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J. Thomsen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_three-age_system_of_C._J._Thomsen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stone_Age_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone_Age_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Stone Age subdivisions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Stone_Age_subdivisions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Stone Age subdivisions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Stone_Age_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_savagery_and_civilization_of_Sir_John_Lubbock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_savagery_and_civilization_of_Sir_John_Lubbock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The savagery and civilization of Sir John Lubbock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_savagery_and_civilization_of_Sir_John_Lubbock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_elusive_Mesolithic_of_Hodder_Westropp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_elusive_Mesolithic_of_Hodder_Westropp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The elusive Mesolithic of Hodder Westropp</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_elusive_Mesolithic_of_Hodder_Westropp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piette_finds_the_Mesolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piette_finds_the_Mesolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Piette finds the Mesolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piette_finds_the_Mesolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Epipaleolithic_and_Protoneolithic_of_Stjerna_and_Obermaier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Epipaleolithic_and_Protoneolithic_of_Stjerna_and_Obermaier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The Epipaleolithic and Protoneolithic of Stjerna and Obermaier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Epipaleolithic_and_Protoneolithic_of_Stjerna_and_Obermaier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower,_middle_and_upper_from_Haeckel_to_Sollas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower,_middle_and_upper_from_Haeckel_to_Sollas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Lower, middle and upper from Haeckel to Sollas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower,_middle_and_upper_from_Haeckel_to_Sollas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_and_late_from_Worsaae_through_the_three-stage_African_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_and_late_from_Worsaae_through_the_three-stage_African_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Early and late from Worsaae through the three-stage African system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_and_late_from_Worsaae_through_the_three-stage_African_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wallace's_grand_revolution_recycled" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wallace's_grand_revolution_recycled"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Wallace's grand revolution recycled</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wallace's_grand_revolution_recycled-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vere_Gordon_Childe's_revolution_for_the_masses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vere_Gordon_Childe's_revolution_for_the_masses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Vere Gordon Childe's revolution for the masses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vere_Gordon_Childe's_revolution_for_the_masses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Pre-pottery_Neolithic_of_Garstang_and_Kenyon_at_Jericho" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pre-pottery_Neolithic_of_Garstang_and_Kenyon_at_Jericho"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>The Pre-pottery Neolithic of Garstang and Kenyon at Jericho</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pre-pottery_Neolithic_of_Garstang_and_Kenyon_at_Jericho-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bronze Age subdivisions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bronze_Age_subdivisions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bronze Age subdivisions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_tripartite_system_of_Sir_John_Evans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_tripartite_system_of_Sir_John_Evans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The tripartite system of Sir John Evans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_tripartite_system_of_Sir_John_Evans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_Evans'_gratuitous_Copper_Age_to_the_mythical_chalcolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Evans'_gratuitous_Copper_Age_to_the_mythical_chalcolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>From Evans' gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Evans'_gratuitous_Copper_Age_to_the_mythical_chalcolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>End of the Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dating</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dating-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dating subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grand_systems_of_layering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_systems_of_layering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Grand systems of layering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_systems_of_layering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_of_chemical_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_of_chemical_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Measurement of chemical change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_of_chemical_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_-liths_and_-lithics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_-liths_and_-lithics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other -liths and -lithics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_-liths_and_-lithics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-age_system_resumptive_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-age_system_resumptive_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Three-age system resumptive table</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-age_system_resumptive_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unsound_epochalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unsound_epochalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Unsound epochalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unsound_epochalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Over-simplification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Over-simplification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Over-simplification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Over-simplification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eurocentrism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eurocentrism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Eurocentrism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eurocentrism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox 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Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB" title="نظام العصور الثلاث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام العصور الثلاث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oadvezhio%C3%B9_ragistorel" title="Oadvezhioù ragistorel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Oadvezhioù ragistorel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_les_tres_edats" title="Sistema de les tres edats – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema de les tres edats" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99%C3%ADdob%C3%A1_periodizace_prav%C4%9Bk%C3%BDch_d%C4%9Bjin" title="Třídobá periodizace pravěkých dějin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Třídobá periodizace pravěkých dějin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treperiodesystemet" title="Treperiodesystemet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Treperiodesystemet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreiperiodensystem" title="Dreiperiodensystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dreiperiodensystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Σύστημα τριών εποχών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύστημα τριών εποχών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_edades" title="Tres edades – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tres edades" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-epoka_sistemo" title="Tri-epoka sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tri-epoka sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiru_adinen_sistema" title="Hiru adinen sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiru adinen sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="تقسیم‌بندی سه‌گانه اعصار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تقسیم‌بندی سه‌گانه اعصار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82ges_pr%C3%A9historiques" title="Âges préhistoriques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Âges préhistoriques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trijeperioadesysteem" title="Trijeperioadesysteem – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Trijeperioadesysteem" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3ras_na_dtr%C3%AD_aois" title="Córas na dtrí aois – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Córas na dtrí aois" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_idades" title="Tres idades – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tres idades" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80_%EC%B2%B4%EA%B3%84" title="세 시대 체계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세 시대 체계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="त्रियुग पद्धति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="त्रियुग पद्धति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalno_doba" title="Metalno doba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Metalno doba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eriggja_alda_kerfi%C3%B0" title="Þriggja alda kerfið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þriggja alda kerfið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_delle_tre_et%C3%A0" title="Sistema delle tre età – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema delle tre età" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מערכת שלוש התקופות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת שלוש התקופות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergala_s%C3%AA_serdem%C3%AE" title="Pergala sê serdemî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pergala sê serdemî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A9_di_Metai" title="Eté di Metai – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Eté di Metai" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_aetatum_trium" title="Systema aetatum trium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema aetatum trium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C4%ABs_laikmetu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Trīs laikmetu sistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Trīs laikmetu sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Трипериоден систем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Трипериоден систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drieperiodensysteem" title="Drieperiodensysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Drieperiodensysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treperiodesystemet" title="Treperiodesystemet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Treperiodesystemet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%90_%DA%AB%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%90%D8%B4" title="انساني دورو درې ګونی وېش – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انساني دورو درې ګونی وېش" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala_%C3%ABd_temp_%C3%ABd_le_tre_et%C3%A0" title="Scala ëd temp ëd le tre età – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Scala ëd temp ëd le tre età" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_Tr%C3%AAs_Idades" title="Sistema de Três Idades – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de Três Idades" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemul_celor_trei_epoci" title="Sistemul celor trei epoci – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistemul celor trei epoci" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA" title="යුගත්‍ර න්‍යාය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුගත්‍ර න්‍යාය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Three-age system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kovinska_doba" title="Kovinska doba – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kovinska doba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Трипериодни систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трипериодни систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalno_doba" title="Metalno doba – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Metalno doba" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treperiodsystemet" title="Treperiodsystemet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Treperiodsystemet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C3%A7a%C4%9F_sistemi" title="Üç çağ sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Üç çağ sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Археологічна періодизація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Археологічна періодизація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Stone, bronze and iron ages of pre-history</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses of Three Ages, see <a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Three Ages (disambiguation)">Three Ages (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JomonPottery.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/JomonPottery.JPG/220px-JomonPottery.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/JomonPottery.JPG/330px-JomonPottery.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/JomonPottery.JPG/440px-JomonPottery.JPG 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="1037" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_period" title="Jōmon period">Jōmon</a> pottery, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Paleolithic" title="Japanese Paleolithic">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvognen-00100.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Solvognen-00100.jpg/220px-Solvognen-00100.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Solvognen-00100.jpg/330px-Solvognen-00100.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Solvognen-00100.jpg/440px-Solvognen-00100.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6088" data-file-height="4550" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Trundholm_sun_chariot" title="Trundholm sun chariot">Trundholm sun chariot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum,_Jerusalem.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/220px-House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/330px-House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/440px-House_keys._Nahal_Hever._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Iron Age</a> house keys <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Letters" title="Cave of Letters">Cave of Letters</a>,<br /> <i>Nahal Hever Canyon</i>, <a href="/wiki/Israel_Museum" title="Israel Museum">Israel Museum</a>, Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>three-age system</b> is the periodization of human <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> (with some overlap into the <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">historical periods</a> in a few regions) into three time-periods: the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the concept may also refer to other tripartite divisions of historic time periods. In history, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a>, the three-age system is a methodological concept adopted during the 19th century according to which artefacts and events of late prehistory and early history could be broadly ordered into a recognizable chronology. <a href="/wiki/Christian_J%C3%BCrgensen_Thomsen" title="Christian Jürgensen Thomsen">C. J. Thomsen</a> initially developed this categorization in the period 1816 to 1825, as a result of classifying the collection of an archaeological exhibition chronologically – there resulted broad sequences with artefacts made successively of <a href="/wiki/Stone_artefact" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone artefact">stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>. </p><p>The system appealed to British researchers working in the "science" of <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a> – they adopted it to establish <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> sequences for Britain's past based on <a href="/wiki/Cranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranium">cranial</a> types. Although the craniological ethnology that formed its first scholarly context does not have modern scientific value, the <i>relative chronology</i> of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age remains in use in a general public context,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the three-ages concept underpins prehistoric chronology for Europe, the Mediterranean world and the Near East.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure reflects the cultural and historical background of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Mediterranean Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. It soon underwent further subdivisions, including the 1865 partitioning of the Stone Age into <a href="/wiki/Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic">Palaeolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> periods by <a href="/wiki/John_Lubbock,_1st_Baron_Avebury" title="John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury">John Lubbock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The schema, however, has little or no utility for establishing chronological frameworks in sub-Saharan Africa, much of Asia, the Americas, and some other areas; and has little importance in contemporary archaeological or anthropological discussion for these regions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a><br /><span style="font-size:80%;">and <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <span style="font-size:120%">↑</span> <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">before <i>Homo</i></a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nowrap">  </span>(<a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene epoch</a>)</span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></dt> <dd> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a></dt> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></li></ul></div></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Early <i>Homo sapiens</i></a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epipalaeolithic" title="Epipalaeolithic">Epipalaeolithic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a></li></ul></div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East#Bronze_Age" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">South Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age#East_Asia" title="Bronze Age">East Asia</a></li></ul></div></dd> <dd><i><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Bronze Age collapse</a> </i></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East#Iron_Age" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">South Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Southeast Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age#East_Asia" title="Iron Age">East Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">West Africa</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></dt> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li></ul></div></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></dt> <dt><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern history</a></dt> <dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;background:#efefef;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nowrap">  </span>(<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene epoch</a>)</span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history_and_prehistory" title="Template:Human history and prehistory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history_and_prehistory" title="Template talk:Human history and prehistory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history_and_prehistory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history and prehistory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of dividing pre-historical ages into systems based on metals extends far back in <a href="/wiki/European_history" class="mw-redirect" title="European history">European history</a>, probably originated by <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> in the first century BC. But the present archaeological system of the three main ages – stone, bronze and iron – originates with the 19th century Danish archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Christian_J%C3%BCrgensen_Thomsen" title="Christian Jürgensen Thomsen">Christian Jürgensen Thomsen</a>, who placed the system on a more scientific basis by typological and chronological studies, at first, of tools and other <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> present in the Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen (later the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Denmark" title="National Museum of Denmark">National Museum of Denmark</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later used artifacts and the excavation reports published or sent to him by Danish archaeologists who were doing controlled excavations. His position as curator of the museum gave him enough visibility to become highly influential on Danish archaeology. A well-known and well-liked figure, he explained his system in person to visitors at the museum, many of them professional archaeologists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Metallic_Ages_of_Hesiod">The Metallic Ages of Hesiod</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Metallic Ages of Hesiod"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg/170px-Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg/255px-Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg/340px-Hesiod_and_the_Muse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>Hesiod inspired by the Muse, <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Moreau" title="Gustave Moreau">Gustave Moreau</a>, 1891</figcaption></figure> <p>In his poem <i><a href="/wiki/Works_and_Days" title="Works and Days">Works and Days</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>, possibly between 750 and 650 BC, defined five successive <a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a>: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the Bronze Age and the Iron Age are based on the use of metal:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>... then Zeus the father created the third generation of mortals, the age of bronze ... They were terrible and strong, and the ghastly action of Ares was theirs, and violence. ... The weapons of these men were bronze, of bronze their houses, and they worked as bronzesmiths. There was not yet any black iron.</p></blockquote> <p>Hesiod knew from the traditional poetry, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i>, and the heirloom bronze artifacts that abounded in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek society</a>, that before the use of iron to make tools and weapons, bronze had been the preferred material and iron was not smelted at all. He did not continue the manufacturing metaphor, but mixed his metaphors, switching over to the market value of each metal. Iron was cheaper than bronze, so there must have been a golden and a silver age. He portrays a sequence of metallic ages, but it is a degradation rather than a progression. Each age has less of a moral value than the preceding.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of his own age he says:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "And I wish that I were not any part of the fifth generation of men, but had died before it came, or had been born afterward." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Progress_of_Lucretius">The Progress of Lucretius</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Progress of Lucretius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The moral metaphor of the ages of metals continued. <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, however, replaced moral degradation with the concept of progress,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he conceived to be like the growth of an individual human being. The concept is evolutionary:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>For the nature of the world as a whole is altered by age. Everything must pass through successive phases. Nothing remains forever what it was. Everything is on the move. Everything is transformed by nature and forced into new paths ... The Earth passes through successive phases, so that it can no longer bear what it could, and it can now what it could not before.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg/220px-Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="440" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg/330px-Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg/440px-Lucretius_De_Rerum_Natura_1675_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Page 1 Chapter 1 of <i>De Rerum Natura</i>, 1675, dedicating the poem to <i>Alma Venus</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans believed that animal species and humans were spontaneously generated from the materials of the Earth, because of which the Latin word <i>mater</i>, "mother", descends to English-speakers as matter and material. In Lucretius the Earth is a mother, Venus, to whom the poem is dedicated in the first few lines. She brought forth humankind by spontaneous generation. Having been given birth as a species, humans must grow to maturity by analogy with the individual. The different phases of their collective life are marked by the accumulation of customs to form material civilization:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The earliest weapons were hands, nails and teeth. Next came stones and branches wrenched from trees, and fire and flame as soon as these were discovered. Then men learnt to use tough iron and copper. With copper they tilled the soil. With copper they whipped up the clashing waves of war, ... Then by slow degrees the iron sword came to the fore; the bronze sickle fell into disrepute; the ploughman began to cleave the earth with iron, ...</p></blockquote> <p>Lucretius envisioned a pre-technological human that was "far tougher than the men of today ... They lived out their lives in the fashion of wild beasts roaming at large."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next stage was the use of huts, fire, clothing, language and the family. City-states, kings and citadels followed them. Lucretius supposes that the initial smelting of metal occurred accidentally in forest fires. The use of copper followed the use of stones and branches and preceded the use of iron. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_lithic_analysis_by_Michele_Mercati">Early lithic analysis by Michele Mercati</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early lithic analysis by Michele Mercati"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Specola,_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG/220px-Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG/330px-Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG/440px-Specola%2C_medaglione_di_michele_mercati.JPG 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Michele Mercati, Commemorative Medal</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 16th century, a tradition had developed based on observational incidents, true or false, that the black objects found widely scattered in large quantities over Europe had fallen from the sky during thunderstorms and were therefore to be considered generated by lightning. They were so published by <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Gessner" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad Gessner">Konrad Gessner</a> in <i>De rerum fossilium, lapidum et gemmarum maxime figuris & similitudinibus</i> at Zurich in 1565 and by many others less famous.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name ceraunia, "thunderstones", had been assigned. </p><p>Ceraunia were collected by many persons over the centuries including <a href="/wiki/Michele_Mercati" title="Michele Mercati">Michele Mercati</a>, Superintendent of the Vatican Botanical Garden in the late 16th century. He brought his collection of fossils and stones to the Vatican, where he studied them at leisure, compiling the results in a manuscript, which was published posthumously by the Vatican at Rome in 1717 as <i>Metallotheca</i>. Mercati was interested in Ceraunia cuneata, "wedge-shaped thunderstones", which seemed to him to be most like axes and arrowheads, which he now called ceraunia vulgaris, "folk thunderstones", distinguishing his view from the popular one.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His view was based on what may be the first in-depth <a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">lithic analysis</a> of the objects in his collection, which led him to believe that they are artifacts and to suggest that the historical evolution of these artefacts followed a scheme. </p><p>Mercati, examining the surfaces of the ceraunia, noted that the stones were of flint and that they had been chipped all over by another stone to achieve by percussion their current forms. The protrusion at the bottom he identified as the attachment point of a haft. Concluding that these objects were not ceraunia, he compared collections to determine exactly what they were. Vatican collections included artifacts from the New World of exactly the shapes of the supposed ceraunia. The reports of the explorers had identified them to be implements and weapons or parts of them.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mercati posed the question to himself, why would anyone prefer to manufacture artefacts of stone rather than of metal, a superior material?<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His answer was that metallurgy was unknown at that time. He cited Biblical passages to prove that in Biblical times stone was the first material used. He also revived the three-age system of Lucretius, which described a succession of periods based on the use of stone (and wood), bronze and iron respectively. Due to lateness of publication, Mercati's ideas were already being developed independently; however, his writing served as a further stimulus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_usages_of_Mahudel_and_de_Jussieu">The usages of Mahudel and de Jussieu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The usages of Mahudel and de Jussieu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 12 November 1734, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mahudel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Mahudel">Nicholas Mahudel</a>, physician, <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarian</a> and numismatist, read a paper at a public sitting of the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres" title="Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres">Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</a> in which he defined three "usages" of stone, bronze and iron in a chronological sequence. He had presented the paper several times that year but it was rejected until the November revision was finally accepted and published by the academy in 1740. It was entitled <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Les Monumens les plus anciens de l'industrie des hommes, et des Arts reconnus dans les Pierres de Foudres</i></span><i>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It expanded the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Jussieu" title="Antoine de Jussieu">Antoine de Jussieu</a>, who had gotten a paper accepted in 1723 entitled <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">De l'Origine et des usages de la Pierre de Foudre</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mahudel, there is not just one usage for stone, but two more, one each for bronze and iron. </p><p>He begins his treatise with descriptions and classifications of the <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Pierres de Tonnerre et de Foudre</i></span></i>, the ceraunia of contemporaneous European interest. After cautioning the audience that natural and man-made objects are often easily confused, he asserts that the specific "<i>figures</i>" or "formes that can be distinguished (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">formes qui les font distingues</i></span></i>)" of the stones were man-made, not natural:<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>It was Man's hand that made them serve as instruments (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">C'est la main des hommes qui les leur a données pour servir d'instrumens...</i></span></i>)</p></blockquote> <p>Their cause, he asserts, is "the industry of our forefathers (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">l'industrie de nos premiers pères</i></span></i>)." He adds later that bronze and iron implements imitate the uses of the stone ones, suggesting a replacement of stone with metals. Mahudel is careful not to take credit for the idea of a succession of usages in time but states: "it is Michel Mercatus, physician of Clement VIII who first had this idea".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He does not coin a term for ages, but speaks only of the times of usages. His use of <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">l'industrie</i></span></i> foreshadows the 20th century "industries", but where the moderns mean specific tool traditions, Mahudel meant only the art of working stone and metal in general. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_three-age_system_of_C._J._Thomsen">The three-age system of C. J. Thomsen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The three-age system of C. J. Thomsen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomsen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thomsen.jpg/250px-Thomsen.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="363" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thomsen.jpg/375px-Thomsen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thomsen.jpg/500px-Thomsen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Thomsen explaining the Three-age System to visitors at the Museum of Northern Antiquities, then at the Christiansborg Palace, in Copenhagen, 1846. Drawing by Magnus Petersen, Thomsen's illustrator.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>An important step in the development of the Three-age System came in the period 1816–1825 when the Danish antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Christian_J%C3%BCrgensen_Thomsen" title="Christian Jürgensen Thomsen">Christian Jürgensen Thomsen</a> was able to use the Danish national collection of antiquities and the records of their finds as well as reports from contemporaneous excavations to provide a solid empirical basis for the system. He showed that artefacts could be classified into types and that these types varied over time in ways that correlated with the predominance of stone, bronze or iron implements and weapons. In this way he turned the Three-age System from being an evolutionary scheme based on intuition and general knowledge into a system of relative <a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">chronology</a> supported by archaeological evidence. Initially, the three-age system as it was developed by Thomsen and his contemporaries in Scandinavia, such as <a href="/wiki/Sven_Nilsson_(zoologist)" title="Sven Nilsson (zoologist)">Sven Nilsson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jens_Jacob_Asmussen_Worsaae" title="Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae">J.J.A. Worsaae</a>, was grafted onto the traditional biblical chronology. But, during the 1830s they achieved independence from textual chronologies and relied mainly on <a href="/wiki/Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">typology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1816 Thomsen at age 27 was appointed to succeed the retiring Rasmus Nyerup as Secretary of the <i>Kongelige Commission for Oldsagers Opbevaring</i><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("Royal Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities"), which had been founded in 1807.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The post was unsalaried; Thomsen had independent means. At his appointment Bishop Münter said that he was an "amateur with a great range of accomplishments." Between 1816 and 1819 he reorganized the commission's collection of antiquities. In 1819 he opened the first Museum of Northern Antiquities, in Copenhagen, in a former monastery, to house the collections.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It later became the National Museum. </p><p>Like the other antiquarians Thomsen undoubtedly knew of the three-age model of prehistory through the works of <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, the Dane Vedel Simonsen, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Montfaucon" title="Bernard de Montfaucon">Montfaucon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahudel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahudel">Mahudel</a>. Sorting the material in the collection chronologically<sup id="cite_ref-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he mapped out which kinds of artefacts co-occurred in deposits and which did not, as this arrangement would allow him to discern any trends that were exclusive to certain periods. In this way he discovered that stone tools did not co-occur with bronze or iron in the earliest deposits while subsequently bronze did not co-occur with iron – so that three periods could be defined by their available materials, stone, bronze and iron. </p><p>To Thomsen the find circumstances were the key to dating. In 1821 he wrote in a letter to fellow prehistorian Schröder:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>nothing is more important than to point out that hitherto we have not paid enough attention to what was found together.</p></blockquote> <p>and in 1822: </p> <blockquote><p>we still do not know enough about most of the antiquities either; ... only future archaeologists may be able to decide, but they will never be able to do so if they do not observe what things are found together and our collections are not brought to a greater degree of perfection.</p></blockquote> <p>This analysis emphasizing co-occurrence and systematic attention to archaeological context allowed Thomsen to build a chronological framework of the materials in the collection and to classify new finds in relation to the established chronology, even without much knowledge of their provenience. In this way, Thomsen's system was a true chronological system rather than an evolutionary or technological system.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exactly when his chronology was reasonably well established is not clear, but by 1825 visitors to the museum were being instructed in his methods.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that year also he wrote to J.G.G. Büsching:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>To put artifacts in their proper context I consider it most important to pay attention to the chronological sequence, and I believe that the old idea of first stone, then copper, and finally iron, appears to be ever more firmly established as far as Scandinavia is concerned.</p></blockquote> <p>By 1831 Thomsen was so certain of the utility of his methods that he circulated a pamphlet, <i>Scandinavian Artefacts and Their Preservation</i>, advising archaeologists to "observe the greatest care" to note the context of each artifact. The pamphlet had an immediate effect. Results reported to him confirmed the universality of the Three-age System. Thomsen also published in 1832 and 1833 articles in the <i>Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed</i>, "Scandinavian Journal of Archaeology".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He already had an international reputation when in 1836 the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries published his illustrated contribution to "Guide to Scandinavian Archaeology" in which he put forth his chronology together with comments about typology and stratigraphy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg/250px-Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg/375px-Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg/500px-Casa_reconstruida_do_castro_de_Santa_Tegra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3279" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed Iron Age home in Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomsen was the first to perceive typologies of grave goods, grave types, methods of burial, pottery and decorative motifs, and to assign these types to layers found in excavation. His published and personal advice to Danish archaeologists concerning the best methods of excavation produced immediate results that not only verified his system empirically but placed Denmark in the forefront of European archaeology for at least a generation. He became a national authority when C.C Rafn,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> secretary of the <i>Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab</i> ("Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries"), published his principal manuscript<sup id="cite_ref-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <i>Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed</i> ("Guide to Scandinavian Archaeology")<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1836. The system has since been expanded by further subdivision of each era, and refined through further archaeological and anthropological finds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stone_Age_subdivisions">Stone Age subdivisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stone Age subdivisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_savagery_and_civilization_of_Sir_John_Lubbock">The savagery and civilization of Sir John Lubbock</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The savagery and civilization of Sir John Lubbock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was to be a full generation before British archaeology caught up with the Danish. When it did, the leading figure was another multi-talented man of independent means: <a href="/wiki/John_Lubbock,_1st_Baron_Avebury" title="John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury">John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury</a>. After reviewing the Three-age System from Lucretius to Thomsen, Lubbock improved it and took it to another level, that of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>. Thomsen had been concerned with techniques of archaeological classification. Lubbock found correlations with the customs of savages and civilization. </p><p> In his 1865 book, <i>Prehistoric Times</i>, Lubbock divided the Stone Age in Europe, and possibly nearer Asia and Africa, into the <a href="/wiki/Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic">Palaeolithic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman"><li>"That of the Drift... This we may call the 'Palaeolithic' Period."</li><li>"The later, or polished Stone Age ... in which, however, we find no trace ... of any metal, excepting gold, ... This we may call the 'Neolithic' Period."</li><li>"The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds."</li><li>"The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze."</li></ol></div> </blockquote> <p>By "drift" Lubbock meant river-drift, the alluvium deposited by a river. For the interpretation of Palaeolithic artifacts, Lubbock, pointing out that the times are beyond the reach of history and tradition, suggests an analogy, which was adopted by the anthropologists. Just as the paleontologist uses modern elephants to help reconstruct fossil pachyderms, so the archaeologist is justified in using the customs of the "non-metallic savages" of today to understand "the early races which inhabited our continent."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He devotes three chapters to this approach, covering the "modern savages" of the Indian and Pacific Oceans and the Western Hemisphere, concluding:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Perhaps it will be thought<span class="nowrap"> </span>... I have selected<span class="nowrap"> </span>... the passages most unfavorable to savages.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... In reality the very reverse is the case.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Their real condition is even worse and more abject than that which I have endeavoured to depict.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_elusive_Mesolithic_of_Hodder_Westropp">The elusive Mesolithic of Hodder Westropp</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The elusive Mesolithic of Hodder Westropp"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png/170px-Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="618" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png/255px-Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png/340px-Arp%C3%B3n_con_microlitos.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="2204" /></a><figcaption>Bone harpoon studded with microliths, a Mode 5 composite hunting implement</figcaption></figure> <p>Sir John Lubbock's use of the terms Palaeolithic ("Old Stone Age") and Neolithic ("New Stone Age") were immediately popular. They were applied, however, in two different senses: geologic and anthropologic. In 1867–68 <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> in 20 public lectures in <a href="/wiki/Jena" title="Jena">Jena</a>, entitled <i>General Morphology</i>, to be published in 1870, referred to the Archaeolithic, the Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic and the Caenolithic as periods in geologic history.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He could only have got these terms from Hodder Westropp, who took Palaeolithic from Lubbock, invented Mesolithic ("Middle Stone Age") and Caenolithic instead of Lubbock's Neolithic. None of these terms appear anywhere, including the writings of Haeckel, before 1865. Haeckel's use was innovative. </p><p>Westropp first used Mesolithic and Caenolithic in 1865, almost immediately after the publication of Lubbock's first edition. He read a paper on the topic before the <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_London" title="Anthropological Society of London">Anthropological Society of London</a> in 1865, published in 1866 in the <i>Memoirs</i>. After asserting:<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Man, in all ages and in all stages of his development, is a tool-making animal.</p></blockquote> <p>Westropp goes on to define "different epochs of flint, stone, bronze or iron; ..." He never did distinguish the flint from the Stone Age (having realized they were one and the same), but he divided the Stone Age as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>"The flint implements of the gravel-drift"</li> <li>"The flint implements found in Ireland and Denmark"</li> <li>"Polished stone implements"</li></ol> <p>These three ages were named respectively the Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic and the Kainolithic. He was careful to qualify these by stating:<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Their presence is thus not always an evidence of a high antiquity, but of an early and barbarous state; ...</p></blockquote> <p>Lubbock's savagery was now Westropp's barbarism. A fuller exposition of the Mesolithic waited for his book, <i>Pre-Historic Phases</i>, dedicated to Sir John Lubbock, published in 1872. At that time he restored Lubbock's Neolithic and defined a Stone Age divided into three phases and five stages. </p><p>The First Stage, "Implements of the Gravel Drift", contains implements that were "roughly knocked into shape".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His illustrations show Mode 1 and Mode 2 <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, basically Acheulean handaxes. Today they are in the Lower Palaeolithic. </p><p>The Second Stage, "Flint Flakes" are of the "simplest form" and were struck off cores.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Westropp differs in this definition from the modern, as Mode 2 contains flakes for scrapers and similar tools. His illustrations, however, show Modes 3 and 4, of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. His extensive lithic analysis leaves no doubt. They are, however, part of Westropp's Mesolithic. </p><p>The Third Stage, "a more advanced stage" in which "flint flakes were carefully chipped into shape", produced small arrowheads from shattering a piece of flint into "a hundred pieces", selecting the most suitable and working it with a punch.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The illustrations show that he had microliths, or Mode 5 tools in mind. His Mesolithic is therefore partly the same as the modern. </p><p>The Fourth Stage is a part of the Neolithic that is transitional to the Fifth Stage: axes with ground edges leading to implements totally ground and polished. Westropp's agriculture is removed to the Bronze Age, while his Neolithic is pastoral. The Mesolithic is reserved to hunters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piette_finds_the_Mesolithic">Piette finds the Mesolithic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Piette finds the Mesolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG/220px-Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG/330px-Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG/440px-Mas-d%27Azil-grotte_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mas-d%27Azil" class="mw-redirect" title="Mas-d'Azil">Mas-d'Azil</a> Grotto</figcaption></figure> <p>In that same year, 1872, Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Evans_(archaeologist)" title="John Evans (archaeologist)">John Evans</a> produced a massive work, <i>The Ancient Stone Implements</i>, in which he in effect repudiated the Mesolithic, making a point to ignore it, denying it by name in later editions. He wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Sir John Lubbock has proposed to call them the Archaeolithic, or Palaeolithic, and the Neolithic Periods respectively, terms which have met with almost general acceptance, and of which I shall avail myself in the course of this work.</p></blockquote> <p>Evans did not, however, follow Lubbock's general trend, which was typological classification. He chose instead to use type of find site as the main criterion, following Lubbock's descriptive terms, such as tools of the drift. Lubbock had identified drift sites as containing Palaeolithic material. Evans added to them the cave sites. Opposed to drift and cave were the surface sites, where chipped and ground tools often occurred in unlayered contexts. Evans decided he had no choice but to assign them all to the most recent. He therefore consigned them to the Neolithic and used the term "Surface Period" for it. </p><p>Having read Westropp, Sir John knew perfectly well that all the former's Mesolithic implements were surface finds. He used his prestige to quell the concept of Mesolithic as best he could, but the public could see that his methods were not typological. The less prestigious scientists publishing in the smaller journals continued to look for a Mesolithic. For example, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Taylor_(canon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Taylor (canon)">Isaac Taylor</a> in <i>The Origin of the Aryans</i>, 1889, mentions the Mesolithic but briefly, asserting, however, that it formed "a transition between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Periods".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Sir John fought on, opposing the Mesolithic by name as late as the 1897 edition of his work. </p><p>Meanwhile, Haeckel had totally abandoned the geologic uses of the -lithic terms. The concepts of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic had originated in the early 19th century and were gradually becoming coin of the geologic realm. Realizing he was out of step, Haeckel started to transition to the -zoic system as early as 1876 in <i>The History of Creation</i>, placing the -zoic form in parentheses next to the -lithic form.<sup id="cite_ref-Haeckel15_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haeckel15-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gauntlet was officially thrown down before Sir John by J. Allen Brown, speaking for the opposition before the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Anthropological_Institute_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland">Anthropological Institute</a> on 8 March 1892. In the journal he opens the attack by striking at a "hiatus" in the record:<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>It has been generally assumed that a break occurred between the period during which ... the continent of Europe was inhabited by Palaeolithic Man and his Neolithic successor ... No physical cause, no adequate reasons have ever been assigned for such a hiatus in human existence ...</p></blockquote> <p>The main hiatus at that time was between British and French archaeology, as the latter had already discovered the gap 20 years earlier and had already considered three answers and arrived at one solution, the modern. Whether Brown did not know or was pretending not to know is unclear. In 1872, the very year of Evans' publication, <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Mortillet" title="Gabriel de Mortillet">Gabriel de Mortillet</a> had presented the gap to the Congrès international d'Anthropologie at <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Piette236_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piette236-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic, there is a wide and deep gap, a large hiatus.</p></blockquote> <p>Apparently prehistoric man was hunting big game with stone tools one year and farming with domestic animals and ground stone tools the next. Mortillet postulated a "time then unknown (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">époque alors inconnue</i></span>)" to fill the gap. The hunt for the "unknown" was on. On 16 April 1874, Mortillet retracted.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "That hiatus is not real (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Cet hiatus n'est pas réel</i></span></i>)," he said before the <i>Société d'Anthropologie</i>, asserting that it was an informational gap only. The other theory had been a gap in nature, that, because of the ice age, man had retreated from Europe. The information must now be found. In 1895 <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Piette" title="Édouard Piette">Édouard Piette</a> stated that he had heard <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Lartet" title="Édouard Lartet">Édouard Lartet</a> speak of "the remains from the intermediate period (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">les vestiges de l'époque intermédiaire</i></span></i>)", which were yet to be discovered, but Lartet had not published this view.<sup id="cite_ref-Piette236_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piette236-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gap had become a transition. However, asserted Piette:<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>I was fortunate to discover the remains of that unknown time which separated the Magdalenian age from that of polished stone axes ... it was, at <a href="/wiki/Mas-d%27Azil" class="mw-redirect" title="Mas-d'Azil">Mas-d'Azil</a> in 1887 and 1888 when I made this discovery.</p></blockquote> <p>He had excavated the type site of the <a href="/wiki/Azilian" title="Azilian">Azilian</a> Culture, the basis of today's Mesolithic. He found it sandwiched between the Magdalenian and the Neolithic. The tools were like those of the Danish <a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">kitchen-middens</a>, termed the Surface Period by Evans, which were the basis of Westropp's Mesolithic. They were Mode 5 <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">microliths</a>. He mentions neither Westropp nor the Mesolithic, however. For him this was a "solution of continuity (<i>solution de continuité</i>)" To it he assigns the semi-domestication of dog, horse, cow, etc., which "greatly facilitated the work of Neolithic man (<i>a beaucoup facilité la tàche de l'homme néolithique</i>)." Brown in 1892 does not mention Mas-d'Azil. He refers to the "transition or 'Mesolithic' forms" but to him these are "rough hewn axes chipped over the entire surface" mentioned by Evans as the earliest of the Neolithic.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where Piette believed he had discovered something new, Brown wanted to break out known tools considered Neolithic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Epipaleolithic_and_Protoneolithic_of_Stjerna_and_Obermaier">The Epipaleolithic and Protoneolithic of Stjerna and Obermaier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Epipaleolithic and Protoneolithic of Stjerna and Obermaier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif/250px-Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif/375px-Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif/500px-Caballo_de_Mas_d%27Azil.gif 2x" data-file-width="1286" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Small Magdalenian carving representing a horse</figcaption></figure> <p>Sir John Evans never changed his mind, giving rise to a dichotomous view of the Mesolithic and a multiplication of confusing terms. On the continent, all seemed settled: there was a distinct Mesolithic with its own tools and both tools and customs were transitional to the Neolithic. Then in 1910, the Swedish archaeologist, <a href="/wiki/Knut_Stjerna" title="Knut Stjerna">Knut Stjerna</a>, addressed another problem of the Three-Age System: although a culture was predominantly classified as one period, it might contain material that was the same as or like that of another. His example was the <a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> Period of Scandinavia. It was not uniformly Neolithic, but contained some objects of bronze and more importantly to him three different subcultures.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of these "civilisations" (sub-cultures) located in the north and east of Scandinavia<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was rather different, featuring but few gallery graves, using instead stone-lined pit graves containing implements of bone, such as harpoon and javelin heads. He observed that they "persisted during the recent Paleolithic period and also during the Protoneolithic." Here he had used a new term, "Protoneolithic", which was according to him to be applied to the Danish <a href="/wiki/Erteb%C3%B8lle_culture" title="Ertebølle culture">kitchen-middens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stjerna also said that the eastern culture "is attached to the Paleolithic civilization (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">se trouve rattachée à la civilisation paléolithique</i></span></i>)." However, it was not intermediary and of its intermediates he said "we cannot discuss them here (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">nous ne pouvons pas examiner ici</i></span></i>)." This "attached" and non-transitional culture he chose to call the <a href="/wiki/Epipalaeolithic" title="Epipalaeolithic">Epipaleolithic</a>, defining it as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>With Epipaleolithic I mean the period during the early days that followed the age of the reindeer, the one that retained Paleolithic customs. This period has two stages in Scandinavia, that of Maglemose and that of Kunda. (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Par époque épipaléolithique j'entends la période qui, pendant les premiers temps qui ont suivi l'âge du Renne, conserve les coutumes paléolithiques. Cette période présente deux étapes en Scandinavie, celle de Maglemose et de Kunda.</i></span></i>)</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pointe_de_Tardenois.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Pointe_de_Tardenois.png" decoding="async" width="173" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="173" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Tardenoisian Mode 5-point – Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic?</figcaption></figure> <p>There is no mention of any Mesolithic, but the material he described had been previously connected with the Mesolithic. Whether or not Stjerna intended his Protoneolithic and Epipaleolithic as a replacement for the Mesolithic is not clear, but <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Obermaier" title="Hugo Obermaier">Hugo Obermaier</a>, a German archaeologist who taught and worked for many years in Spain, to whom the concepts are often erroneously attributed, used them to mount an attack on the entire concept of Mesolithic. He presented his views in <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">El Hombre fósil</i></span>, 1916, which was translated into English in 1924. Viewing the Epipaleolithic and the Protoneolithic as a "transition" and an "interim" he affirmed that they were not any sort of "transformation:"<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>But in my opinion this term is not justified, as it would be if these phases presented a natural evolutionary development – a progressive transformation from Paleolithic to Neolithic. In reality, the final phase of the <a href="/wiki/Capsian" class="mw-redirect" title="Capsian">Capsian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tardenoisian" title="Tardenoisian">Tardenoisian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Azilian" title="Azilian">Azilian</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Maglemosian" class="mw-redirect" title="Maglemosian">Maglemose</a> industries are the posthumous descendants of the Palaeolithic ...</p></blockquote> <p>The ideas of Stjerna and Obermaier introduced a certain ambiguity into the terminology, which subsequent archaeologists found and find confusing. Epipaleolithic and <a href="/wiki/Protoneolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoneolithic">Protoneolithic</a> cover the same cultures, more or less, as does the Mesolithic. Publications on the Stone Age after 1916 include some sort of explanation of this ambiguity, leaving room for different views. Strictly speaking the Epipaleolithic is the earlier part of the Mesolithic. Some identify it with the Mesolithic. To others it is an Upper Paleolithic transition to the Mesolithic. The exact use in any context depends on the archaeological tradition or the judgement of individual archaeologists. The issue continues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lower,_middle_and_upper_from_Haeckel_to_Sollas"><span id="Lower.2C_middle_and_upper_from_Haeckel_to_Sollas"></span>Lower, middle and upper from Haeckel to Sollas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lower, middle and upper from Haeckel to Sollas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg/300px-Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="488" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg/450px-Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg/600px-Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1475" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Haeckel's tree growing through the layers. In geology, the tripartite division did not stand the test of time.</figcaption></figure> <p>The post-<a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwinian</a> approach to the naming of periods in earth history focused at first on the lapse of time: early (Palaeo-), middle (Meso-) and late (Ceno-). This conceptualization automatically imposes a three-age subdivision to any period, which is predominant in modern archaeology: Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age; Early, Middle and Late Minoan, etc. The criterion is whether the objects in question look simple or are elaborative. If a horizon contains objects that are post-late and simpler-than-late they are sub-, as in Submycenaean. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel's</a> presentations are from a different point of view. His <i>History of Creation</i> of 1870 presents the ages as "Strata of the Earth's Crust", in which he prefers "upper", "mid-" and "lower" based on the order in which one encounters the layers. His analysis features an Upper and Lower Pliocene as well as an Upper and Lower Diluvial (his term for the Pleistocene).<sup id="cite_ref-Haeckel15_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haeckel15-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haeckel, however, was relying heavily on <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Lyell</a>. In the 1833 edition of <i>Principles of Geology</i> (the first) Lyell devised the terms <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> to mean periods of which the "strata" contained some (Eo-, "early"), lesser (Mio-) and greater (Plio-) numbers of "living <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a> represented among fossil assemblages of western Europe."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eocene was given Lower, Middle, Upper; the Miocene a Lower and Upper; and the Pliocene an Older and Newer, which scheme would indicate an equivalence between Lower and Older, and Upper and Newer. </p><p>In a French version, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Nouveaux Éléments de Géologie</i></span>, in 1839 Lyell called the Older Pliocene the Pliocene and the Newer Pliocene the Pleistocene (Pleist-, "most"). Then in <i>Antiquity of Man</i> in 1863 he reverted to his previous scheme, adding "Post-Tertiary" and "Post-Pliocene". In 1873 the Fourth Edition of <i>Antiquity of Man</i> restores Pleistocene and identifies it with Post-Pliocene. As this work was posthumous, no more was heard from Lyell. Living or deceased, his work was immensely popular among scientists and laymen alike. "Pleistocene" caught on immediately; it is entirely possible that he restored it by popular demand. In 1880 <a href="/wiki/William_Boyd_Dawkins" title="William Boyd Dawkins">Dawkins</a> published <i>The Three Pleistocene Strata</i> containing a new manifesto for British archaeology:<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The continuity between geology, prehistoric archaeology and history is so direct that it is impossible to picture early man in this country without using the results of all these three sciences.</p></blockquote> <p>He intends to use archaeology and geology to "draw aside the veil" covering the situations of the peoples mentioned in proto-historic documents, such as <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>'s <i>Commentaries</i> and the <i>Agricola</i> of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>. Adopting Lyell's scheme of the Tertiary, he divides Pleistocene into Early, Mid- and Late.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the Palaeolithic falls into the Pleistocene; the Neolithic is in the "Prehistoric Period" subsequent.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dawkins defines what was to become the Upper, Middle and Lower Paleolithic, except that he calls them the "Upper Cave-Earth and Breccia",<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the "Middle Cave-Earth",<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "Lower Red Sand",<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with reference to the names of the layers. The next year, 1881, <a href="/wiki/James_Geikie" title="James Geikie">Geikie</a> solidified the terminology into Upper and Lower Palaeolithic:<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>In Kent's Cave the implements obtained from the lower stages were of a much ruder description than the various objects detected in the upper cave-earth ... And a very long time must have elapsed between the formation of the lower and upper Palaeolithic beds in that cave.</p></blockquote> <p>The Middle Paleolithic in the modern sense made its appearance in 1911 in the 1st edition of <a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_Sollas" title="William Johnson Sollas">William Johnson Sollas</a>' <i>Ancient Hunters</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had been used in varying senses before then. Sollas associates the period with the <a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> technology and the relevant modern people with the <a href="/wiki/Tasmanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Tasmanians">Tasmanians</a>. In the 2nd edition of 1915 he has changed his mind for reasons that are not clear. The Mousterian has been moved to the Lower Paleolithic and the people changed to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian aborigines">Australian aborigines</a>; furthermore, the association has been made with Neanderthals and the <a href="/wiki/Levalloisian" class="mw-redirect" title="Levalloisian">Levalloisian</a> added. Sollas says wistfully that they are in "the very middle of the Palaeolithic epoch". Whatever his reasons, the public would have none of it. From 1911 on, Mousterian was Middle Paleolithic, except for holdouts. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_L._Kroeber" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred L. Kroeber">Alfred L. Kroeber</a> in 1920, <i>Three essays on the antiquity and races of man,</i> reverting to Lower Paleolithic, explains that he is following <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Mortillet" title="Gabriel de Mortillet">Gabriel de Mortillet</a>. The English-speaking public remained with Middle Paleolithic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_and_late_from_Worsaae_through_the_three-stage_African_system">Early and late from Worsaae through the three-stage African system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early and late from Worsaae through the three-stage African system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomsen had formalized the Three-age System by the time of its publication in 1836. The next step forward was the formalization of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. Between these two times Denmark held the lead in archaeology, especially because of the work of Thomsen's at first junior associate and then successor, <a href="/wiki/Jens_Jacob_Asmussen_Worsaae" title="Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae">Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae</a>, rising in the last year of his life to <a href="/wiki/Kultus_Minister_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Kultus Minister of Denmark">Kultus Minister of Denmark</a>. Lubbock offers full tribute and credit to him in <i>Prehistoric Times</i>. </p><p> Worsaae in 1862 in <i>Om Tvedelingen af Steenalderen</i>, previewed in English even before its publication by <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, concerned about changes in typology during each period, proposed a bipartite division of each age:<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Both for Bronze and Stone it was now evident that a few hundred years would not suffice. In fact, good grounds existed for dividing each of these periods into two, if not more.</p></blockquote> <p>He called them earlier or later. The three ages became six periods. The British seized on the concept immediately. Worsaae's earlier and later became Lubbock's palaeo- and neo- in 1865, but alternatively English speakers used Earlier and Later Stone Age, as did Lyell's 1883 edition of <i>Principles of Geology</i>, with older and younger as synonyms. As there is no room for a middle between the comparative adjectives, they were later modified to early and late. The scheme created a problem for further bipartite subdivisions, which would have resulted in such terms as early early Stone Age, but that terminology was avoided by adoption of Geikie's upper and lower Paleolithic. </p><p>Amongst African archaeologists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup>, the terms <a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Stone Age">Old Stone Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Middle Stone Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Stone_Age" title="Late Stone Age">Late Stone Age</a> are preferred. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wallace's_grand_revolution_recycled"><span id="Wallace.27s_grand_revolution_recycled"></span>Wallace's grand revolution recycled</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Wallace's grand revolution recycled"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> When Sir John Lubbock was doing the preliminary work for his 1865 <i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> were jointly publishing their first papers "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Tendency_of_Species_to_form_Varieties;_and_on_the_Perpetuation_of_Varieties_and_Species_by_Natural_Means_of_Selection" title="On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection">On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection</a>". Darwins's <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species"><i>On the Origin of Species</i></a> came out in 1859, but he did not elucidate the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> as it applies to man until <a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="The Descent of Man">the Descent of Man</a> in 1871. Meanwhile, Wallace read a paper in 1864 to the <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_London" title="Anthropological Society of London">Anthropological Society of London</a> that was a major influence on Sir John, publishing in the very next year.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He quoted Wallace:<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>From the moment when the first skin was used as a covering, when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase, the first seed sown or shoot planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a revolution which in all the previous ages of the world's history had had no parallel, for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to change with the changing universe,—a being who was in some degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action, and could keep himself in harmony with her, not by a change in body, but by an advance in mind.</p></blockquote> <p>Wallace distinguishing between mind and body was asserting that <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> shaped the form of man only until the appearance of mind; after then, it played no part. Mind formed modern man, meaning that result of mind, culture. Its appearance overthrew the laws of nature. Wallace used the term "grand revolution". Although Lubbock believed that Wallace had gone too far in that direction he did adopt a theory of evolution combined with the revolution of culture. Neither Wallace nor Lubbock offered any explanation of how the revolution came about, or felt that they had to offer one. Revolution is an acceptance that in the continuous evolution of objects and events sharp and inexplicable disconformities do occur, as in geology. And so it is not surprising that in the 1874 <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> meeting of the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Prehistoric_and_Protohistoric_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences">International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology</a>, in response to Ernst Hamy's denial of any "break" between Paleolithic and Neolithic based on material from <a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">dolmens</a> near Paris "showing a continuity between the paleolithic and neolithic folks," Edouard Desor, geologist and archaeologist, replied:<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "that the introduction of domesticated animals was a complete revolution and enables us to separate the two epochs completely." </p><p> A revolution as defined by Wallace and adopted by Lubbock is a change of regime, or rules. If man was the new rule-setter through culture then the initiation of each of Lubbock's four periods might be regarded as a change of rules and therefore as a distinct revolution, and so <i><a href="/wiki/Chambers%27s_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Chambers's Journal">Chambers's Journal</a></i>, a reference work, in 1879 portrayed each of them as:<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>...an advance in knowledge and civilization which amounted to a revolution in the then existing manners and customs of the world.</p></blockquote><p> Because of the controversy over Westropp's Mesolithic and Mortillet's Gap beginning in 1872 archaeological attention focused mainly on the revolution at the Palaeolithic–Neolithic boundary as an explanation of the gap. For a few decades the Neolithic Period, as it was called, was described as a kind of revolution. In the 1890s, a standard term, the Neolithic Revolution, began to appear in encyclopedias such as Pears. In 1925 the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Ancient_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Ancient History">Cambridge Ancient History</a> reported:<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>There are quite a large number of archaeologists who justifiably consider the period of the Late Stone Age to be a Neolithic revolution and an economic revolution at the same time. For that is the period when primitive agriculture developed and cattle breeding began.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vere_Gordon_Childe's_revolution_for_the_masses"><span id="Vere_Gordon_Childe.27s_revolution_for_the_masses"></span>Vere Gordon Childe's revolution for the masses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vere Gordon Childe's revolution for the masses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1936 a champion came forward who would advance the Neolithic Revolution into the mainstream view: <a href="/wiki/Vere_Gordon_Childe" class="mw-redirect" title="Vere Gordon Childe">Vere Gordon Childe</a>. After giving the Neolithic Revolution scant mention in his first notable work, the 1928 edition of <i>New Light on the Most Ancient East</i>, Childe made a major presentation in the first edition of <i>Man Makes Himself</i> in 1936 developing Wallace's and Lubbock's theme of the human revolution against the supremacy of nature and supplying detail on two revolutions, the Paleolithic–Neolithic and the Neolithic–Bronze Age, which he called the Second or Urban revolution. </p><p> Lubbock had been as much of an <a href="/wiki/Ethnologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnologist">ethnologist</a> as an archaeologist. The founders of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Tylor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Morgan</a>, were to follow his lead on that. Lubbock created such concepts as savages and barbarians based on the customs of then modern tribesmen and made the presumption that the terms can be applied without serious inaccuracy to the men of the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. Childe broke with this view:<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>The assumption that any savage tribe today is primitive, in the sense that its culture faithfully reflects that of much more ancient men is gratuitous.</p></blockquote><p> Childe concentrated on the inferences to be made from the artifacts:<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>But when the tools ... are considered ... in their totality, they may reveal much more. They disclose not only the level of technical skill ... but also their economy .... The archaeologists's ages correspond roughly to economic stages. Each new "age" is ushered in by an economic revolution ....</p></blockquote><p> The archaeological periods were indications of economic ones:<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Archaeologists can define a period when it was apparently the sole economy, the sole organization of production ruling anywhere on the earth's surface.</p></blockquote> <p>These periods could be used to supplement historical ones where history was not available. He reaffirmed Lubbock's view that the Paleolithic was an age of food gathering and the Neolithic an age of food production. He took a stand on the question of the Mesolithic identifying it with the Epipaleolithic. The <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> was to him "a mere continuance of the Old Stone Age mode of life" between the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> and the start of the Neolithic.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lubbock's terms "savagery" and "barbarism" do not much appear in <i>Man Makes Himself</i> but the sequel, <i>What Happened in History</i> (1942), reuses them (attributing them to Morgan, who got them from Lubbock) with an economic significance: savagery for food-gathering and barbarism for Neolithic food production. Civilization begins with the urban revolution of the Bronze Age.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pre-pottery_Neolithic_of_Garstang_and_Kenyon_at_Jericho">The Pre-pottery Neolithic of Garstang and Kenyon at Jericho</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Pre-pottery Neolithic of Garstang and Kenyon at Jericho"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even as Childe was developing this revolution theme the ground was sinking under him. Lubbock did not find any pottery associated with the Paleolithic, asserting of its to him last period, the Reindeer, "no fragments of metal or pottery have yet been found."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not generalize but others did not hesitate to do so. The next year, 1866, <a href="/wiki/William_Boyd_Dawkins" title="William Boyd Dawkins">Dawkins</a> proclaimed of Neolithic people that "these invented the use of pottery...."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From then until the 1930s pottery was considered a <a href="/wiki/Sine_qua_non" title="Sine qua non">sine qua non</a> of the Neolithic. The term Pre-Pottery Age came into use in the late 19th century but it meant Paleolithic. </p><p>Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund" title="Palestine Exploration Fund">Palestine Exploration Fund</a> founded in 1865 completing its survey of excavatable sites in Palestine in 1880 began excavating in 1890 at the site of ancient <a href="/wiki/Lachish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachish">Lachish</a> near <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, the first of a series planned under the licensing system of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Under their auspices in 1908 <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Sellin" title="Ernst Sellin">Ernst Sellin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Watzinger" title="Carl Watzinger">Carl Watzinger</a> began excavation at Jericho (<a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Tell es-Sultan</a>) previously excavated for the first time by Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Warren" title="Charles Warren">Charles Warren</a> in 1868. They discovered a Neolithic and Bronze Age city there. Subsequent excavations in the region by them and others turned up other walled cities that appear to have preceded the Bronze Age urbanization. </p><p>All excavation ceased for <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. When it was over the Ottoman Empire was no longer a factor there. In 1919 the new <a href="/wiki/Council_for_British_Research_in_the_Levant" title="Council for British Research in the Levant">British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem</a> assumed archaeological operations in Palestine. <a href="/wiki/John_Garstang" title="John Garstang">John Garstang</a> finally resumed excavation at Jericho 1930–1936. The renewed dig uncovered another 3000 years of prehistory that was in the Neolithic but did not make use of pottery. He called it the <a href="/wiki/Pre-pottery_Neolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-pottery Neolithic">Pre-pottery Neolithic</a>, as opposed to the Pottery Neolithic, subsequently often called the Aceramic or Pre-ceramic and Ceramic Neolithic. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Kenyon" title="Kathleen Kenyon">Kathleen Kenyon</a> was a young photographer then with a natural talent for archaeology. Solving a number of dating problems she soon advanced to the forefront of British archaeology through skill and judgement. In <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> she served as a commander in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a>. In 1952–1958 she took over operations at Jericho as the Director of the British School, verifying and expanding Garstang's work and conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were two Pre-pottery Neolithic periods, she concluded, A and B. Moreover, the PPN had been discovered at most of the major Neolithic sites in the near East and Greece. By this time her personal stature in archaeology was at least equal to that of V. Gordon Childe. While the three-age system was being attributed to Childe in popular fame, Kenyon became gratuitously the discoverer of the PPN. More significantly the question of revolution or evolution of the Neolithic was increasingly being brought before the professional archaeologists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronze_Age_subdivisions">Bronze Age subdivisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bronze Age subdivisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Danish archaeology took the lead in defining the Bronze Age, with little of the controversy surrounding the Stone Age. British archaeologists patterned their own excavations after those of the Danish, which they followed avidly in the media. References to the Bronze Age in British excavation reports began in the 1820s contemporaneously with the new system being promulgated by C.J. Thomsen. Mention of the Early and Late Bronze Age began in the 1860s following the bipartite definitions of Worsaae. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_tripartite_system_of_Sir_John_Evans">The tripartite system of Sir John Evans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The tripartite system of Sir John Evans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1874 at the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> meeting of the <a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Anthropology_and_Prehistoric_Archaeology" title="International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology">International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology</a>, a suggestion was made by A. Bertrand that no distinct age of bronze had existed, that the bronze artifacts discovered were really part of the Iron Age. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hildebrand" title="Hans Hildebrand">Hans Hildebrand</a> in refutation pointed to two Bronze Ages and a transitional period in Scandinavia. <a href="/wiki/John_Evans_(archaeologist)" title="John Evans (archaeologist)">John Evans</a> denied any defect of continuity between the two and asserted there were three Bronze Ages, "the early, middle and late Bronze Age".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> His view for the Stone Age, following Lubbock, was quite different, denying, in <i>The Ancient Stone Implements</i>, any concept of a Middle Stone Age. In his 1881 parallel work, <i>The Ancient Bronze Implements</i>, he affirmed and further defined the three periods, strangely enough recusing himself from his previous terminology, Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age (the current forms) in favor of "an earlier and later stage"<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "middle".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He uses Bronze Age, Bronze Period, Bronze-using Period and Bronze Civilization interchangeably. Apparently Evans was sensitive of what had gone before, retaining the terminology of the bipartite system while proposing a tripartite one. After stating a catalogue of types of bronze implements he defines his system:<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>The Bronze Age of Britain may, therefore, be regarded as an aggregate of three stages: the first, that characterized by the flat or slightly flanged celts, and the knife-daggers ... the second, that characterized by the more heavy dagger-blades and the flanged celts and tanged spear-heads or daggers, ... and the third, by palstaves and socketed celts and the many forms of tools and weapons, ... It is in this third stage that the bronze sword and the true socketed spear-head first make their advent.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Evans'_gratuitous_Copper_Age_to_the_mythical_chalcolithic"><span id="From_Evans.27_gratuitous_Copper_Age_to_the_mythical_chalcolithic"></span>From Evans' gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: From Evans' gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In chapter 1 of his work, Evans proposes for the first time a transitional <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. He adduces evidence from far-flung places such as China and the Americas to show that the smelting of copper universally preceded alloying with <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> to make bronze. He does not know how to classify this fourth age. On the one hand he distinguishes it from the Bronze Age. On the other hand, he includes it:<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>In thus speaking of a bronze-using period I by no means wish to exclude the possible use of copper unalloyed with tin.</p></blockquote> <p>Evans goes into considerable detail tracing references to the metals in classical literature: Latin <i>aer, aeris</i> and Greek <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">chalkós</i></span></i> first for "copper" and then for "bronze". He does not mention the adjective of <i>aes</i>, which is <i>aēneus</i>, nor is he interested in formulating New Latin words for the Copper Age, which is good enough for him and many English authors from then on. He offers literary proof that bronze had been in use before iron and copper before bronze.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In 1884 the center of archaeological interest shifted to Italy with the excavation of Remedello and the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Remedello_culture" title="Remedello culture">Remedello culture</a> by Gaetano Chierici. According to his 1886 biographers, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pigorini" title="Luigi Pigorini">Luigi Pigorini</a> and Pellegrino Strobel, Chierici devised the term Età Eneo-litica to describe the archaeological context of his findings, which he believed were the remains of <a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a>, or people that preceded Greek and Latin speakers in the Mediterranean. The age (Età) was:<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>A period of transition from the age of stone to that of bronze (periodo di transizione dall'età della pietra a quella del bronzo)</p></blockquote> <p>Whether intentional or not, the definition was the same as Evans', except that Chierici was adding a term to New Latin. He describes the transition by stating the beginning (litica, or Stone Age) and the ending (eneo-, or Bronze Age); in English, "the stone-to-bronze period". Shortly after, "Eneolithic" or "Aeneolithic" began turning up in scholarly English as a synonym for "Copper Age". Sir John's own son, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a>, beginning to come into his own as an archaeologist and already studying Cretan civilization, refers in 1895 to some clay figures of "aeneolithic date" (quotes his). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_Iron_Age">End of the Iron Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: End of the Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three-age system is a way of dividing prehistory, and the Iron Age is therefore considered to end in a particular culture with either the start of its <a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">protohistory</a>, when it begins to be written about by outsiders, or when its own <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> begins. Although iron is still the major hard material in use in modern civilization, and steel is a vital and indispensable modern industry, as far as archaeologists are concerned the Iron Age has therefore now ended for all cultures in the world. </p><p>The date when it is taken to end varies greatly between cultures, and in many parts of the world there was no Iron Age at all, for example in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">prehistory of Australia</a>. For these and other regions the three-age system is little used. By a convention among archaeologists, in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> the Iron Age is taken to end with the start of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in the 6th century BC, as the history of that is told by the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>. This remains the case despite a good deal of earlier local written material having become known since the convention was established. In <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, the Iron Age is ended by the Roman conquest. In South Asia the start of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> about 320 BC is usually taken as the endpoint; although we have a considerable quantity of earlier written texts from India, they give us relatively little in the way of a conventional record of political history. For <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> "Iron Age" is not a very useful concept, and relatively little used as a period term. In the first two prehistory has ended, and periodization by historical ruling dynasties has already begun, in the Bronze Age, which these cultures do have. In Greece, the Iron Age begins during the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a>, and coincides with the cessation of a historical record for some centuries. For <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and other parts of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">northern Europe</a> that the Romans did not reach, the Iron Age continues until the start of the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> in about 800 AD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating">Dating</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological dating</a></div> <p>The question of the dates of the objects and events discovered through archaeology is the prime concern of any system of thought that seeks to summarize history through the formulation of <a href="/wiki/List_of_time_periods" title="List of time periods">ages</a> or <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">epochs</a>. An age is defined through comparison of contemporaneous events. Increasingly,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the terminology of archaeology is parallel to that of <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical method</a>. An event is "undocumented" until it turns up in the archaeological record. Fossils and artifacts are "documents" of the epochs hypothesized. The correction of dating errors is therefore a major concern. </p><p>In the case where parallel epochs defined in history were available, elaborate efforts were made to align European and <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near Eastern</a> sequences with the datable chronology of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and other known civilizations. The resulting grand sequence was also spot checked by evidence of calculateable solar or other astronomical events.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These methods are only available for the relatively short term of recorded history. Most prehistory does not fall into that category. </p><p>Physical science provides at least two general groups of dating methods, stated below. Data collected by these methods is intended to provide an absolute chronology to the framework of periods defined by relative chronology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grand_systems_of_layering">Grand systems of layering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Grand systems of layering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The initial comparisons of artifacts defined periods that were local to a site, group of sites or region. Advances made in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">seriation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">typology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stratification_(archeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratification (archeology)">stratification</a> and the associative dating of <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> and features permitted even greater refinement of the system. The ultimate development is the reconstruction of a global catalogue of layers (or as close to it as possible) with different sections attested in different regions. Ideally once the layer of the artifact or event is known a quick lookup of the layer in the grand system will provide a ready date. This is considered the most reliable method. It is used for calibration of the less reliable chemical methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurement_of_chemical_change">Measurement of chemical change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Measurement of chemical change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any material sample contains elements and compounds that are subject to decay into other elements and compounds. In cases where the rate of decay is predictable and the proportions of initial and end products can be known exactly, consistent dates of the artifact can be calculated. Due to the problem of sample contamination and variability of the natural proportions of the materials in the media, sample analysis in the case where verification can be checked by grand layering systems has often been found to be widely inaccurate. Chemical dates therefore are only considered reliable used in conjunction with other methods. They are collected in groups of data points that form a pattern when graphed. Isolated dates are not considered reliable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_-liths_and_-lithics">Other -liths and -lithics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other -liths and -lithics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <a href="/wiki/Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">Megalithic</a> does not refer to a period of time, but merely describes the use of large stones by ancient peoples from any period. An <a href="/wiki/Eolith" title="Eolith">eolith</a> is a stone that might have been formed by natural process but occurs in contexts that suggest modification by early humans or other primates for percussion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Three-age_system_resumptive_table">Three-age system resumptive table</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Three-age system resumptive table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Three-age_system" title="Special:EditPage/Three-age system">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="5%">Age </th> <th width="10%">Period </th> <th width="17%">Tools </th> <th width="12%">Economy </th> <th width="15%">Dwelling sites </th> <th width="10%">Society </th> <th width="10%">Religion </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(3.4 mya – 2000 BC)</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> </td> <td>Handmade tools and objects found in nature – <a href="/wiki/Cudgel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cudgel">cudgel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Club_(weapon)" title="Club (weapon)">club</a>, sharpened stone, <a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">chopper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handaxe" class="mw-redirect" title="Handaxe">handaxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">scraper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle" title="Sewing needle">needle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scratch_awl" title="Scratch awl">scratch awl</a>. In general <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> of Modes I–IV. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunting and gathering</a> </td> <td>Mobile lifestyle – caves, <a href="/wiki/Hut_(dwelling)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hut (dwelling)">huts</a>, tusk/bone or skin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hovel" class="extiw" title="wikt:hovel">hovels</a>, mostly by rivers and lakes<br /> </td> <td>A <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band</a> of edible-plant gatherers and hunters (25–100 people) </td> <td rowspan="2">Evidence for belief in the afterlife first appears in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Palaeolithic">Upper Palaeolithic</a>, marked by the appearance of burial rituals and <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>. <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">Shamans</a>, priests and <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">sanctuary</a> <a href="/wiki/Servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Servant">servants</a> appear in the <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> (other name <a href="/wiki/Epipalaeolithic" title="Epipalaeolithic">epipalaeolithic</a>) </td> <td>Mode V tools employed in composite devices – <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (weapon)">bow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">arrow</a>. Other devices such as <a href="/wiki/Fishing_basket" title="Fishing basket">fishing baskets</a>, boats </td> <td>Intensive hunting and gathering, porting of wild animals and seeds of wild plants for domestic use and planting </td> <td>Temporary villages at opportune locations for economic activities </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribes</a> and bands </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> </td> <td>Polished stone tools, devices useful in subsistence farming and defense – <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">hoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoke" title="Yoke">yoke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reaping-hook" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaping-hook">reaping-hook</a>, grain pourer, <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">loom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">earthenware</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> – <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</a> of plants and animals used in agriculture and herding, supplementary <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">gathering</a>, hunting, and fishing. Warfare. </td> <td>Permanent settlements varying in size from villages to walled cities, public works. </td> <td>Tribes and formation of <a href="/wiki/Chiefdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiefdoms">chiefdoms</a> in some Neolithic societies the end of the period </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a>, sometimes presided over by the <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">mother goddess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(3300 – 1200 BC)</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a>) </td> <td>Copper tools, <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Civilization, including <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">craft</a>, trade </td> <td rowspan="2">Urban centers surrounded by politically attached communities </td> <td rowspan="2">City-<a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>* </td> <td rowspan="2">Ethnic gods, state religion </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> </td> <td>Bronze tools </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1200 – 550 BC)</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron (material)">Iron tools</a> </td> <td>Includes trade and much specialization; often taxes </td> <td>Includes towns or even large cities, connected by roads </td> <td>Large tribes, kingdoms, empires </td> <td>One or more religions sanctioned by the state </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>* Formation of states starts during the Early Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia and during the Late Bronze Age first empires are founded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Three-age System has been criticized since at least the 19th century. Every phase of its development has been contested. Some of the arguments that have been presented against it follow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unsound_epochalism">Unsound epochalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Unsound epochalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In some cases criticism resulted in other, parallel three-age systems, such as the concepts expressed by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Society" title="Ancient Society">Ancient Society</a></i>, based on <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a>. These disagreed with the metallic basis of epochization. The critic generally substituted his own definitions of epochs. <a href="/wiki/Vere_Gordon_Childe" class="mw-redirect" title="Vere Gordon Childe">Vere Gordon Childe</a> said of the early cultural anthropologists:<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Last century <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Tylor">Tylor</a> propounded divergent schemes ... they arranged these in a logical order .... They assumed that the logical order was a temporal one.... The competing systems of Morgan and Tylor remained equally unverified – and incompatible – theories.</p></blockquote><p> More recently, many archaeologists have questioned the validity of dividing time into epochs at all. For example, one recent critic, Graham Connah, describes the three-age system as "epochalism" and asserts:<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_2010_p.63-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>So many archaeological writers have used this model for so long that for many readers it has taken on a reality of its own. In spite of the theoretical agonizing of the last half-century, epochalism is still alive and well ... Even in parts of the world where the model is still in common use, it needs to be accepted that, for example, there never was actually such a thing as 'the Bronze Age.'</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Over-simplification">Over-simplification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Over-simplification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Some view the three-age system as overly simple; that is, it neglects vital detail and forces complex circumstances into a mold they do not fit. Rowlands argues that the division of human societies into epochs based on the presumption of a single set of related changes is not realistic:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>But as a more rigorous sociological approach has begun to show that changes at the economic, political and ideological levels are not 'all of apiece' we have come to realise that time may be segmented in as many ways as convenient to the researcher concerned.</p></blockquote><p> The three-age system is a <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">relative chronology</a>. The explosion of archaeological data acquired in the 20th century was intended to elucidate the relative chronology in detail. One consequence was the collection of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">absolute dates</a>. Connah argues:<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_2010_p.63-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>As <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocarbon">radiocarbon</a> and other forms of absolute dating contributed more detailed and more reliable chronologies, the epochal model ceased to be necessary.</p></blockquote> <p>Peter Bogucki of Princeton University summarizes the perspective taken by many modern archaeologists:<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Although modern archaeologists realize that this tripartite division of prehistoric society is far too simple to reflect the complexity of change and continuity, terms like 'Bronze Age' are still used as a very general way of focusing attention on particular times and places and thus facilitating archaeological discussion.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Eurocentrism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another common criticism attacks the broader application of the three-age system as a cross-cultural model for social change. The model was originally designed to explain data from Europe and West Asia, but archaeologists have also attempted to use it to explain social and technological developments in other parts of the world such as the Americas, Australasia, and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-anything_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anything-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many archaeologists working in these regions have criticized this application as <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">eurocentric</a>. Graham Connah writes that:<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_2010_p.63-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>... attempts by Eurocentric archaeologists to apply the model to African archaeology have produced little more than confusion, whereas in the Americas or Australasia it has been irrelevant, ...</p></blockquote> <p>Alice B. Kehoe further explains this position as it relates to American archaeology:<sup id="cite_ref-anything_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anything-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>... Professor Wilson's presentation of prehistoric archaeology<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a European product carried across the Atlantic to promote an American science compatible with its European model.</p></blockquote> <p>Kehoe goes on to complain of Wilson that "he accepted and reprised the idea that the European course of development was paradigmatic for humankind."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This criticism argues that the different societies of the world underwent social and technological developments in different ways. A sequence of events that describes the developments of one civilization may not necessarily apply to another, in this view. Instead social and technological developments must be described within the context of the society being studied. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silicon_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon age">Silicon age</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">List of archaeological periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_Ages" title="Metal Ages">Metal Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Age" title="Social Age">Social Age</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKipfer2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ann_Kipfer" title="Barbara Ann Kipfer">Kipfer, Barbara Ann</a> (30 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C"><i>Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology</i></a>. New York: Springer Science & Business Media (published 2000). p. 564. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306461583" title="Special:BookSources/9780306461583"><bdi>9780306461583</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2021</span>. <q>Three-Age system: The division of human prehistory into three successive stages - Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age - based on the main type of material used in tools of the period. [...] The Ages are only developmental stages, and some areas skipped one or more of the stages. At first entirely hypothetical, these divisions were later confirmed by archaeological observations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=564&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2000-04-30&rft.isbn=9780306461583&rft.aulast=Kipfer&rft.aufirst=Barbara+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXneTstDbcC0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarvill2021" class="citation cs2">Darvill, Timothy (19 August 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191842788.001.0001/acref-9780191842788-e-4253">"Three Age System"</a>, <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191842788.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780191842788.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-184278-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-184278-8"><bdi>978-0-19-184278-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220309020215/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191842788.001.0001/acref-9780191842788-e-4253">archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Three+Age+System&rft.date=2021-08-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191842788.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-184278-8&rft.aulast=Darvill&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191842788.001.0001%2Facref-9780191842788-e-4253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorse1999" class="citation journal cs1">Morse, Michael A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/div-classtitlecraniology-and-the-adoption-of-the-three-age-system-in-britaindiv/EF03BD0A91D913E5CA8F7D00692AC64C">"Craniology and the Adoption of the Three-Age System in Britain"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society</i>. <b>65</b>. Cambridge Press: 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0079497X00001924">10.1017/S0079497X00001924</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161193807">161193807</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180809115158/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/div-classtitlecraniology-and-the-adoption-of-the-three-age-system-in-britaindiv/EF03BD0A91D913E5CA8F7D00692AC64C">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Prehistoric+Society&rft.atitle=Craniology+and+the+Adoption+of+the+Three-Age+System+in+Britain&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0079497X00001924&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161193807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morse&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fproceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society%2Farticle%2Fdiv-classtitlecraniology-and-the-adoption-of-the-three-age-system-in-britaindiv%2FEF03BD0A91D913E5CA8F7D00692AC64C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulian_Richards2005" class="citation web cs1">Julian Richards (24 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/archaeology/overview/notepads_laptops_03.shtml">"BBC – History – Notepads to Laptops: Archaeology Grows Up"</a>. <i>BBC</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160425063858/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/archaeology/overview/notepads_laptops_03.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Notepads+to+Laptops%3A+Archaeology+Grows+Up&rft.date=2005-01-24&rft.au=Julian+Richards&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Ftrail%2Farchaeology%2Foverview%2Fnotepads_laptops_03.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180916053907/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803104443590">"Three-age System – Oxford Index"</a>. Oxford Index. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803104443590">the original</a> on 16 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Three-age+System+%E2%80%93+Oxford+Index&rft.pub=Oxford+Index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxfordindex.oup.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803104443590&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=2556">"John Lubbock's "Pre-Historic Times" is Published (1865)"</a>. History of Information. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170612125923/http://historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=2556">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Lubbock%27s+%22Pre-Historic+Times%22+is+Published+%281865%29&rft.pub=History+of+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofinformation.com%2Fexpanded.php%3Fid%3D2556&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.actforlibraries.org/about-the-three-age-system-of-prehistory-archaeology/">"About the three Age System of Prehistory Archaeology"</a>. Act for Libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190714140510/http://www.actforlibraries.org/about-the-three-age-system-of-prehistory-archaeology/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+the+three+Age+System+of+Prehistory+Archaeology&rft.pub=Act+for+Libraries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.actforlibraries.org%2Fabout-the-three-age-system-of-prehistory-archaeology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnes, p. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lines 109–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lines 140–155, translator <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Lattimore" title="Richmond Lattimore">Richmond Lattimore</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.institute4learning.com/2019/07/23/the-stages-of-life-according-to-hesiod/">"Ages of Man According to Hesiod | Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D."</a> <i>www.institute4learning.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806075512/https://www.institute4learning.com/2019/07/23/the-stages-of-life-according-to-hesiod/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.institute4learning.com&rft.atitle=Ages+of+Man+According+to+Hesiod+%7C+Thomas+Armstrong%2C+Ph.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.institute4learning.com%2F2019%2F07%2F23%2Fthe-stages-of-life-according-to-hesiod%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lines 161–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeye1963" class="citation journal cs1">Beye, Charles Rowan (January 1963). "Lucretius and Progress". <i>The Classical Journal</i>. <b>58</b> (4): 160–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=Lucretius+and+Progress&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=160-169&rft.date=1963-01&rft.aulast=Beye&rft.aufirst=Charles+Rowan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/De_Rerum_Natura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Rerum Natura">De Rerum Natura</a>, Book V, about Line 800 ff. The translator is <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Latham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald Latham">Ronald Latham</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/De_Rerum_Natura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Rerum Natura">De Rerum Natura</a></i>, Book V, around Line 1200 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Rerum Natura</i>, Book V around Line 940 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrum2008">Goodrum 2008</a>, p. 483</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrum2008">Goodrum 2008</a>, p. 494</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrum2008">Goodrum 2008</a>, p. 495</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrum2008">Goodrum 2008</a>, p. 496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamy1906">Hamy 1906</a>, pp. 249–251</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamy1906">Hamy 1906</a>, p. 246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamy1906">Hamy 1906</a>, p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamy1906">Hamy 1906</a>, p. 259: "c'est a Michel Mercatus, Médecin de Clément VIII, que la première idée est duë..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, Front Matter, Abbreviations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalinaVašíček1990">Malina & Vašíček 1990</a>, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowley-Conwy_2007_38_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGräslund1987">Gräslund 1987</a>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGräslund1987">Gräslund 1987</a>, pp. 22, 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGräslund1987">Gräslund 1987</a>, pp. 18–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007">Rowley-Conwy 2007</a>, pp. 298–301</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGräslund1987">Gräslund 1987</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsen1836" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Thomsen, Christian Jürgensen (1836). "Kortfattet udsigt over midesmaeker og oldsager fra Nordens oldtid". In Rafn, C.C (ed.). <i>Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed</i> (in Danish). Copenhagen: Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kortfattet+udsigt+over+midesmaeker+og+oldsager+fra+Nordens+oldtid&rft.btitle=Ledetraad+til+Nordisk+Oldkyndighed&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pub=Kongelige+Nordiske+Oldskriftselskab&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Thomsen&rft.aufirst=Christian+J%C3%BCrgensen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This was not the museum guidebook, which was written by Julius Sorterup, an assistant of Thomsen, and published in 1846. Note that translations of Danish organizations and publications tend to vary somewhat.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLubbock1865">Lubbock 1865</a>, pp. 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLubbock1865">Lubbock 1865</a>, pp. 336–337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLubbock1865">Lubbock 1865</a>, p. 472, final para. "Perhaps it will be thought that in the preceding chapter I have selected from various works all the passages most unfavorable to savages, and that the picture I have drawn of them is unfair. In reality the very reverse is the case. Their real condition is even worse and more abject than that which I have endeavoured to depict. I have been careful to quote only from trustworthy authorities, but there are many things stated by them which I have not ventured to repeat; and there are other facts which even the travellers themselves were ashamed to publish."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Reviews". <i>The Medical Times and Gazette: A Journal of Medical Science, Literature, Criticism and News</i>. <b>II</b>. London: John Churchill and Sons. 6 August 1870.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Medical+Times+and+Gazette%3A+A+Journal+of+Medical+Science%2C+Literature%2C+Criticism+and+News&rft.atitle=Reviews&rft.volume=II&rft.date=1870-08-06&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1866">Westropp 1866</a>, p. 288</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1866">Westropp 1866</a>, p. 291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1866">Westropp 1866</a>, p. 290</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1872">Westropp 1872</a>, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1872">Westropp 1872</a>, p. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestropp1872">Westropp 1872</a>, p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1872">Evans 1872</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1889" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Isaac (1889). <i>The Origin of the Aryans. An Account of the Prehistoric Ethnology and Civilisation of Europe</i>. New York: C. Scribner's sones. p. 60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+the+Aryans.+An+Account+of+the+Prehistoric+Ethnology+and+Civilisation+of+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=C.+Scribner%27s+sones&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haeckel15-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haeckel15_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haeckel15_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaeckelLankester1876" class="citation book cs1">Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp August; Lankester, Edwin Ray (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924089940419"><i>The history of creation, or, The development of the earth and its inhabitants by the action of natural causes : a popular exposition of the doctrine of evolution in general, and of that of Darwin, Goethe, and Lamarck in particular</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924089940419/page/n35">15</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+creation%2C+or%2C+The+development+of+the+earth+and+its+inhabitants+by+the+action+of+natural+causes+%3A+a+popular+exposition+of+the+doctrine+of+evolution+in+general%2C+and+of+that+of+Darwin%2C+Goethe%2C+and+Lamarck+in+particular&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Haeckel&rft.aufirst=Ernst+Heinrich+Philipp+August&rft.au=Lankester%2C+Edwin+Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924089940419&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1893">Brown 1893</a>, p. 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Piette236-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Piette236_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piette236_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPiette1895">Piette 1895</a>, p. 236: "Entre le paléolithique et le neolithique, il y a une large et profonde lacune, un grand hiatus; ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPiette1895">Piette 1895</a>, p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPiette1895">Piette 1895</a>, p. 239: "J'ai eu la bonne fortune découvrir les restes de cette époque ignorée qui sépara l'àge <a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">magdalénien</a> de celui des haches en pierre polie ... ce fut, au <a href="/wiki/Mas-d%27Azil" class="mw-redirect" title="Mas-d'Azil">Mas-d'Azil</a>, en 1887 et en 1888 que je fis cette découverte."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1893">Brown 1893</a>, pp. 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStjerna1910">Stjerna 1910</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStjerna1910">Stjerna 1910</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStjerna1910">Stjerna 1910</a>, p. 12: "... a persisté pendant la période paléolithique récente et même pendant la période protonéolithique."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStjerna1910">Stjerna 1910</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObermaier1924" class="citation book cs1">Obermaier, Hugo (1924). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilmaninspain00ober"><i>Fossil man in Spain</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilmaninspain00ober/page/322">322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fossil+man+in+Spain&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Obermaier&rft.aufirst=Hugo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffossilmaninspain00ober&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1990" class="citation book cs1">Farrand, W.R. (1990). "Origins of Quaternary-Pleistocene-Holocene Stratigraphic Terminology". In Laporte, Léo F. (ed.). <i>Establishment of a Geologic Framework for Paleoanthropology</i>. Special Paper 242. 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London: Edward Stanford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Europe%3A+A+Geological+Sketch&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Stanford&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Geikie&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprehistoriceurop81geik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSollas1911" class="citation book cs1">Sollas, William Johnson (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancienthunters00solluoft"><i>Ancient hunters: and their modern representatives</i></a>. London: Macmillan and Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancienthunters00solluoft/page/n155">130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+hunters%3A+and+their+modern+representatives&rft.place=London&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Sollas&rft.aufirst=William+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancienthunters00solluoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"On an Earlier and Later Period in the Stone Age". <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Anthropological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Human+Races+and+the+Antiquity+of+Man+Deduced+From+the+Theory+of+%22Natural+Selection%22&rft.volume=2&rft.date=1864&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Russel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.wku.edu%2Fcharles.smith%2Fwallace%2FS093.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLubbock1865">Lubbock 1865</a>, p. 481</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowarth1875" class="citation journal cs1">Howarth, H.H. (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2452603">"Report on the Stockholm Meeting of the International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>. <b>IV</b>: 347. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210620100222/https://zenodo.org/record/2452603">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Report+on+the+Stockholm+Meeting+of+the+International+Congress+of+Anthropology+and+Prehistoric+Archaeology&rft.volume=IV&rft.pages=347&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Howarth&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2452603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers,_William_and_Robert1879" class="citation journal cs1">Chambers, William and Robert (20 December 1879). "Pre-historic Records". <i>Chambers's Journal</i>. <b>56</b> (834): 805–808.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chambers%27s+Journal&rft.atitle=Pre-historic+Records&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=834&rft.pages=805-808&rft.date=1879-12-20&rft.au=Chambers%2C+William+and+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarašanin1925" class="citation journal cs1">Garašanin, M. (1925). "The Stone Age in the Central Balkan Area". <i>Cambridge Ancient History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.atitle=The+Stone+Age+in+the+Central+Balkan+Area&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Gara%C5%A1anin&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilde1951">Childe 1951</a>, p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilde1951">Childe 1951</a>, pp. 34–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilde1951">Childe 1951</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChilde1951">Childe 1951</a>, p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Childe, who was writing for the masses, did not make use of critical apparatus and offered no attributions in his texts. This practice led to the erroneous attribution of the entire three-age system to him. Very little of it originated with him. His synthesis and expansion of its detail is however attributable to his presentations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLubbock1865">Lubbock 1865</a>, p. 323</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1866" class="citation journal cs1">Dawkins, W. Boyd (July 1866). "On the Habits and Conditions of the Two earliest known Races of Men". <i>Quarterly Journal of Science</i>. <b>3</b>: 344.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+Habits+and+Conditions+of+the+Two+earliest+known+Races+of+Men&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=344&rft.date=1866-07&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=W.+Boyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kenyon-institute.org.uk/history_bsaj.html">"Kenyon Institute"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725051301/http://www.kenyon-institute.org.uk/history_bsaj.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kenyon+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kenyon-institute.org.uk%2Fhistory_bsaj.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoworth1875" class="citation journal cs1">Howorth, H.H. (1875). "Report of the Stockholm Meeting of the International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology". <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>. <b>IV</b>. London: AIGBI: 354–355.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Report+of+the+Stockholm+Meeting+of+the+International+Congress+of+Anthropology+and+Prehistoric+Archaeology&rft.volume=IV&rft.pages=354-355&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Howorth&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1881">Evans 1881</a>, p. 456</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1881">Evans 1881</a>, p. 410</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1881">Evans 1881</a>, p. 474</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1881">Evans 1881</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1881">Evans 1881</a>, Chapter 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigoriniStrobel1886" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pigorini, Luigi; Strobel, Pellegrino (1886). <i>Gaetano Chierici e la paletnologia italiana</i> (in Italian). Parma: Luigi Battei. p. 84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gaetano+Chierici+e+la+paletnologia+italiana&rft.place=Parma&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Luigi+Battei&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Pigorini&rft.aufirst=Luigi&rft.au=Strobel%2C+Pellegrino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChildePattersonOrser2004" class="citation book cs1">Childe, V. Gordon; Patterson, Thomas Carl; Orser, Charles E. (2004). <i>Foundations of social archaeology: selected writings of V. Gordon Childe</i>. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press. p. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+social+archaeology%3A+selected+writings+of+V.+Gordon+Childe&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+California&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Childe&rft.aufirst=V.+Gordon&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Thomas+Carl&rft.au=Orser%2C+Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham_2010_p.63-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham_2010_p.63_92-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConnah2010">Connah 2010</a>, pp. 62–63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKristiansenRowlands1998">Kristiansen & Rowlands 1998</a>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogucki2008">Bogucki 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anything-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anything_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anything_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowmanWilliams2002">Browman & Williams 2002</a>, p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A predecessor of Lubbock working from the original Danish conception of the three ages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowmanWilliams2002">Browman & Williams 2002</a>, p. 147</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Elmer_Barnes" title="Harry Elmer Barnes">Barnes, Harry Elmer</a> (1937). <i>An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World, Volume One</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/390382">390382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Intellectual+and+Cultural+History+of+the+Western+World%2C+Volume+One&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F390382&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Harry+Elmer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogucki2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bogucki, Peter (2008). 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+yesterday+%26+today%3A+The+development+of+archaeology+in+the+sciences+%26+humanities&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Malina&rft.aufirst=Joroslav&rft.au=Va%C5%A1%C3%AD%C4%8Dek%2C+Zdenek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiette1895" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Piette, Edouard (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/bmsap_0301-8644_1895_num_6_1_5585.pdf">"Hiatus et Lacune: Vestiges de la période de transition dans la grotte du Mas-d'Azil"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris</i> (in French). <b>6</b> (6): 235–267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbmsap.1895.5585">10.3406/bmsap.1895.5585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27anthropologie+de+Paris&rft.atitle=Hiatus+et+Lacune%3A+Vestiges+de+la+p%C3%A9riode+de+transition+dans+la+grotte+du+Mas-d%27Azil&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=235-267&rft.date=1895&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbmsap.1895.5585&rft.aulast=Piette&rft.aufirst=Edouard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Fbmsap_0301-8644_1895_num_6_1_5585.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Rowley-Conwy" title="Peter Rowley-Conwy">Rowley-Conwy, Peter</a> (2007). <i>From Genesis to Prehistory: The Archaeological Three Age System and its Contested Reception in Denmark, Britain, and Ireland</i>. Oxford Studies in the History of Archaeology. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Genesis+to+Prehistory%3A+The+Archaeological+Three+Age+System+and+its+Contested+Reception+in+Denmark%2C+Britain%2C+and+Ireland&rft.place=Oxford%2C+New+York&rft.series=Oxford+Studies+in+the+History+of+Archaeology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Rowley-Conwy&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowley-Conwy2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Rowley-Conwy" title="Peter Rowley-Conwy">Rowley-Conwy, Peter</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5857/1/5857.pdf?DDD6+drk0mjc+drk0par+dul4eg">"The Concept of Prehistory and the Invention of the Terms 'Prehistoric' and 'Prehistorian': the Scandinavian Origin, 1833—1850"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 103–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461957107077709">10.1177/1461957107077709</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163132775">163132775</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409050556/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/5857/1/5857.pdf?DDD6+drk0mjc+drk0par+dul4eg">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Prehistory+and+the+Invention+of+the+Terms+%27Prehistoric%27+and+%27Prehistorian%27%3A+the+Scandinavian+Origin%2C+1833%E2%80%941850&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-130&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1461957107077709&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163132775%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rowley-Conwy&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F5857%2F1%2F5857.pdf%3FDDD6%2Bdrk0mjc%2Bdrk0par%2Bdul4eg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStjerna1910" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Knut_Stjerna" title="Knut Stjerna">Stjerna, Knut</a> (1910). "Les groupes de civilisation en Scandinavie à l'époque des sépultures à galerie". <i>L'Anthropologie</i> (in French). <b>XXI</b>. Paris: 1–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Anthropologie&rft.atitle=Les+groupes+de+civilisation+en+Scandinavie+%C3%A0+l%27%C3%A9poque+des+s%C3%A9pultures+%C3%A0+galerie&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Stjerna&rft.aufirst=Knut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrigger2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Trigger" title="Bruce Trigger">Trigger, Bruce</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig"><i>A History of Archaeological thought</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Archaeological+thought&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Trigger&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofarchaeo0000trig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestropp1866" class="citation book cs1">Westropp, Hodder M. (1866). <i>XXII. On the Analogous Forms of Implements Among Early and Primitive Races</i>. Publications of the Anthropological Society of London. Vol. II. London: Anthropological Society of London. pp. 288–294.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=XXII.+On+the+Analogous+Forms+of+Implements+Among+Early+and+Primitive+Races&rft.place=London&rft.series=Publications+of+the+Anthropological+Society+of+London&rft.pages=288-294&rft.pub=Anthropological+Society+of+London&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Westropp&rft.aufirst=Hodder+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestropp1872" class="citation book cs1">Westropp, Hodder M. (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prehistoricphase00west"><i>Pre-Historic Phases; or, Introductory Essays on Pre-Historic Archaeology</i></a>. London: Bell & Daldy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-Historic+Phases%3B+or%2C+Introductory+Essays+on+Pre-Historic+Archaeology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bell+%26+Daldy&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Westropp&rft.aufirst=Hodder+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprehistoricphase00west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree-age+system" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three-age_system&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-interactive-timeline">Human Timeline (Interactive)</a> – <a 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technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Flint tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Middle Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Stone Age">Later Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipalaeolithic" title="Epipalaeolithic">Epipaleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic">Pre-Pottery Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Continent" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Paleolithic" title="Japanese Paleolithic">Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stone-Age_Poland" title="Stone-Age Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_British_Isles" title="Neolithic British Isles">British</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Bronze Age collapse</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Continent" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copper_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Copper metallurgy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Levant">Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age" title="Atlantic Bronze Age">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Britain" title="Bronze Age Britain">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_in_Romania" title="Bronze Age in Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_meteorite" title="Iron meteorite">Iron meteorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Continent" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Asian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe"> Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">List of archaeological periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_time_periods" title="List of time periods">List of time periods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historiography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historiography" title="Template:Historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historiography" title="Template talk:Historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Historiography" title="Category:Historiography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Historiography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Historiography">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology cultures</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Stone_Age_subdivisions">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q475234#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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14.44% 162.382 25 Template:Cite_book"," 9.60% 107.906 42 Template:Ill"," 9.08% 102.075 16 Template:Lang"," 7.98% 89.737 1 Template:Human_history_and_prehistory"," 7.85% 88.207 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.652","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16863818,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBarnes1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeye1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBogucki2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowmanWilliams2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambers,_William_and_Robert1879\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChilde1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChildePattersonOrser2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnah2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarvill2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarrand1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarašanin1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeikie1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodrum2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGräslund1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaeckelLankester1876\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamy1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeizer1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowarth1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoworth1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulian_Richards2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKipfer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristiansenRowlands1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLubbock1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalinaVašíček1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorse1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObermaier1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiette1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPigoriniStrobel1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowley-Conwy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowley-Conwy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSollas1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStjerna1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomsen1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrigger2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallace1864\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestropp1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestropp1872\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 25,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 6,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Three-Age System\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 60,\n [\"Historiography\"] = 1,\n [\"History of technology\"] = 1,\n [\"Human history and prehistory\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 16,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 4,\n [\"Ordered list\"] = 1,\n [\"Prehistoric technology\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 3,\n [\"Three-age system of Archaeology\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zpn8c","timestamp":"20241122140402","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Three-age 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