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first commercial telephone services were set up by the Bell Telephone Company in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a> and London.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_and_television">Radio and television</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Radio and television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1894, Italian inventor <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> began developing a wireless communication using the then-newly discovered phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>, demonstrating, by 1901, that they could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the start of <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a> by radio. On 17 December 1902, a transmission from the <a href="/wiki/Marconi_station#Glace_Bay,_Nova_Scotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Marconi station">Marconi station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada</a>, became the world's first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America. In 1904, a commercial service was established to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which incorporated them into their onboard newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> accelerated the development of radio for <a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">military communications</a>. After the war, commercial radio <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a> began in the 1920s and became an important mass medium for entertainment and news. <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> again accelerated the development of radio for the wartime purposes of aircraft and land communication, radio navigation, and radar.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Development of stereo <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a> of radio began in the 1930s in the United States and the 1940s in the United Kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-BBC1946_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC1946-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> displacing AM as the dominant commercial standard in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 25, 1925, <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> demonstrated the transmission of moving pictures at the London department store <a href="/wiki/Selfridges" title="Selfridges">Selfridges</a>. Baird's device relied upon the <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nipkow" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Nipkow">Paul Nipkow</a> and thus became known as the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical television">mechanical television</a>. It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the <a href="/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="British Broadcasting Corporation">British Broadcasting Corporation</a> beginning on 30 September 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, for most of the 20th century, televisions depended on the <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a>. The first version of such a television to show promise was produced by <a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a> and demonstrated to his family on 7 September 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II, interrupted experiments resumed and television became an important home entertainment broadcast medium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermionic_valves">Thermionic valves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thermionic valves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The type of device known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Thermionic_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermionic tube">thermionic tube</a></i> or <i>thermionic valve</i> uses <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_emission" title="Thermionic emission">thermionic emission</a> of electrons from a <a href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">heated cathode</a> for a number of fundamental electronic functions such as signal <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and current <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectification</a>. </p><p>The simplest vacuum tube, the <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a> invented in 1904 by <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a>, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device—from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more <a href="/wiki/Control_grid" title="Control grid">control grids</a> within the tube enables the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the 20th century and were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, <a href="/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">sound recording and reproduction</a>, long-distance telephone networks, and analogue and early digital <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a>. While some applications had used earlier technologies such as the <a href="/wiki/Spark_gap_transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Spark gap transmitter">spark gap transmitter</a> for radio or <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computers</a> for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube that made these technologies widespread and practical, leading to the creation of <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1940s, the invention of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor devices">semiconductor devices</a> made it possible to produce <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state electronics">solid-state</a> devices, which are smaller, cheaper, and more efficient, reliable, and durable than thermionic tubes. Starting in the mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were replaced with the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>. Thermionic tubes still have some applications for certain high-frequency amplifiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_networks_and_the_Internet">Computer networks and the Internet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Computer networks and the Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 11 September 1940, <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George Stibitz">George Stibitz</a> transmitted problems for his Complex Number Calculator in New York using a <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teletype</a> and received the computed results back at <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This configuration of a centralized computer (<a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a>) with remote <a href="/wiki/Dumb_terminals" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumb terminals">dumb terminals</a> remained popular well into the 1970s. In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> and, independently, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> started to investigate <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a>, a technology that sends a message in portions to its destination <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">asynchronously</a> without passing it through a centralized <a href="/wiki/Mainframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframe">mainframe</a>. A four-node <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">network</a> emerged on 5 December 1969, constituting the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, which by 1981 had grown to 213 <a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">nodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ARPANET eventually merged with other networks to form the Internet. While Internet development was a focus of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF) who published a series of <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> documents, other networking advancements occurred in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial laboratory">industrial laboratories</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> (LAN) developments of <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> (1983), <a href="/wiki/Token_Ring" title="Token Ring">Token Ring</a> (1984)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>and <a href="/wiki/Star_network" title="Star network">Star network</a> topology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_transmission_capacity">Growth of transmission capacity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Growth of transmission capacity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two-way telecommunication networks grew from 281 <a href="/wiki/Petabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Petabytes">petabytes</a> (PB) of optimally compressed information in 1986 to 471 PB in 1993 to 2.2 <a href="/wiki/Exabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> (EB) in 2000 to 65 EB in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the informational equivalent of two newspaper pages per person per day in 1986, and six entire newspapers per person per day by 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given this growth, telecommunications play an increasingly important role in the world economy and the global telecommunications industry was about a $4.7 trillion sector in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch02_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch02-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was estimated to be $1.5 trillion in 2010, corresponding to 2.4% of the world's gross domestic product (GDP).<sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_concepts">Technical concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Technical concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern telecommunication is founded on a series of key concepts that experienced progressive development and refinement in a period of well over a century: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_elements">Basic elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Basic elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into <a href="/wiki/Wired_communication" title="Wired communication">wired</a> and wireless methods. Overall, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always present in some form or another: </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> that takes information and converts it to a <a href="/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal (electrical engineering)">signal</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">transmission medium</a>, also called the <i>physical channel,</i> that carries the signal (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">"free space channel")</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Receiver_(radio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Receiver (radio)">receiver</a> that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information for the recipient</li></ul> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio station">radio broadcasting station</a>, the station's large <a href="/wiki/Power_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Power amplifier">power amplifier</a> is the transmitter and the broadcasting <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</a> is the interface between the power amplifier and the free space channel. The free space channel is the transmission medium and the receiver's antenna is the interface between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receiver</a> is the destination of the radio signal, where it is converted from electricity to sound. </p><p>Telecommunication systems are occasionally <a href="/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)" title="Duplex (telecommunications)">"duplex"</a> (two-way systems) with a single box of electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver, or a <i>transceiver</i> (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics within a transceiver are quite independent of one another. This can be explained by the fact that radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers measured in microwatts or <a href="/wiki/Nanowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanowatt">nanowatts</a>. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other to avoid interference. </p><p>Telecommunication over fixed lines is called <a href="/wiki/Point-to-point_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Point-to-point communication">point-to-point communication</a> because it occurs between a transmitter and a receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast communication</a> because it occurs between a powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but sensitive radio receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to cooperate and share the same physical channel are called <a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">multiplex systems</a>. The sharing of physical channels using multiplexing often results in significant cost reduction. Multiplexed systems are laid out in telecommunication networks and multiplexed signals are switched at nodes through to the correct destination terminal receiver. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analogue_versus_digital_communications">Analogue versus digital communications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Analogue versus digital communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Communications can be encoded as <a href="/wiki/Analogue_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogue signal">analogue</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital signal (electronics)">digital signals</a>, which may in turn be carried by <a href="/wiki/Analogue_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogue communication">analogue</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital communication">digital communication</a> systems. Analogue signals vary continuously with respect to the information, while digital signals encode information as a set of discrete values (e.g., a set of ones and zeroes).<sup id="cite_ref-Ambardar_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambardar-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During propagation and reception, information contained in analogue signals is degraded by undesirable <a href="/wiki/Noise_(signal_processing)" title="Noise (signal processing)">noise</a>. Commonly, the noise in a communication system can be expressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable signal via a <a href="/wiki/Random_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Random process">random process</a>. This form of noise is called <a href="/wiki/Additive_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Additive noise">additive noise</a>, with the understanding that the noise can be negative or positive at different instances. </p><p>Unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain threshold, the information contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their resistance to noise represents a key advantage of digital signals over analogue signals. However, digital systems <a href="/wiki/Cliff_effect" title="Cliff effect">fail catastrophically</a> when noise exceeds the system's ability to autocorrect. On the other hand, analogue systems fail gracefully: as noise increases, the signal becomes progressively more degraded but still usable. Also, digital transmission of <a href="/wiki/Continuous_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous signal">continuous data</a> unavoidably adds <a href="/wiki/Quantization_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantization noise">quantization noise</a> to the output. This can be reduced, but not eliminated, only at the expense of increasing the channel bandwidth requirement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_channels">Communication channels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Communication channels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">Communication channel</a></div> <p>The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> for sound communications, glass <a href="/wiki/Optical_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical fibre">optical fibres</a> for some kinds of <a href="/wiki/Optical_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical communications">optical communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cables</a> for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and <a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">free space</a> for communications using <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> waves, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>. Coaxial cable types are classified by RG type or "radio guide", terminology derived from World War II. The various RG designations are used to classify the specific signal transmission applications.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel through a perfect <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of gas. </p><p>The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the phrase <a href="/wiki/Channel_(communications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel (communications)">communications channel</a>, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station can broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies in the neighbourhood of 94.5 <a href="/wiki/MHz" class="mw-redirect" title="MHz">MHz</a> (megahertz) while another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighbourhood of 96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> of about 180 <a href="/wiki/KHz" class="mw-redirect" title="KHz">kHz</a> (kilohertz), centred at frequencies such as the above, which are called the <a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">"carrier frequencies"</a>. Each station in this example is separated from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the communication system. </p><p>In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into communications channels according to <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequencies</a>, and each channel is assigned a separate frequency bandwidth in which to broadcast radio waves. This system of dividing the medium into channels according to frequency is called "<a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">frequency-division multiplexing</a>". Another term for the same concept is "<a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wavelength-division multiplexing</a>", which is more commonly used in optical communications when multiple transmitters share the same physical medium. </p><p>Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate each sender a recurring segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20 <a href="/wiki/Milliseconds" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliseconds">milliseconds</a> out of each second), and to allow each sender to send messages only within its own time slot. This method of dividing the medium into communication channels is called "<a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">time-division multiplexing</a>" (<b>TDM</b>), and is used in optical fibre communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated FDM channel. Hence, these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modulation">Modulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">Modulation</a></div> <p>The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as <i>modulation</i>. Modulation can be used to represent a digital message as an analogue waveform. This is commonly called <a href="/wiki/Keying_(telecommunications)" title="Keying (telecommunications)">"keying"</a>—a term derived from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications—and several keying techniques exist (these include <a href="/wiki/Phase-shift_keying" title="Phase-shift keying">phase-shift keying</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying" title="Frequency-shift keying">frequency-shift keying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amplitude-shift_keying" title="Amplitude-shift keying">amplitude-shift keying</a>). The "<a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a>" system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between various devices.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying which is called (in the jargon of the field) "<a href="/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation" title="Quadrature amplitude modulation">quadrature amplitude modulation</a>" (QAM) that are used in high-capacity digital radio communication systems. </p><p>Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analogue signals at higher frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analogue signals cannot be effectively transmitted over free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency analogue signal must be impressed into a higher-frequency signal (known as the "<a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier wave</a>") before transmission. There are several different modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> (AM) and <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> (FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice would then be received on a radio as the channel "96 FM").<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, modulation has the advantage that it may use frequency division multiplexing (FDM). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunication_networks">Telecommunication networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Telecommunication networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Telecommunications network</a></div> <p>A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and <a href="/wiki/Communications_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications channel">communications channels</a> that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or more <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a> that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analogue communications network consists of one or more <a href="/wiki/Telephone_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone switch">switches</a> that establish a connection between two or more users. For both types of networks, <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">repeaters</a> may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> that can render the signal indistinguishable from the noise.<sup id="cite_ref-glossary_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glossary-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another advantage of digital systems over analogue is that their output is easier to store in memory, i.e., two voltage states (high and low) are easier to store than a continuous range of states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_impact">Societal impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Societal impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Telecommunication has a significant social, cultural and economic impact on modern society. In 2008, estimates placed the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication industry">telecommunication industry</a>'s revenue at US$4.7 trillion or just under three per cent of the <a href="/wiki/Gross_world_product" title="Gross world product">gross world product</a> (official exchange rate).<sup id="cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plunkettresearch01-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several following sections discuss the impact of telecommunication on society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Microeconomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomic</a> scale, companies have used telecommunications to help build global business empires. This is self-evident in the case of online retailer <a href="/wiki/Amazon.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon.com">Amazon.com</a> but, according to academic Edward Lenert, even the conventional retailer <a href="/wiki/Walmart" title="Walmart">Walmart</a> has benefited from better telecommunication infrastructure compared to its competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cities throughout the world, home owners use their telephones to order and arrange a variety of home services ranging from pizza deliveries to electricians. Even relatively poor communities have been noted to use telecommunication to their advantage. In <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Narsingdi_District" title="Narsingdi District">Narsingdi District</a>, isolated villagers use cellular phones to speak directly to wholesalers and arrange a better price for their goods. In <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, coffee growers share mobile phones to follow hourly variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Macroeconomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomic</a> scale, Lars-Hendrik Röller and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Waverman" title="Leonard Waverman">Leonard Waverman</a> suggested a causal link between good telecommunication infrastructure and economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few dispute the existence of a correlation although some argue it is wrong to view the relationship as causal.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure, there is increasing worry about the inequitable access to telecommunication services amongst various countries of the world—this is known as the <a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">digital divide</a>. A 2003 survey by the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU) revealed that roughly a third of countries have fewer than one mobile subscription for every 20 people and one-third of countries have fewer than one land-line telephone subscription for every 20 people. In terms of Internet access, roughly half of all countries have fewer than one out of 20 people with Internet access. From this information, as well as educational data, the ITU was able to compile an index that measures the overall ability of citizens to access and use information and communication technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this measure, Sweden, Denmark and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> received the highest ranking while the African countries <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> received the lowest.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_impact">Social impact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Social impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Telecommunication has played a significant role in social relationships. Nevertheless, devices like the telephone system were originally advertised with an emphasis on the practical dimensions of the device (such as the ability to conduct business or order home services) as opposed to the social dimensions. It was not until the late 1920s and 1930s that the social dimensions of the device became a prominent theme in telephone advertisements. New promotions started appealing to consumers' emotions, stressing the importance of social conversations and staying connected to family and friends.<sup id="cite_ref-fischer_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fischer-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since then the role that telecommunications has played in social relations has become increasingly important. In recent years,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Social_networking_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking site">social networking sites</a> has increased dramatically. These sites allow users to communicate with each other as well as post photographs, events and profiles for others to see. The profiles can list a person's age, interests, sexual preference and relationship status. In this way, these sites can play important role in everything from organising social engagements to <a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">courtship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to social networking sites, technologies like <a href="/wiki/Short_message_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Short message service">short message service</a> (SMS) and the telephone also had a significant impact on social interactions. In 2000, market research group <a href="/wiki/Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a> reported that 81% of 15- to 24-year-old SMS users in the United Kingdom had used the service to coordinate social arrangements and 42% to flirt.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entertainment,_news,_and_advertising"><span id="Entertainment.2C_news.2C_and_advertising"></span>Entertainment, news, and advertising</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Entertainment, news, and advertising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 5px;"> <caption>News source preference of Americans in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Local TV</td> <td>59% </td></tr> <tr> <td>National TV</td> <td>47% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Radio</td> <td>44% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Local paper</td> <td>38% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Internet</td> <td>23% </td></tr> <tr> <td>National paper</td> <td>12% </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><small>Survey permitted multiple answers</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In cultural terms, telecommunication has increased the public's ability to access music and film. With television, people can watch films they have not seen before in their own home without having to travel to the video store or cinema. With radio and the Internet, people can listen to music they have not heard before without having to travel to the music store. </p><p>Telecommunication has also transformed the way people receive their news. A 2006 survey (right table) of slightly more than 3,000 Americans by the non-profit Pew Internet and American Life Project in the United States the majority specified television or radio over newspapers. </p><p>Telecommunication has had an equally significant impact on advertising. <a href="/wiki/TNS_Media_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="TNS Media Intelligence">TNS Media Intelligence</a> reported that in 2007, 58% of advertising expenditure in the United States was spent on media that depend upon telecommunication.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Advertising expenditures in US in 2007 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Medium</th> <th></th> <th>Spending </th></tr> <tr> <td>Internet</td> <td>7.6%</td> <td>$11.31 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Radio</td> <td>7.2%</td> <td>$10.69 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cable TV</td> <td>12.1%</td> <td>$18.02 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Syndicated TV</td> <td>2.8%</td> <td>$4.17 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spot TV</td> <td>11.3%</td> <td>$16.82 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Network TV</td> <td>17.1%</td> <td>$25.42 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Newspaper</td> <td>18.9%</td> <td>$28.22 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Magazine</td> <td>20.4%</td> <td>$30.33 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Outdoor</td> <td>2.7%</td> <td>$4.02 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>100%</td> <td>$149 billion </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation">Regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">List of telecommunications regulatory bodies</a></div> <p>Many countries have enacted legislation which conforms to the International Telecommunication Regulations established by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is the "leading UN agency for information and communication technology issues".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1947, at the Atlantic City Conference, the ITU decided to "afford international protection to all frequencies registered in a new international frequency list and used in conformity with the Radio Regulation". According to the ITU's <i>Radio Regulations</i> adopted in Atlantic City, all frequencies referenced in the <i>International Frequency Registration Board</i>, examined by the board and registered on the <i>International Frequency List</i> "shall have the right to international protection from harmful interference".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a global perspective, there have been political debates and legislation regarding the management of telecommunication and broadcasting. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">history of broadcasting</a> discusses some debates in relation to balancing conventional communication such as printing and telecommunication such as radio broadcasting.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The onset of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> brought on the first explosion of international broadcasting propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries, their governments, insurgents, terrorists, and militiamen have all used telecommunication and broadcasting techniques to promote propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garfield_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patriotic propaganda for political movements and colonization started the mid-1930s. In 1936, the BBC broadcast propaganda to the Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts from Italy, which also had colonial interests in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern political debates in telecommunication include the reclassification of <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">broadband Internet service</a> as a telecommunications service (also called <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141110-EW_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141110-EW-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141114_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141114-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulation of <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_spam" title="Mobile phone spam">phone spam</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and expanding affordable broadband access.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_media">Modern media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Modern media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worldwide_equipment_sales">Worldwide equipment sales</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Worldwide equipment sales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to data collected by Gartner<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ars Technica<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sales of main consumer's telecommunication equipment worldwide in millions of units was: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Equipment / year</th> <th>1975</th> <th>1980</th> <th>1985</th> <th>1990</th> <th>1994</th> <th>1996</th> <th>1998</th> <th>2000</th> <th>2002</th> <th>2004</th> <th>2006</th> <th>2008 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Computers</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> <td>20</td> <td>40</td> <td>75</td> <td>100</td> <td>135</td> <td>130</td> <td>175</td> <td>230</td> <td>280 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cell phones</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>180</td> <td>400</td> <td>420</td> <td>660</td> <td>830</td> <td>1000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telephone">Telephone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Telephone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibreoptic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/170px-Fibreoptic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/255px-Fibreoptic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/340px-Fibreoptic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Optical_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical fibre">Optical fibre</a> provides cheaper bandwidth for long-distance communication.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a telephone network, the caller is connected to the person to whom they wish to talk by switches at various <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone exchanges">telephone exchanges</a>. The switches form an electrical connection between the two users and the setting of these switches is determined electronically when the caller <a href="/wiki/Pulse_dialing" title="Pulse dialing">dials</a> the number. Once the connection is made, the caller's voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a> in the caller's <a href="/wiki/Handset" title="Handset">handset</a>. This electrical signal is then sent through the network to the user at the other end where it is transformed back into sound by a small <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">speaker</a> in that person's handset. </p><p>As of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the landline telephones in most residential homes are analogue—that is, the speaker's voice directly determines the signal's voltage.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although short-distance calls may be handled from end-to-end as analogue signals, increasingly telephone service providers are transparently converting the signals to digital signals for transmission. The advantage of this is that digitized voice data can travel side by side with data from the Internet and can be perfectly reproduced in long-distance communication (as opposed to analogue signals that are inevitably impacted by noise). </p><p>Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks. Mobile phone subscriptions now outnumber fixed-line subscriptions in many markets. Sales of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816.6 million with that figure being almost equally shared amongst the markets of Asia/Pacific (204 m), Western Europe (164 m), CEMEA (Central Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m), North America (148 m) and Latin America (102 m).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of new subscriptions over the five years from 1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2% growth.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasingly these phones are being serviced by systems where the voice content is transmitted digitally such as <a href="/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a> or <a href="/wiki/W-CDMA" class="mw-redirect" title="W-CDMA">W-CDMA</a> with many markets choosing to deprecate analog systems such as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone System">AMPS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the scenes. Starting with the operation of <a href="/wiki/TAT-8" title="TAT-8">TAT-8</a> in 1988, the 1990s saw the widespread adoption of systems based on optical fibres. The benefit of communicating with optical fibres is that they offer a drastic increase in data capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable laid at that time and today's optical fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-8.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increase in data capacity is due to several factors: First, optical fibres are physically much smaller than competing technologies. Second, they do not suffer from <a href="/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crosstalk (electronics)">crosstalk</a> which means several hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, improvements in multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the data capacity of a single fibre.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Assisting communication across many modern optical fibre networks is a protocol known as <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</a> (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for the side-by-side <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">data transmission</a> mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for public telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through the network and associates a <a href="/wiki/Traffic_contract" title="Traffic contract">traffic contract</a> with that pathway. The traffic contract is essentially an agreement between the client and the network about how the network is to handle the data; if the network cannot meet the conditions of the traffic contract it does not accept the connection. This is important because telephone calls can negotiate a contract so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit rate, something that will ensure a caller's voice is not delayed in parts or cut off completely.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are competitors to ATM, such as <a href="/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching" title="Multiprotocol Label Switching">Multiprotocol Label Switching</a> (MPLS), that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant ATM in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_and_television_2">Radio and television</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Radio and television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg/300px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg/450px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg/600px-Digital_terrestrial_television_standards.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">Digital television</a> standards and their adoption worldwide</figcaption></figure> <p>In a broadcast system, the central high-powered <a href="/wiki/Radio_masts_and_towers" title="Radio masts and towers">broadcast tower</a> transmits a high-frequency <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic wave</a> to numerous low-powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower is modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information. The receiver is then <a href="/wiki/Antenna_tuner" title="Antenna tuner">tuned</a> so as to pick up the high-frequency wave and a <a href="/wiki/Demodulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Demodulator">demodulator</a> is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information. The broadcast signal can be either analogue (signal is varied continuously with respect to the information) or digital (information is encoded as a set of discrete values).<sup id="cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stallings-intro-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_media_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast media industry">broadcast media industry</a> is at a critical turning point in its development, with many countries moving from analogue to digital broadcasts. This move is made possible by the production of cheaper, faster and more capable <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>. The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that they prevent a number of complaints common to traditional analogue broadcasts. For television, this includes the elimination of problems such as <a href="/wiki/Noise_(video)" title="Noise (video)">snowy pictures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television_interference_(ghosting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Television interference (ghosting)">ghosting</a> and other distortion. These occur because of the nature of analogue transmission, which means that perturbations due to noise will be evident in the final output. Digital transmission overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon reception and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output. In a simplified example, if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes [1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0] and received with signal amplitudes [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9] it would still decode to the binary message 1011— a perfect reproduction of what was sent. From this example, a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen in that if the noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message. Using <a href="/wiki/Forward_error_correction" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward error correction">forward error correction</a> a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible output and hence a breakdown of the transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In digital television broadcasting, there are three competing standards that are likely to be adopted worldwide. These are the <a href="/wiki/ATSC_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="ATSC Standards">ATSC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_Video_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Video Broadcasting">DVB</a> and <a href="/wiki/ISDB" title="ISDB">ISDB</a> standards; the adoption of these standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three standards use <a href="/wiki/MPEG-2" title="MPEG-2">MPEG-2</a> for video compression. ATSC uses <a href="/wiki/Dolby_Digital" title="Dolby Digital">Dolby Digital</a> AC-3 for audio compression, ISDB uses <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">Advanced Audio Coding</a> (MPEG-2 Part 7) and DVB has no standard for audio compression but typically uses <a href="/wiki/MPEG-1" title="MPEG-1">MPEG-1</a> Part 3 Layer 2.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of modulation also varies between the schemes. In digital audio broadcasting, standards are much more unified with practically all countries choosing to adopt the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">Digital Audio Broadcasting</a> standard (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Eureka_147" class="mw-redirect" title="Eureka 147">Eureka 147</a> standard). The exception is the United States which has chosen to adopt <a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a>. HD Radio, unlike Eureka 147, is based upon a transmission method known as <a href="/wiki/In-band_on-channel" title="In-band on-channel">in-band on-channel</a> transmission that allows digital information to "piggyback" on normal AM or FM analog transmissions.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog television remains being transmitted in most countries. An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission (by all but the very low-power TV stations) on 12 June 2009<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after twice delaying the switchover deadline. Kenya also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays. For analogue television, there were three standards in use for broadcasting colour TV (see a map on adoption <a href="/wiki/File:NTSC-PAL-SECAM.png" title="File:NTSC-PAL-SECAM.png">here</a>). These are known as <a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a> (German designed), <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> (American designed), and <a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a> (French-designed). For analogue radio, the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by the higher cost of digital receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of modulation for analogue radio is typically between amplitude (<b>AM</b>) or frequency modulation (<b>FM</b>). To achieve <a href="/wiki/Stereophonic_sound" title="Stereophonic sound">stereo playback</a>, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for <a href="/wiki/Stereo_FM" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereo FM">stereo FM</a>, and quadrature amplitude modulation is used for stereo AM or <a href="/wiki/C-QUAM" title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OSI_Model_v1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/260px-OSI_Model_v1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/390px-OSI_Model_v1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OSI_Model_v1.svg/520px-OSI_Model_v1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/OSI_reference_model" class="mw-redirect" title="OSI reference model">OSI reference model</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that communicate with each other using the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP).<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any computer on the Internet has a unique <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> that can be used by other computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with them the originating computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication. The Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is estimated that 51% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 2000 were flowing through the Internet (most of the rest (42%) through the <a href="/wiki/Landline_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Landline telephone">landline telephone</a>). By 2007 the Internet clearly dominated and captured 97% of all the information in telecommunication networks (most of the rest (2%) through <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phones">mobile phones</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2008<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, an estimated 21.9% of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access rates (measured as a percentage of the population) in North America (73.6%), Oceania/Australia (59.5%) and Europe (48.1%).<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of <a href="/wiki/Broadband_Internet_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadband Internet access">broadband access</a>, Iceland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the Netherlands (25.3%) led the world.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Internet works in part because of <a href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">protocols</a> that govern how the computers and routers communicate with each other. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less independently of other protocols. This allows lower-level protocols to be customized for the network situation while not changing the way higher-level protocols operate. A practical example of why this is important is because it allows an <a href="/wiki/Internet_browser" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet browser">Internet browser</a> to run the same code regardless of whether the computer it is running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> connection. Protocols are often talked about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model (pictured on the right), which emerged in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol suite.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the Internet, the physical medium and data link protocol can vary several times as packets traverse the globe. This is because the Internet places no constraints on what physical medium or data link protocol is used. This leads to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network situation. In practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) protocol (or a modern equivalent) on top of optic fibre. This is because for most intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure as the public switched telephone network. </p><p>At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for <a href="/wiki/Logical_address" title="Logical address">logical addressing</a>. For the World Wide Web, these "IP addresses" are derived from the human-readable form using the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (e.g., 72.14.207.99 is derived from <a href="/wiki/Google.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Google.com">Google.com</a>). At the moment, the most widely used version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move to version six is imminent.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the transport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the <a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP). TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by the other computer whereas UDP is used when it is merely desirable. With TCP, packets are retransmitted if they are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. With UDP, packets are not ordered nor retransmitted if lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry <a href="/wiki/TCP_and_UDP_port" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP and UDP port">port numbers</a> with them to specify what application or <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a> the packet should be handled by.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because certain application-level protocols use <a href="/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers" title="List of TCP and UDP port numbers">certain ports</a>, network administrators can manipulate traffic to suit particular requirements. Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port or to affect the performance of certain applications by assigning <a href="/wiki/WAN_optimization" title="WAN optimization">priority</a>. </p><p>Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure Sockets Layer">Secure Sockets Layer</a> (SSL) and <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a> (TLS) protocols. These protocols ensure that data transferred between two parties remains completely confidential.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, at the application layer, are many of the protocols Internet users would be familiar with such as <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> (web browsing), <a href="/wiki/POP3" class="mw-redirect" title="POP3">POP3</a> (e-mail), <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a> (file transfer), <a href="/wiki/IRC" title="IRC">IRC</a> (Internet chat), <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent_(protocol)" class="mw-redirect" title="BitTorrent (protocol)">BitTorrent</a> (file sharing) and <a href="/wiki/XMPP" title="XMPP">XMPP</a> (instant messaging). </p><p><a href="/wiki/VoIP" class="mw-redirect" title="VoIP">Voice over Internet Protocol</a> (VoIP) allows data packets to be used for <a href="/wiki/Synchronous" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronous">synchronous</a> voice communications. The data packets are marked as voice-type packets and can be prioritized by the network administrators so that the real-time, synchronous conversation is less subject to contention with other types of data traffic which can be delayed (i.e., file transfer or email) or buffered in advance (i.e., audio and video) without detriment. That prioritization is fine when the network has sufficient capacity for all the VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the network is enabled for prioritization, i.e., a private corporate-style network, but the Internet is not generally managed in this way and so there can be a big difference in the quality of VoIP calls over a private network and over the public Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_area_networks_and_wide_area_networks">Local area networks and wide area networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Local area networks and wide area networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a> (LANs)—computer networks that do not extend beyond a few kilometres—remain distinct. This is because networks on this scale do not require all the features associated with larger networks and are often more cost-effective and efficient without them. When they are not connected with the Internet, they also have the advantages of privacy and security. However, purposefully lacking a direct connection to the Internet does not provide assured protection from hackers, military forces, or economic powers. These threats exist if there are any methods for connecting remotely to the LAN. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">Wide area networks</a> (WANs) are private computer networks that may extend for thousands of kilometres. Once again, some of their advantages include privacy and security. Prime users of private LANs and WANs include armed forces and intelligence agencies that must keep their information secure and secret. </p><p>In the mid-1980s, several sets of communication protocols emerged to fill the gaps between the data-link layer and the application layer of the <a href="/wiki/OSI_reference_model" class="mw-redirect" title="OSI reference model">OSI reference model</a>. These included <a href="/wiki/AppleTalk" title="AppleTalk">AppleTalk</a>, <a href="/wiki/IPX" class="mw-redirect" title="IPX">IPX</a>, and <a href="/wiki/NetBIOS" title="NetBIOS">NetBIOS</a> with the dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity with <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> users. <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> existed at this point, but it was typically only used by large government and research facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Internet grew in popularity and its traffic was required to be routed into private networks, the TCP/IP protocols replaced existing local area network technologies. Additional technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/DHCP" class="mw-redirect" title="DHCP">DHCP</a>, allowed TCP/IP-based computers to self-configure in the network. Such functions also existed in the AppleTalk/ IPX/ NetBIOS protocol sets.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) are typical data-link protocols for larger networks such as WANs; Ethernet and Token Ring are typical data-link protocols for LANs. These protocols differ from the former protocols in that they are simpler, e.g., they omit features such as <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of service</a> guarantees, and offer <a href="/wiki/Medium_access_control" title="Medium access control">medium access control</a>. Both of these differences allow for more economical systems.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the modest popularity of Token Ring in the 1980s and 1990s, virtually all LANs now use either wired or wireless Ethernet facilities. At the physical layer, most wired Ethernet implementations use <a href="/wiki/Twisted_pair" title="Twisted pair">copper twisted-pair cables</a> (including the common <a href="/wiki/10BASE-T" class="mw-redirect" title="10BASE-T">10BASE-T</a> networks). However, some early implementations used heavier coaxial cables and some recent implementations (especially high-speed ones) use optical fibres.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When optic fibres are used, the distinction must be made between multimode fibres and single-mode fibres. <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber" title="Multi-mode optical fiber">Multimode fibres</a> can be thought of as thicker optical fibres that are cheaper to manufacture devices for, but that suffer from less usable bandwidth and worse attenuation—implying poorer long-distance performance.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/28px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/42px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/56px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Telecommunications">Telecommunications portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_networking" title="Active networking">Active networking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_site" title="Cell site">Cell site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_communications" title="Control communications">Control communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Telecommunications_Professionals" title="Institute of Telecommunications Professionals">Institute of Telecommunications Professionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Teletraffic_Congress" title="International Teletraffic Congress">International Teletraffic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_encryption_terms" title="List of telecommunications encryption terms">List of telecommunications encryption terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Military communication">Military communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanonetwork" title="Nanonetwork">Nanonetwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_Industry_Association" title="Telecommunications Industry Association">Telecommunications Industry Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecoms_resilience" title="Telecoms resilience">Telecoms resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">Telemetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">Wavelength-division multiplexing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wired_communication" title="Wired communication">Wired communication</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319031957/https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/oth/02/02/S02020000244501PDFE.PDF">"Article 1.3"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="/wiki/ITU_Radio_Regulations" title="ITU Radio Regulations"><i>ITU Radio Regulations</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a>, 2012, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/oth/02/02/S02020000244501PDFE.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 March 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Article+1.3&rft.btitle=ITU+Radio+Regulations&rft.pub=International+Telecommunication+Union&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fdms_pub%2Fitu-s%2Foth%2F02%2F02%2FS02020000244501PDFE.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union, Annex (Geneva, 1992)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:11_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eib.org/en/stories/what-is-gpon">"How does a Gigabit Passive Optical Network (GPON) work?"</a>. <i>European Investment Bank</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210607144149/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/what-is-gpon">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Investment+Bank&rft.atitle=How+does+a+Gigabit+Passive+Optical+Network+%28GPON%29+work%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eib.org%2Fen%2Fstories%2Fwhat-is-gpon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/read/11711/chapter/3"><i>Renewing U.S. Telecommunications Research</i></a>. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F11711">10.17226/11711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10265-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10265-0"><bdi>978-0-309-10265-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210623221636/https://www.nap.edu/read/11711/chapter/3">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renewing+U.S.+Telecommunications+Research&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F11711&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10265-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fread%2F11711%2Fchapter%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCyphers2019" class="citation web cs1">Cyphers, Bennett (16 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eff.org/wp/case-fiber-home-today-why-fiber-superior-medium-21st-century-broadband">"The Case for Fiber to the Home, Today: Why Fiber is a Superior Medium for 21st Century Broadband"</a>. <i>Electronic Frontier Foundation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603233817/https://www.eff.org/wp/case-fiber-home-today-why-fiber-superior-medium-21st-century-broadband">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation&rft.atitle=The+Case+for+Fiber+to+the+Home%2C+Today%3A+Why+Fiber+is+a+Superior+Medium+for+21st+Century+Broadband&rft.date=2019-10-16&rft.aulast=Cyphers&rft.aufirst=Bennett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fwp%2Fcase-fiber-home-today-why-fiber-superior-medium-21st-century-broadband&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tele-&allowed_in_frame=0">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161225225345/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tele-&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dtele-%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oxford_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430020541/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/telecommunication?view=uk">"Telecommunication"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionaries</i>. Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/telecommunication?view=uk">the original</a> on 30 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft.atitle=Telecommunication&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Ftelecommunication%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDilhac2004" class="citation web cs1">Dilhac, Jean-Marie (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101202232403/http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/aboutus/history_center/conferences/che2004/Dilhac.pdf">"From tele-communicare to Telecommunications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE)</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/aboutus/history_center/conferences/che2004/Dilhac.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers+%28IEEE%29&rft.atitle=From+tele-communicare+to+Telecommunications&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Dilhac&rft.aufirst=Jean-Marie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Fportal%2Fcms_docs_iportals%2Fiportals%2Faboutus%2Fhistory_center%2Fconferences%2Fche2004%2FDilhac.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Telecommunication</i>, <i>tele-</i> and <i>communication</i>, <a href="/wiki/New_Oxford_American_Dictionary" title="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American Dictionary</a> (2nd edition), 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=communication&allowed_in_frame=0">"communication"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160914041535/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=communication&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=communication&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dcommunication%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/PlenipotentiaryConferences.aspx?conf=4.5">"International Telegraph Conference (Madrid, 1932)"</a>. ITU. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230108011921/https://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/PlenipotentiaryConferences.aspx?conf=4.5">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Telegraph+Conference+%28Madrid%2C+1932%29&rft.pub=ITU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2Fhistory%2FPages%2FPlenipotentiaryConferences.aspx%3Fconf%3D4.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levi-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levi_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevi1977" class="citation book cs1">Levi, Wendell (1977). <i>The Pigeon</i>. Sumter, SC: Levi Publishing Co, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85390-013-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85390-013-9"><bdi>978-0-85390-013-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pigeon&rft.place=Sumter%2C+SC&rft.pub=Levi+Publishing+Co%2C+Inc&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-85390-013-9&rft.aulast=Levi&rft.aufirst=Wendell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlechman2007" class="citation book cs1">Blechman, Andrew (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514003720/http://www.uqp.uq.edu.au/book_details.php?id=9780702236419"><i>Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird</i></a>. St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3641-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3641-9"><bdi>978-0-7022-3641-9</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Chronology%3A+Reuters%2C+from+pigeons+to+multimedia+merger&rft.date=2008-02-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FrbssTechMediaTelecomNews%2FidUSL1849100620080219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss" class="citation web cs1">Ross, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200104142345/https://www.britainexpress.com/History/tudor/armada.htm">"The Spanish Armada"</a>. <i>Britain Express</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britain+Express&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+Armada&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britainexpress.com%2FHistory%2Ftudor%2Farmada.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040409014107/http://chappe.ec-lyon.fr/">"Les Télégraphes Chappe"</a>. <i>Cédrick Chatenet</i>. l'Ecole Centrale de Lyon. 2003. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415846783" title="Special:BookSources/9780415846783"><bdi>9780415846783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cooke+and+Wheatstone+and+the+Invention+of+the+Electric+Telegraph&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-03-11&rft.isbn=9780415846783&rft.aulast=Brockedone&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/connecting-britain/first-electric-telegraph/">"Who made the first electric telegraph communications?"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808003926/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/connecting-britain/first-electric-telegraph/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Who+made+the+first+electric+telegraph+communications%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2Fconnecting-britain%2Ffirst-electric-telegraph%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvert2004" class="citation web cs1">Calvert, J. B. (19 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010616184336/https://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/morse/morse.htm">"The Electromagnetic Telegraph"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/morse/morse.htm">the original</a> on 16 June 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Electromagnetic+Telegraph&rft.date=2004-05-19&rft.aulast=Calvert&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.du.edu%2F~jcalvert%2Ftel%2Fmorse%2Fmorse.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144122/http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/atlantic-cable/">"The Atlantic Cable"</a>. <i>Bern Dibner</i>. Burndy Library Inc. 1959. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/atlantic-cable/">the original</a> on 1 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bern+Dibner&rft.atitle=The+Atlantic+Cable&rft.date=1959&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.si.edu%2Fdigitalcollections%2Fhst%2Fatlantic-cable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170628164416/http://www2.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/OYTT-images/ElishaGray.html">"Elisha Gray"</a>. <i>Oberlin College Archives</i>. Electronic Oberlin Group. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/OYTT-images/ElishaGray.html">the original</a> on 28 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oberlin+College+Archives&rft.atitle=Elisha+Gray&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oberlin.edu%2Fexternal%2FEOG%2FOYTT-images%2FElishaGray.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz" class="citation web cs1">Katz, Eugenii. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424055029/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html">"Antonio Santi Giuseppe Meucci"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html">the original</a> on 24 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antonio+Santi+Giuseppe+Meucci&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Eugenii&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchem.ch.huji.ac.il%2F~eugeniik%2Fhistory%2Fmeucci.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822104544/http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelephone/index.htm">"Connected Earth: The telephone"</a>. BT. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelephone/index.htm">the original</a> on 22 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Connected+Earth%3A+The+telephone&rft.pub=BT&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.connected-earth.com%2FGalleries%2FTelecommunicationsage%2FThetelephone%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030114033744/https://www.att.com/history/milestones.html">"History of AT&T"</a>. <i>AT&T</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.att.com/history/milestones.html">the original</a> on 14 January 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AT%26T&rft.atitle=History+of+AT%26T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.att.com%2Fhistory%2Fmilestones.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVujovic1998" class="citation web cs1">Vujovic, Ljubo (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160114205727/http://www.teslasociety.com/biography.htm">"Tesla Biography"</a>. <i>Tesla Memorial Society of New York</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.teslasociety.com/biography.htm">the original</a> on 14 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tesla+Memorial+Society+of+New+York&rft.atitle=Tesla+Biography&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Vujovic&rft.aufirst=Ljubo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teslasociety.com%2Fbiography.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/Item/Talking%20Across%20the%20Ocean">"TR Center - Talking Across the Ocean"</a>. <i>www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417162827/https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/Item/Talking%20Across%20the%20Ocean">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org&rft.atitle=TR+Center+-+Talking+Across+the+Ocean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodorerooseveltcenter.org%2FBlog%2FItem%2FTalking%2520Across%2520the%2520Ocean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2011" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, R.J. Jr. (2011). <i>Crystal Clear: The Struggle for Reliable Communications Technology in World War II</i>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118104644" title="Special:BookSources/9781118104644"><bdi>9781118104644</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crystal+Clear%3A+The+Struggle+for+Reliable+Communications+Technology+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781118104644&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=R.J.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC1946-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC1946_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/rd/publications/rdreport_1946_04">"Report 1946-04 – Frequency Modulation"</a>. <i>BBC Research & Development</i>. January 1946. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200103173115/https://www.bbc.co.uk/rd/publications/rdreport_1946_04">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Research+%26+Development&rft.atitle=Report+1946-04+%E2%80%93+Frequency+Modulation&rft.date=1946-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Frd%2Fpublications%2Frdreport_1946_04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThébergeDevineEverrett2015" class="citation book cs1">Théberge, P.; Devine, K.; Everrett, T (2015). <i>Living Stereo: Histories and Cultures of Multichannel Sound</i>. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781623566654" title="Special:BookSources/9781623566654"><bdi>9781623566654</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Stereo%3A+Histories+and+Cultures+of+Multichannel+Sound&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781623566654&rft.aulast=Th%C3%A9berge&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Devine%2C+K.&rft.au=Everrett%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514070220/http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fpioneers.html">"The Pioneers"</a>. <i>MZTV Museum of Television</i>. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http://www.mztv.com/pioneers.html">the original</a> on 14 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MZTV+Museum+of+Television&rft.atitle=The+Pioneers&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fnewframe.asp%3Fcontent%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fpioneers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostman1999" class="citation web cs1">Postman, Neil (29 March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090930214902/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html">"Philo Farnsworth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/TIME_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="TIME Magazine">TIME Magazine</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TIME+Magazine&rft.atitle=Philo+Farnsworth&rft.date=1999-03-29&rft.aulast=Postman&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Ftime100%2Fscientist%2Fprofile%2Ffarnsworth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddeson" class="citation web cs1">Hoddeson, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/events/vacuumt.html">"The Vacuum Tube"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415063342/http://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/events/vacuumt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vacuum+Tube&rft.pub=PBS&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftransistor%2Fscience%2Fevents%2Fvacuumt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackseyWoodhouse1991" class="citation book cs1">Macksey, Kenneth; Woodhouse, William (1991). "Electronics". <i>The Penguin Encyclopedia of Modern Warfare: 1850 to the present day</i>. Viking. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82698-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-82698-8"><bdi>978-0-670-82698-8</bdi></a>. <q>The electronics age may be said to have been ushered in with the invention of the vacuum diode valve in 1902 by the Briton John Fleming (himself coining the word 'electronics'), the immediate application being in the field of radio.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electronics&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Encyclopedia+of+Modern+Warfare%3A+1850+to+the+present+day&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-670-82698-8&rft.aulast=Macksey&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.au=Woodhouse%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/stibitz.htm">"George Stibitz (1904–1995)"</a>. <i>www.kerryr.net</i>. Kerry Redshaw. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170815235330/http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/stibitz.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kerryr.net&rft.atitle=George+Stibitz+%281904%E2%80%931995%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kerryr.net%2Fpioneers%2Fstibitz.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafner1998" class="citation book cs1">Hafner, Katie (1998). <i>Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet</i>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83267-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83267-8"><bdi>978-0-684-83267-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Wizards+Stay+Up+Late%3A+The+Origins+Of+The+Internet&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83267-8&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.aufirst=Katie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilbertLópez2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970">"The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>332</b> (6025): 60–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332...60H">2011Sci...332...60H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970">10.1126/science.1200970</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21310967">21310967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206531385">206531385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+World%27s+Technological+Capacity+to+Store%2C+Communicate%2C+and+Compute+Information&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6025&rft.pages=60-65&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1200970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206531385%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21310967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332...60H&rft.aulast=Hilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez%2C+Priscila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1200970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118072720/http://ideas.economist.com/video/giant-sifting-sound-0">"video animation"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ideas.economist.com/video/giant-sifting-sound-0">the original</a> on 18 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=video+animation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fideas.economist.com%2Fvideo%2Fgiant-sifting-sound-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plunkettresearch01-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch01_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100328045302/http://www.plunkettresearch.com/Telecommunications/TelecommunicationsStatistics/tabid/96/Default.aspx">"Worldwide Telecommunications Industry Revenues"</a>. <i>Plunkett's Telecommunications Industry Almanac 2010</i>. 1 June 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plunkettresearch.com/Telecommunications/TelecommunicationsStatistics/tabid/96/Default.aspx">the original</a> on 28 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Plunkett%27s+Telecommunications+Industry+Almanac+2010&rft.atitle=Worldwide+Telecommunications+Industry+Revenues&rft.date=2010-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plunkettresearch.com%2FTelecommunications%2FTelecommunicationsStatistics%2Ftabid%2F96%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plunkettresearch02-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-plunkettresearch02_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022031016/http://www.plunkettresearch.com/telecommunications-market-research/industry-and-business-data/statistics">"Introduction to the Telecommunications Industry"</a>. <i>Plunkett Research</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plunkettresearch.com/telecommunications-market-research/industry-and-business-data/statistics">the original</a> on 22 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Plunkett+Research&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Telecommunications+Industry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plunkettresearch.com%2Ftelecommunications-market-research%2Findustry-and-business-data%2Fstatistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stallings-intro-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stallings-intro_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaykin2001" class="citation book cs1">Haykin, Simon (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo"><i>Communication Systems</i></a></span> (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo/page/n21">1</a>–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17869-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17869-9"><bdi>978-0-471-17869-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Systems&rft.pages=1-3&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-17869-9&rft.aulast=Haykin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunicationsy000simo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ambardar-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ambardar_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbardar1999" class="citation book cs1">Ambardar, Ashok (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/analogdigitalsig00amba/page/1"><i>Analog and Digital Signal Processing</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Brooks. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/analogdigitalsig00amba/page/1">1–2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95409-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95409-3"><bdi>978-0-534-95409-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analog+and+Digital+Signal+Processing&rft.pages=1-2&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brooks&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-534-95409-3&rft.aulast=Ambardar&rft.aufirst=Ashok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanalogdigitalsig00amba%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conwire.com/coax-cable-rg-cable-blog">"Coax Cable FAQ Series: What is RG Cable? – Conwire"</a>. <i>Conwire</i>. 12 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808000629/http://www.conwire.com/coax-cable-rg-cable-blog">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conwire&rft.atitle=Coax+Cable+FAQ+Series%3A+What+is+RG+Cable%3F+%E2%80%93+Conwire&rft.date=2016-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conwire.com%2Fcoax-cable-rg-cable-blog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haykin, pp. 344–403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bluetooth.org/foundry/adopters/document/Core_v2.0_EDR/en/1/Core_v2.0_EDR.zip">Bluetooth Specification Version 2.0 + EDR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814042933/https://www.bluetooth.org/foundry/adopters/document/Core_v2.0_EDR/en/1/Core_v2.0_EDR.zip">Archived</a> 14 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (p. 27), Bluetooth, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haykin, pp. 88–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-glossary-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-glossary_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302071329/http://www.atis.org/tg2k/">"ATIS Telecom Glossary 2000"</a>. <i>ATIS Committee T1A1 Performance and Signal Processing (approved by the American National Standards Institute)</i>. 28 February 2001. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Effect+of+Income+Inequality+on+Mobile+Phone+Penetration&rft.inst=Boston+University&rft.date=2003-04&rft.au=Mireille+Samaan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdissertations.bc.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1016%26context%3Dashonors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRöllerLeonard_Waverman2001" class="citation journal cs1">Röller, Lars-Hendrik; Leonard Waverman (2001). 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It's a no-brainer to stop it, but nobody has"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230207232314/https://www.businessinsider.com/robocalls-medicare-fraud-how-to-stop-2023-2">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Robocallers+are+preying+on+the+elderly+with+fake+Medicare+calls.+It%27s+a+no-brainer+to+stop+it%2C+but+nobody+has.&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Madison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Frobocalls-medicare-fraud-how-to-stop-2023-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105399">"Affordable Broadband: FCC Could Improve Performance Goals and Measures, Consumer Outreach, and Fraud Risk Management"</a>. <i>www.gao.gov</i>. February 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208150801/https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105399">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gao.gov&rft.atitle=Affordable+Broadband%3A+FCC+Could+Improve+Performance+Goals+and+Measures%2C+Consumer+Outreach%2C+and+Fraud+Risk+Management&rft.date=2023-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fproducts%2Fgao-23-105399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur2009" class="citation news cs1">Arthur, Charles (4 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/mar/04/computing-windows-sales">"Why falling PC sales means Windows 7 is on the way"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170519070556/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/mar/04/computing-windows-sales">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Why+falling+PC+sales+means+Windows+7+is+on+the+way&rft.date=2009-03-04&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Arthur&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Fblog%2F2009%2Fmar%2F04%2Fcomputing-windows-sales&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palminfocenter.com/view_story.asp?ID=7978">"Mobile Phone Sales To Exceed One Billion in 2009"</a>. <i>Palm Infocenter</i>. 21 July 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180308042243/http://www.palminfocenter.com/view_story.asp?ID=7978">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palm+Infocenter&rft.atitle=Mobile+Phone+Sales+To+Exceed+One+Billion+in+2009&rft.date=2005-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palminfocenter.com%2Fview_story.asp%3FID%3D7978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReimer2005" class="citation web cs1">Reimer, Jeremy (15 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/">"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512015006/http://www.360doc.com/content/12/0124/10/28217_181627497.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Total+share%3A+30+years+of+personal+computer+market+share+figures&rft.date=2005-12-15&rft.aulast=Reimer&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ffeatures%2F2005%2F12%2Ftotal-share%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHackerBurghardtFletcherGordon2015" class="citation book cs1">Hacker, Michael; Burghardt, David; Fletcher, Linnea; Gordon, Anthony; Peruzzi, William (3 April 2015). <i>Engineering and Technology</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2002/0812edit.html">the original</a> on 6 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Network+World&rft.atitle=MPLS+is+the+future%2C+but+ATM+hangs+on&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Dix&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Fcolumnists%2F2002%2F0812edit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazar2011" class="citation news cs1">Lazar, Irwin (22 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402021712/http://www.telarus.com/industry/the-wan-road-ahead:-ethernet-or-bust.html">"The WAN Road Ahead: Ethernet or Bust?"</a>. <i>Telecom Industry Updates</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Telecom+Industry+Updates&rft.atitle=The+WAN+Road+Ahead%3A+Ethernet+or+Bust%3F&rft.date=2011-02-22&rft.aulast=Lazar&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telarus.com%2Findustry%2Fthe-wan-road-ahead%3A-ethernet-or-bust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm">"How Radio Works"</a>. <i>HowStuffWorks</i>. 7 December 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160102215734/http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=How+Radio+Works&rft.date=2000-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fradio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitaltv.com.au/">"Digital Television in Australia"</a>. <i>Digital Television News Australia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180312123813/https://digitaltv.com.au/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Television+News+Australia&rft.atitle=Digital+Television+in+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitaltv.com.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallings2004" class="citation book cs1">Stallings, William (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/datacomputercomm00stal_1"><i>Data and Computer Communications</i></a></span> (7th intl ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-183311-1"><bdi>978-0-13-183311-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+and+Computer+Communications&rft.edition=7th+intl&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-13-183311-1&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdatacomputercomm00stal_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623142640/http://www.dynamix.ca/doc/HDVhandbook1.pdf">"HDV Technology Handbook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a></i>. 2004. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dvb.org/technology/standards_specifications/audio/index.xml">the original</a> on 27 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Video+Broadcasting+Project&rft.atitle=Audio&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dvb.org%2Ftechnology%2Fstandards_specifications%2Faudio%2Findex.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721060832/http://www.worlddab.org/cstatus.aspx">"Status of DAB (US)"</a>. <i>World DAB Forum</i>. March 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worlddab.org/cstatus.aspx">the original</a> on 21 July 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+DAB+Forum&rft.atitle=Status+of+DAB+%28US%29&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddab.org%2Fcstatus.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Stelter2009" class="citation news cs1">Brian Stelter (13 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/14/business/media/14digital.html?_r=2&hp">"Changeover to Digital TV Off to a Smooth Start"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171214130110/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/14/business/media/14digital.html?_r=2&hp">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Changeover+to+Digital+TV+Off+to+a+Smooth+Start&rft.date=2009-06-13&rft.au=Brian+Stelter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F06%2F14%2Fbusiness%2Fmedia%2F14digital.html%3F_r%3D2%26hp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060621082027/http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.aspx">"DAB Products"</a>. <i>World DAB Forum</i>. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.aspx">the original</a> on 21 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+DAB+Forum&rft.atitle=DAB+Products&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddab.org%2Fdabprod.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahnCerf1999" class="citation web cs1">Kahn, Robert; Cerf, Vinton G. (December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/what_is_internet.html">"What Is The Internet (And What Makes It Work)"</a>. <i>Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170715105113/http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/what_is_internet.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corporation+for+National+Research+Initiatives+%28CNRI%29&rft.atitle=What+Is+The+Internet+%28And+What+Makes+It+Work%29&rft.date=1999-12&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Cerf%2C+Vinton+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnri.reston.va.us%2Fwhat_is_internet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span> Specifically see footnote xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeff_Tyson2007" class="citation web cs1">Jeff Tyson (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm">"How Internet Infrastructure Works"</a>. <i>Computer.HowStuffWorks.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100410162047/http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer.HowStuffWorks.com&rft.atitle=How+Internet+Infrastructure+Works&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Jeff+Tyson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomputer.howstuffworks.com%2Finternet-infrastructure.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202142301/http://internetworldstats.com/stats.htm">"World Internet Users and Population Stats"</a>. <i>Internet World Stats</i>. 30 June 2008. 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_HistoryoftheOSIReferenceModel.htm">"The TCP/IP Guide - History of the OSI Reference Model"</a>. <i>The TCP/IP Guide</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170904204159/http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_HistoryoftheOSIReferenceModel.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+TCP%2FIP+Guide&rft.atitle=The+TCP%2FIP+Guide+-+History+of+the+OSI+Reference+Model&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kozierok&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tcpipguide.com%2Ffree%2Ft_HistoryoftheOSIReferenceModel.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081013065951/http://www.microsoft.com/technet/itsolutions/network/ipv6/introipv6.mspx">"Introduction to IPv6"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Corporation">Microsoft Corporation</a></i>. February 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microsoft.com/technet/itsolutions/network/ipv6/introipv6.mspx">the original</a> on 13 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Corporation&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+IPv6&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Ftechnet%2Fitsolutions%2Fnetwork%2Fipv6%2Fintroipv6.mspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 683–702.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Dierks and C. Allen, The TLS Protocol Version 1.0, RFC 2246, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMultimedia2011" class="citation web cs1">Multimedia, Crucible (7 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telecomsadvice.org.uk/infosheets/voip_voice_over_internet_protocol_and_internet_telephony.htm">"VoIP, Voice over Internet Protocol and Internet telephone calls"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180124045522/http://www.telecomsadvice.org.uk/infosheets/voip_voice_over_internet_protocol_and_internet_telephony.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VoIP%2C+Voice+over+Internet+Protocol+and+Internet+telephone+calls&rft.date=2011-05-07&rft.aulast=Multimedia&rft.aufirst=Crucible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telecomsadvice.org.uk%2Finfosheets%2Fvoip_voice_over_internet_protocol_and_internet_telephony.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2000" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Michael (2000). "Understanding the Network". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090329054333/http://www.informit.com/content/images/0735709777/samplechapter/0735709777.pdf"><i>The Networker's Guide to AppleTalk, IPX, and NetBIOS</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. SAMS Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7357-0977-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7357-0977-7"><bdi>0-7357-0977-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informit.com/content/images/0735709777/samplechapter/0735709777.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Network&rft.btitle=The+Networker%27s+Guide+to+AppleTalk%2C+IPX%2C+and+NetBIOS&rft.pub=SAMS+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7357-0977-7&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informit.com%2Fcontent%2Fimages%2F0735709777%2Fsamplechapter%2F0735709777.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDroms2003" class="citation web cs1">Droms, Ralph (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704061131/http://www.dhcp.org/">"Resources for DHCP"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhcp.org/">the original</a> on 4 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resources+for+DHCP&rft.date=2003-11&rft.aulast=Droms&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhcp.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 500–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stallings, pp. 514–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arcelect.com/fibercable.htm">"Fiber Optic Cable single-mode multi-mode Tutorial"</a>. <i>ARC Electronics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181023040952/https://arcelect.com/fibercable.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ARC+Electronics&rft.atitle=Fiber+Optic+Cable+single-mode+multi-mode+Tutorial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farcelect.com%2Ffibercable.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelecommunications" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Goggin" title="Gerard Goggin">Goggin, Gerard</a>, <i>Global Mobile Media</i> (New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 176. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46918-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46918-0">978-0-415-46918-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">OECD</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WpmzcqmgMbAC&q=universal+service+and+rate+restructuring+in+telecommunications"><i>Universal Service and Rate Restructuring in Telecommunications</i></a>, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Publishing, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-13497-2" title="Special:BookSources/92-64-13497-2">92-64-13497-2</a>.</li> <li>Wheen, Andrew. <i>Dot-Dash to Dot.Com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet</i> (Springer, 2011).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itc-conference.org/">International Teletraffic Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itu.int">International Telecommunication Union (ITU)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302071329/http://www.atis.org/tg2k/">ATIS Telecom Glossary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/">Federal Communications Commission</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.comsoc.org/">IEEE Communications Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itu.int/home/">International Telecommunication Union</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040413074912/http://www.ericsson.com/support/telecom/index.shtml">Ericsson's Understanding Telecommunications</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 13 April 2004) (Ericsson removed the book from their site in September 2005)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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selflink">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication_studies" title="Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies" title="Template talk:Communication studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communication_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and<br /> terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Telecommunications_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications in Africa</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eswatini" title="Telecommunications in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Melilla">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Madeira">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications in Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Myanmar" title="Telecommunications in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Europe">Telecommunications in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guernsey" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunications in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tokelau" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications_in_South_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:South_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:South America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Telecommunications in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunications in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Telecommunications</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Telecommunications">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Telecommunications">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Telecommunications">News</a></b> from Wikinews</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Telecommunication" class="extiw" title="q:Telecommunication">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Telecommunications">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Telecommunication" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Telecommunication">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Telecommunications">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418" class="extiw" title="d:Q418">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1145830/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Telekommunikation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4059360-5">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85133270">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119335984">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119335984">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561375">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="telekomunikace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116420&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525038">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565815105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/010474">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10643335">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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