Plant | Definition, Evolution, Ecology, & Taxonomy

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant">plant</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/plant/plant">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref66065"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Definition-of-the-kingdom">Definition of the kingdom</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref66066"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Definition-of-the-kingdom#ref66066">Nonvascular plants</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Definition-of-the-kingdom#ref66067">Definition of the category</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Representative-members">Representative members</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Representative-members#ref66069">Division Bryophyta</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Representative-members#ref66070">Division Marchantiophyta</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Representative-members#ref66071">Division Anthocerotophyta</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66072"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Vascular-plants">Vascular plants</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66073"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Vascular-plants#ref66073">Definition of the category</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Vascular-plants#ref66074">Nonseed plants</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Vascular-plants#ref66077">Class Lycopodiopsida</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338653" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida">Class Polypodiopsida</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida#ref338654">Subclass Polypodiidae</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida#ref338655">Order Psilotales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida#ref338656">Order Equisetales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida#ref338657">Order Marattiales</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Class-Polypodiopsida#ref66079">Seed plants</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66080"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Gymnosperms">Gymnosperms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Gymnosperms#ref66081">Angiosperms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Gymnosperms#ref66082">Classification of angiosperms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Stems">Stems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66084"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Stems#ref66084">Leaves and roots</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66085"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Stems#ref66085">Flowers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66086"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Stems#ref66086">Fruits and seeds</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66087"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Reproduction-and-life-histories">Reproduction and life histories</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66088"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Reproduction-and-life-histories#ref66088">Life histories</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66089"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Homosporous-life-histories">Homosporous life histories</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66090"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Homosporous-life-histories#ref66090">Anisosporous life histories</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66091"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Homosporous-life-histories#ref66091">Heterosporous life histories</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66092"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Homosporous-life-histories#ref66092">Variations involving seed plants</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66093"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66094"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66094">Deviations from the usual life history</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66095"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66095">Plant physiology</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66096"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66096">General features of plant nutrition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66097"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66097">Mode of nutrition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66098"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66098">Essential elements and minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66099"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Asexual-reproduction#ref66099">General overview of metabolic cycles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66100"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Pathways-and-cycles">Pathways and cycles</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66101"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Pathways-and-cycles#ref66101">Control mechanisms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66102"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Pathways-and-cycles#ref66102">Principal pathways and cycles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66103"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Pathways-and-cycles#ref66103">Unique features of plant metabolism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66104"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66105"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Photosynthesis#ref66105">Basic mechanisms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66106"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Photosynthesis#ref66106">Specific variations in photosynthesis</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66107"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Ecology">Ecology</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66108"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Ecology#ref66108">Plant geography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66109"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Succession-and-zonation">Succession and zonation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66110"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Succession-and-zonation#ref66110">Ecosystems and the biosphere</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66111"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Succession-and-zonation#ref66111">Dispersal and colonization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66112"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Succession-and-zonation#ref66112">Human effects on plants and natural communities</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66113"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Succession-and-zonation#ref66113">Domestication</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref66114"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Changes-in-biosystems-pollution">Changes in biosystems: pollution</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66115"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Changes-in-biosystems-pollution#ref66115">Conservation</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66116"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-and-paleobotany">Evolution and paleobotany</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66117"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-and-paleobotany#ref66117">Evolution of land plants from the Ordovician Period through the middle Devonian</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66118"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-of-seed-plants-and-plant-communities">Evolution of seed plants and plant communities</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref66119"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-of-seed-plants-and-plant-communities#ref66119">Classification</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66120"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-of-seed-plants-and-plant-communities#ref66120">Annotated classification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref66121"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/plant/plant/Evolution-of-seed-plants-and-plant-communities#ref66121">Critical appraisal</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/plant">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/60423-050-A24B296C/Weeping-willow.jpg" data-href="/media/1/463192/57161" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> 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The Science of Plants - Plant Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://marinmg.ucanr.edu/files/187894.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">UC Marin Master Gardeners - Plant Parts</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/09%3A_Plants" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Biology LibreTexts - Plants</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/botany/chapter/organ-tissue-and-cellular-structure-of-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Milne Publishing - Inanimate Life - Organ, tissue, and cellular structure of Plants</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/flowers-shrubs-trees/plant-growth-development" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">OSU Extension Service - Plant growth and development</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9434258/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Plant structure and function: Evolutionary origins and underlying mechanisms</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.neok12.com/Plants.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">NeoK12 - Educational Videos and Games for School Kids - Plant</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/mg2" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University of Missouri Extension - Plants and Their Environment</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/plant" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Canadian Encyclopedia - Plant</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://alec.unl.edu/documents/cde/2017/natural-resources/classification-and-naming-of-plants.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University of Nebraska-Lincoln - Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication - Classification and Naming of Plants</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/plant-identification/chapter/plant-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Kwantlen Polytechnic University - Red Seal Landscape Horticulturist Identify Plants and Plant Requirements (F2 – 1and2) - Plant Habitats</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/plantae.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University of California Museum of Paleontology - Introduction to the Plantae</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/plant/353639" target="_blank" rel="noopener">plant - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/plant/276449" target="_blank" rel="noopener">plant - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Embryophyta, Metaphyta, Plantae</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/William-C-Dickison/3687" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">William C. Dickison</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Coauthor of <em>Vascular Plant Systematics.</em></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> William C. Dickison</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Gar-W-Rothwell/3754" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Gar W. Rothwell</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Gar W. Rothwell</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-01-16T00:00:00CST" >Jan 16, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm 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Sachs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Dennis-Robert-Hoagland" topicid="268384">Dennis Robert Hoagland</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/plant/angiosperm" topicid="24667">angiosperm</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/plant-development" topicid="463317">plant development</a></dd> <dd><a href="/plant/fern" topicid="204819">fern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/photosynthesis" topicid="458172">photosynthesis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/heirloom-plant" topicid="2224694">heirloom plant</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/plant"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/book-review-evolution-plants-animals" rel="nofollow">A new book explores the evolutionary romance between plants and animals</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 4, 2025, 2:30 AM ET (Science News) </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="218" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/5384-050-C4D31AAA/Highveld-grassland-Heidelberg-SAf-Johannesburg.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/463192/218"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/5384-050-C4D31AAA/Highveld-grassland-Heidelberg-SAf-Johannesburg.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/5384-050-C4D31AAA/Highveld-grassland-Heidelberg-SAf-Johannesburg.jpg?w=300" alt="grassland" data-width="1584" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/5384-050-C4D31AAA/Highveld-grassland-Heidelberg-SAf-Johannesburg.jpg" data-href="/media/1/463192/218">grassland</a><span>Highveld grassland near Heidelberg, South Africa, southeast of Johannesburg.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref536734"></span>plant</strong>, (kingdom Plantae), any multicellular <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/eukaryote" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">eukaryotic</a> life-form <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characterized" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characterized" data-type="EB">characterized</a> by (1) <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">photosynthetic nutrition</a> (a characteristic possessed by all plants except some parasitic plants and underground <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/orchid" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">orchids</a>), in which <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-energy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical energy</a> is produced from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/water" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">water</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">minerals</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/carbon-dioxide" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">carbon dioxide</a> with the aid of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/pigment" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">pigments</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/radiant-energy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">radiant energy</a> of the Sun, (2) essentially unlimited growth at localized regions, (3) <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cells</a> that contain <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cellulose" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cellulose</a> in their walls and are therefore to some extent rigid, (4) the absence of organs of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/locomotion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">locomotion</a>, resulting in a more or less stationary existence, (5) the absence of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">nervous systems</a>, and (6) life histories that show an alteration of haploid and diploid generations, with the dominance of one over the other being taxonomically significant.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="23521" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/30947-050-4F0CEE7A/Duckweed.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/463192/23521"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/30947-050-4F0CEE7A/Duckweed.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/30947-050-4F0CEE7A/Duckweed.jpg?w=300" alt="duckweed" data-width="1600" data-height="1067" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/30947-050-4F0CEE7A/Duckweed.jpg" data-href="/media/1/463192/23521">duckweed</a><span>Duckweed (<em>Lemna minor</em>).</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="121714" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/93/94293-050-19546FFB/Sequoia-tree-California.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/463192/121714"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/93/94293-050-19546FFB/Sequoia-tree-California.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/93/94293-050-19546FFB/Sequoia-tree-California.jpg?w=300" alt="giant sequoia" data-width="1056" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/93/94293-050-19546FFB/Sequoia-tree-California.jpg" data-href="/media/1/463192/121714">giant sequoia</a><span>Giant sequoia tree in California.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Plants range in size from <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="diminutive" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/diminutive" data-type="EB">diminutive</a> duckweeds only a few millimetres in length to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/giant-sequoia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">giant sequoias</a> of California that reach 90 metres (300 feet) or more in height. There are an estimated 390,900 different <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/species-taxon" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">species</a> of plants known to science, and new species are continually being described, particularly from previously unexplored tropical areas of the world. Plants evolved from aquatic ancestors and have subsequently migrated over the entire surface of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Earth</a>, inhabiting tropical, Arctic, desert, and Alpine regions. Some plants have returned to an aquatic habitat in either fresh or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">salt water</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="107905" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/94122-050-93F6BAE0/trees-plants-carbon-dioxide-sunlight-sugars-water.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/463192/107905"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/94122-050-93F6BAE0/trees-plants-carbon-dioxide-sunlight-sugars-water.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/94122-050-93F6BAE0/trees-plants-carbon-dioxide-sunlight-sugars-water.jpg?w=300" alt="Photosynthesis" data-width="1600" data-height="1400" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/94122-050-93F6BAE0/trees-plants-carbon-dioxide-sunlight-sugars-water.jpg" data-href="/media/1/463192/107905">Photosynthesis</a><span>Diagram of photosynthesis showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant to produce oxygen, sugars, and more carbon dioxide.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Plants play a vital role in the maintenance of life on Earth. All <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/energy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">energy</a> used by living organisms depends on the complex process of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">photosynthesis</a>, which is mostly carried out by green plants. Radiant energy from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sun" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sun</a> is transformed into organic chemical energy in the form of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sugar-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sugars</a> through the fundamental series of chemical reactions <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituting" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituting" data-type="MW">constituting</a> photosynthesis. In nature all <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/food-chain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">food chains</a> begin with photosynthetic <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/autotroph" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">autotrophs</a> (primary producers), including green plants and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/algae" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">algae</a>. Primary producers, represented by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">trees</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/shrub" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">shrubs</a>, and herbs, are a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="prolific" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prolific" data-type="MW">prolific</a> source of energy in the form of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/carbohydrate" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">carbohydrates</a> (sugars) stored in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/leaf-plant-anatomy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">leaves</a>. These carbohydrates, produced in photosynthesis, are broken down in a process called respiration; the smaller units of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sugar-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sugar</a> molecule and its products fuel numerous metabolic processes. Various parts of the plant (e.g., leaves) are the energy sources that support <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/animal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">animal</a> life in different <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/habitat-biology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">habitats</a>. A by-product of photosynthesis, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oxygen" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">oxygen</a>, is essential to animals.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The daily existence of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-being" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">human beings</a> is also directly influenced by plants. Plants furnish <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/food" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">food</a> and flavourings; raw materials for industry, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/wood-plant-tissue" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">wood</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/resin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">resins</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oil-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">oils</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/rubber-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rubber</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/natural-fiber" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fibres</a> for the manufacture of fabrics and cordage; medicines; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/insecticide" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">insecticides</a>; and fuels. More than half of Earth’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/population-biology-and-anthropology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">population</a> relies on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/grass" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">grasses</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/rice" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rice</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/corn-plant" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">corn</a> (maize), and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/wheat" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">wheat</a> as their primary source of food. Apart from their commercial and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="aesthetic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic" data-type="MW">aesthetic</a> value, plants conserve other natural resources by protecting <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/soil" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">soils</a> from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/erosion-geology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">erosion</a>, by controlling water levels and quality, and by producing a favourable <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atmosphere" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atmosphere</a>.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The following article summarizes the morphological, physiological, and ecological features of plants. The principal focus is on structure and function, physiology, life histories, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ecology</a>, and on how the various plant groups have <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theory" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">evolved</a>, dispersed, and become adapted to life on land. The features that define each major plant group and the role they play in the wider <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecosystem" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ecosystem</a> also are discussed.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/pop-quiz-13-things-to-know-about-photosynthesis" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/94122-050-93F6BAE0/trees-plants-carbon-dioxide-sunlight-sugars-water.jpg" alt="Photosynthesis diagram showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant and that oxygen and sugars are produced. Also show a person to illustrate the oxygen/carbon dioxide cycle between plants and animals." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Pop Quiz: 13 Things to Know About Photosynthesis</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":17,"pageId":463192,"pageLength":562,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Plant | Definition, Evolution, Ecology, & Taxonomy | Britannica