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This discovery laid the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>. Solar cells have gone on to be used in many applications. They have historically been used in situations where electrical power from the grid was unavailable. </p><p>As the invention was brought out it made solar cells as a prominent utilization for power generation for satellites. Satellites orbit the Earth, thus making solar cells a prominent source for power generation through the sunlight falling on them. Solar cells are commonly used in satellites in today's times. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1800s">1800s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1800s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmond_Becquerel,_by_Nadar,_2_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Edmond_Becquerel%2C_by_Nadar%2C_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Becquerel" title="Edmond Becquerel">Edmond Becquerel</a> created the world's first photovoltaic cell at 19 years old in 1839.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1839 - <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Becquerel" title="Edmond Becquerel">Edmond Becquerel</a> observes the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a> via an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1873 - <a href="/wiki/Willoughby_Smith" title="Willoughby Smith">Willoughby Smith</a> finds that <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Photoconductivity" title="Photoconductivity">photoconductivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1874 - <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> writes to fellow mathematician <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tait_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Tait (physicist)">Peter Tait</a> of his observation that light affects the conductivity of selenium.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1877 - <a href="/wiki/William_Grylls_Adams" title="William Grylls Adams">William Grylls Adams</a> and Richard Evans Day observed the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> effect in solidified <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, and published a paper on the selenium cell. 'The action of light on selenium,' in "Proceedings of the Royal Society, A25, 113.</li> <li>1883 - <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fritts" title="Charles Fritts">Charles Fritts</a> develops a solar cell using selenium on a thin layer of gold to form a device giving less than 1% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1887 - <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> investigates ultraviolet light photoconductivity and discovers the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a></li> <li>1887 - James Moser reports <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Wilhelm_Vogel#Dye_sensitization" title="Hermann Wilhelm Vogel">dye sensitized</a> photoelectrochemical cell.</li> <li>1888 - <a href="/wiki/Edward_Weston_(chemist)" title="Edward Weston (chemist)">Edward Weston</a> receives patent US389124, "<i>Solar cell</i>," and US389125, "<i>Solar cell</i>."</li> <li>1888–91 - <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Stoletov" title="Aleksandr Stoletov">Aleksandr Stoletov</a> creates the first <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> based on the outer <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a></li> <li>1894 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Melvin_Severy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melvin Severy (page does not exist)">Melvin Severy</a> receives patent US527377, "<i>Solar cell</i>," and US527379, "<i>Solar cell</i>."</li> <li>1897 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_Reagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry Reagan (page does not exist)">Harry Reagan</a> receives patent US588177, "<i>Solar cell</i>."</li> <li>1899 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Weston_Bowser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weston Bowser (page does not exist)">Weston Bowser</a> receives patent US598177, "S<i>olar storage</i>."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1900–1929"><span id="1900.E2.80.931929"></span>1900–1929</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1900–1929"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1901 - <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_Lenard" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp von Lenard">Philipp von Lenard</a> observes the variation in electron energy with light frequency.</li> <li>1904 - <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hallwachs" title="Wilhelm Hallwachs">Wilhelm Hallwachs</a> makes a semiconductor-junction solar cell (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper(I)_oxide" title="Copper(I) oxide">copper oxide</a>).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Einstein_4.jpg/220px-Einstein_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Einstein_4.jpg/330px-Einstein_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Einstein_4.jpg/440px-Einstein_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Einstein's "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" was published in <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i> in 1905.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1904 - <a href="/wiki/George_Cove" title="George Cove">George Cove</a> develops a solar electric generator.</li> <li>1905 - <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> publishes a paper explaining the photoelectric effect on a quantum basis.</li> <li>1913 - <a href="/wiki/William_Coblentz" title="William Coblentz">William Coblentz</a> receives US1077219, "<i>Solar cell</i>."</li> <li>1914 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sven_Ason_Berglund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sven Ason Berglund (page does not exist)">Sven Ason Berglund</a> patents "<i>methods of increasing the capacity of photosensitive cells</i>."</li> <li>1916 - <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a> conducts experiments and proves the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>.</li> <li>1918 - <a href="/wiki/Jan_Czochralski" title="Jan Czochralski">Jan Czochralski</a> produces a method to grow single crystals of metal. Decades later, the method is adapted to produce single-crystal <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>.</li> <li>1921 - Einstein awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for his work on the photoelectric effect.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1930–1959"><span id="1930.E2.80.931959"></span>1930–1959</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1930–1959"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1932 - Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_selenide" title="Cadmium selenide">Cadmium selenide</a> (CdSe), a photovoltaic material still used today.</li> <li>1935 - Anthony H. Lamb receives patent US2000642, "<i>Photoelectric device</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1946 - <a href="/wiki/Russell_Ohl" title="Russell Ohl">Russell Ohl</a> files patent US2402662, "<i>Light sensitive device</i>."</li> <li>1948 - <a href="/wiki/Gordon_K._Teal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon K. Teal">Gordon Teal</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_B._Little_(radiobiologist)" title="John B. Little (radiobiologist)">John Little</a> adapt the Czochralski method of crystal growth to produce single-crystalline germanium and, later, silicon.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="BellLabs50s"></span> 1950s - <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> produce solar cells for space activities.</li> <li>1953 - <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Pearson" title="Gerald Pearson">Gerald Pearson</a> begins research into <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> photovoltaic cells.</li> <li>1954 - On April 25, 1954, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> announces the invention of the first practical silicon solar cell.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly afterwards, they are shown at the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> Meeting. These cells have about 6% efficiency. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> forecasts that solar cells will eventually lead to a source of "limitless energy of the sun".</li> <li>1955 - <a href="/wiki/Western_Electric" title="Western Electric">Western Electric</a> licences commercial solar cell technologies. <a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoffman Electronics">Hoffman Electronics</a>-Semiconductor Division creates a 2% efficient commercial solar cell for $25/cell or $1,785/watt.</li> <li>1957 - AT&T assignors (<a href="/wiki/Gerald_Pearson" title="Gerald Pearson">Gerald L. Pearson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daryl_M._Chapin" class="mw-redirect" title="Daryl M. Chapin">Daryl M. Chapin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Fuller" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin Fuller">Calvin S. Fuller</a>) receive patent US2780765, "<i>Solar Energy Converting Apparatus</i>." They refer to it as the "solar <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a>". Hoffman Electronics creates an 8% efficient solar cell.</li> <li>1957 – <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> develops the process of silicon <a href="/wiki/Surface_passivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface passivation">surface passivation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_oxidation" title="Thermal oxidation">thermal oxidation</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface passivation process has since been critical to <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">solar cell efficiency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanguard_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Vanguard_1.jpg/220px-Vanguard_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Vanguard_1.jpg/330px-Vanguard_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Vanguard_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vanguard_1" title="Vanguard 1">Vanguard 1</a> with its six solar cells attached</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1958 - T. Mandelkorn, U.S. Signal Corps Laboratories, creates n-on-p silicon solar cells, which are more resistant to radiation damage and are better suited for space. Hoffman Electronics creates 9% efficient solar cells. <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard I">Vanguard I</a>, the first solar-powered satellite, was launched with a 0.1 W, 100 cm<sup>2</sup> solar panel.</li> <li>1959 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 10% efficient commercial solar cell, and introduces the use of a grid contact, reducing the cell's resistance.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1960–1979"><span id="1960.E2.80.931979"></span>1960–1979</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1960–1979"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1960 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 14% efficient solar cell.</li> <li>1961 - "Solar Energy in the Developing World" conference is held by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.</li> <li>1962 - The <a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a> communications satellite is powered by solar cells.</li> <li>1963 - <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp Corporation</a> produces a viable photovoltaic module of silicon solar cells.</li> <li>1964 - The satellite <a href="/wiki/Nimbus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimbus I">Nimbus I</a> is equipped with Sun-tracking solar panels.</li> <li>1964 - <a href="/wiki/Farrington_Daniels" title="Farrington Daniels">Farrington Daniels</a>' landmark book, <i>Direct Use of the Sun's Energy</i>, published by <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>.</li> <li>1967 - <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a> is the first <i>crewed</i> spacecraft to be powered by solar cells</li> <li>1967 - <a href="/wiki/Akira_Fujishima" title="Akira Fujishima">Akira Fujishima</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Honda-Fujishima_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Honda-Fujishima effect">Honda-Fujishima effect</a> which is used for <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cell" title="Photoelectrochemical cell">photoelectrochemical cell</a>.</li> <li>1968 - Roger Riehl introduces the first solar-powered wristwatch.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1970 - First highly effective <a href="/wiki/GaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAs">GaAs</a> <a href="/wiki/Heterostructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterostructure">heterostructure</a> solar cells are created by <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Zhores Alferov</a> and his team in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1971 - <a href="/wiki/Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a> is powered by solar cells.</li> <li>1973 - <a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a> is powered by solar cells.</li> <li>1974 - <a href="/wiki/Florida_Solar_Energy_Center" title="Florida Solar Energy Center">Florida Solar Energy Center</a> begins.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN,_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-DR._R.L._SAN_MARTIN%2C_NEW_MEXICO_STATE_UNIVERSITY_CLOSED_COIL_TYPE_SOLAR_HEATING_PANEL_-_555293_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_State_University" title="New Mexico State University">New Mexico State University</a> professor showing a solar panel in New Mexico in April 1974</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1974 - <a href="/wiki/J._Baldwin" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Baldwin">J. Baldwin</a>, at Integrated Living Systems, co-develops the world's first building (in New Mexico) heated and otherwise powered by solar and <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> exclusively.</li> <li>1976 - <a href="/wiki/David_E._Carlson" title="David E. Carlson">David E. Carlson</a> and Christopher Wronski of RCA Laboratories create first amorphous silicon PV cells, which have an efficiency of 2.4%.</li> <li>1977 - The <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">Solar Energy Research Institute</a> is established at <a href="/wiki/Golden,_Colorado" title="Golden, Colorado">Golden, Colorado</a>.</li> <li>1977 - The world production of photovoltaic cells exceeded 500 kW</li> <li>1978 - First solar-powered calculators.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Late 1970s: the "<a href="/wiki/1979_Energy_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="1979 Energy Crisis">Energy Crisis</a>"; groundswell of public interest in solar energy use: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> and active and passive solar, including in architecture and off-grid buildings and home sites.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1980–1999"><span id="1980.E2.80.931999"></span>1980–1999</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1980–1999"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1980 - The <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Energy_Conversion" title="Institute of Energy Conversion">Institute of Energy Conversion</a> at University of Delaware develops the first <a href="/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin film solar cell">thin film solar cell</a> exceeding 10% efficiency using Cu<sub>2</sub>S/CdS technology.</li> <li>1981 - <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_Institute_for_Solar_Energy_Systems_ISE" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE">Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE</a> is founded by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Goetzberger" title="Adolf Goetzberger">Adolf Goetzberger</a> in Freiburg, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1981 - <a href="/wiki/Isofoton" title="Isofoton">Isofoton</a> is the first company to mass-produce <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">bifacial solar cells</a> based on developments by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Luque" title="Antonio Luque">Antonio Luque</a> et al. at the Institute of Solar Energy in Madrid.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1982 - The first >10% <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> thin film solar cell is reported.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1983 - Worldwide photovoltaic production exceeds 21.3 megawatts, and sales exceed $250 million.</li> <li>1984 - 30,000 SF Building-Integrated Photovoltaic [BI-PV] Roof completed for the Intercultural Center of Georgetown University. Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch. took 20th Anniversary Journey by Horseback for Peace and Photovoltaics in 2004 from solar roof to Ground Zero NY World Trade Center to educate public about BI-PV Solar Architecture. Array was still generating an average of one MWh daily as it has since 1984 in the dense urban environment of Washington, DC.</li> <li>1985 - 20% efficient silicon cells are created by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_for_Photovoltaic_Engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering (page does not exist)">Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a>.</li> <li>1986 - 'Solar-Voltaic DomeTM' patented by Lt. Colonel Richard T. Headrick of Irvine, California, as an efficient architectural configuration for building-integrated photovoltaics [BI-PV]; Hesperia, California field array.</li> <li>1988 - The <a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a> is created by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Gr%C3%A4tzel" title="Michael Grätzel">Michael Grätzel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brian_O%27Regan_(chemist)" title="Brian O'Regan (chemist)">Brian O'Regan</a>. These photoelectrochemical cells work from an organic dye compound inside the cell and cost half as much as silicon solar cells.</li> <li>1988–1991 AMOCO/Enron used Solarex patents to sue ARCO Solar out of the business of a-Si (see Solarex Corp.(Enron/Amoco) v.Arco Solar, Inc.Ddel, 805 Fsupp 252 Fed Digest.)</li> <li>1989 - Reflective solar concentrators are first used with solar cells.</li> <li>1990 - The <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg_Cathedral" title="Magdeburg Cathedral">Magdeburg Cathedral</a> installs solar cells on the roof, marking the first installation on a church in East Germany.</li> <li>1991 - Efficient <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectrochemical cells">photoelectrochemical cells</a> are developed</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_(2_rows).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg/220px-National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg/330px-National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg/440px-National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory_logo_%282_rows%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> logo</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1991 - President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> directs the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a> to establish the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (transferring the existing Solar Energy Research Institute).</li> <li>1992 - The PV Pioneer Program started at Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD). It was the first broad based commercialization of distributed, grid-connected PV system ("roof-top solar") It became the model for the later CA Million Solar Roofs Program.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1992 - University of South Florida fabricates a 15.89% efficient thin-film cell.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>1993 - The <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a>'s (NREL) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_Energy_Research_Facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar Energy Research Facility (page does not exist)">Solar Energy Research Facility</a> is established.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>1994 - NREL develops a GaInP/GaAs two-terminal <a href="/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multijunction photovoltaic cell">concentrator cell</a> (180 suns) which becomes the first solar cell to exceed 30% conversion efficiency.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>1996 - The <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="National Center for Photovoltaics">National Center for Photovoltaics</a> is established. Graetzel, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9rale_de_Lausanne" title="École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne">École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, Switzerland achieves 11% efficient energy conversion with dye-sensitized cells that use a photoelectrochemical effect.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>1999 - Total worldwide installed photovoltaic power reaches 1,000 megawatts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2000–2019"><span id="2000.E2.80.932019"></span>2000–2019</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 2000–2019"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/220px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/330px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/440px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Exponential growth-curve on a semi-log scale of worldwide <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">installed photovoltaics</a> in gigawatts since 1992</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SolarCellProduction-E.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/SolarCellProduction-E.PNG/280px-SolarCellProduction-E.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/SolarCellProduction-E.PNG/420px-SolarCellProduction-E.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/SolarCellProduction-E.PNG 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Solar cell production by region 2000–2010<sup id="cite_ref-pvnews_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pvnews-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PV_Technology_Share.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/PV_Technology_Share.png/220px-PV_Technology_Share.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/PV_Technology_Share.png/330px-PV_Technology_Share.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/PV_Technology_Share.png/440px-PV_Technology_Share.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>Market share of the different PV technologies 1999–2010</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>2003 - George Bush has a 9 kW PV system and a solar thermal systems installed on grounds keeping building at the White House<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2004 - California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed Solar Roofs Initiative for one million solar roofs in California by 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2004 - Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius issued a mandate for 1,000 MWp renewable electricity in Kansas by 2015 per Executive Order 04-05.</li> <li>2006 - <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polysilicon</a> use in <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a> exceeds all other polysilicon use for the first time.</li> <li>2006 - California Public Utilities Commission approved the California Solar Initiative (CSI), a comprehensive $2.8 billion program that provides incentives toward solar development over 11 years.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2006 - New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell Technology - New Solar Cell Breaks the "40 Percent Efficient" Sunlight-to-Electricity Barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2007 - Construction of <a href="/wiki/Nellis_Solar_Power_Plant" title="Nellis Solar Power Plant">Nellis Solar Power Plant</a>, a 15 MW PPA installation.</li> <li>2007 - The Vatican announced that in order to conserve Earth's resources they would be installing solar panels on some buildings, in "a comprehensive energy project that will pay for itself in a few years."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2007 - University of Delaware claims to achieve new world record in Solar Cell Technology without independent confirmation: 42.8% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2007 - <a href="/wiki/Nanosolar" title="Nanosolar">Nanosolar</a> ships the first commercial printed <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">CIGS</a>, claiming that they will eventually ship for less than $1/<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the company does not publicly disclose the technical specifications or current selling price of the modules.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2008 - New record achieved in solar cell efficiency. Scientists at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (NREL) have set a world record in solar cell efficiency with a photovoltaic device that converts 40.8% of the light that hits it into electricity. However, it was only under the concentrated energy of 326 suns that this was achieved. The inverted metamorphic <a href="/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multijunction photovoltaic cell">triple-junction solar cell</a> was designed, fabricated and independently measured at NREL.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2010 − <a href="/wiki/IKAROS" title="IKAROS">IKAROS</a> becomes the first spacecraft to successfully demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">solar sail</a> technology in interplanetary space.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceflightnow_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceflightnow-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2010 - US President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> orders installation of additional solar panels and a solar water heater at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a><sup id="cite_ref-white_house_goes_solar_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white_house_goes_solar-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2011 - Fast-growing factories in China push manufacturing costs down to about $1.25 per watt for silicon photovoltaic modules. Installations double worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2013 - After three years, the solar panels ordered by <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">President</a> Barack Obama were installed on the White House.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg/300px-Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg/450px-Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg/600px-Worldwide_Photovoltaic_Deployment_in_Watts_per_Capita_by_Country.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>Worldwide installed photovoltaic capacity in "watts per capita" by country. Estimated figures for year 2016.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>2016 - <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a> engineers established a new world record for unfocused sunlight conversion to electricity with an efficiency increase to 34.5% <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-tech/milestone-solar-cell-efficiency-unsw-engineers">[3]</a>. The record was set by UNSW's Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP) using a 28 cm<sup>2</sup> four-junction mini-module – embedded in a <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prism</a> – that extracts the maximum energy from sunlight. It does this by splitting the incoming rays into four bands, using a four-junction receiver to squeeze even more electricity from each beam of sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2016 - <a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a> says it has converted 22.1 percent of the energy in sunlight into electricity using experimental cells made from cadmium telluride—a technology that today represents around 5 percent of the worldwide solar power market.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2018 - <a href="/wiki/Alta_Devices" title="Alta Devices">Alta Devices</a>, a US-based specialty <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">PV</a> manufacturer, claimed to have achieved a <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> <a href="/wiki/Conversion_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversion efficiency">conversion efficiency</a> record of 29.1%, as certified by Germany's <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_Society" title="Fraunhofer Society">Fraunhofer</a> ISE CalLab.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2018 - The first dedicated solar panel recycling plant in Europe and "possibly in the world" is opened in France.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>2019 – The world record for <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">solar cell efficiency</a> at 47.1% was achieved by using <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">multi-junction</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator</a> solar cells, developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USA.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is above the standard rating of 37% for polycrystalline photovoltaic or thin-film solar cells as of 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was reported in a study published in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/400px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/600px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/800px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 2x" data-file-width="4919" data-file-height="2457" /></a><figcaption>Reported timeline of research <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> energy conversion efficiencies since 1976 (<a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2020s">2020s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 2020s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020">2020</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 2020"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> of <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cells</a> have increased from 3.8% in 2009<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 25.2% in 2020 in single-junction architectures,<sup id="cite_ref-NREL_chart_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NREL_chart-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.1%,<sup id="cite_ref-NREL_chart_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NREL_chart-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>6 March – Scientists show that adding a layer of <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskite</a> crystals on top of textured or planar silicon to create a <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">tandem solar cell</a> enhances its performance up to a power conversion efficiency of 26%. This could be a low cost way to increase efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>13 July – The first global assessment into promising approaches of solar photovoltaic modules recycling is published. Scientists recommend "research and development to reduce recycling costs and environmental impacts compared to disposal while maximizing material recovery" as well as facilitation and use of techno–economic analyses.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>3 July – Scientists show that adding an organic-based ionic solid into <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskites</a> can result in substantial improvement in <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> performance and stability. The study also reveals a complex degradation route that is responsible for failures in aged <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cells</a>. The understanding could help the future development of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaic</a> technologies with industrially relevant longevity.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2021">2021</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 2021"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>12 April – Scientists develop a prototype and <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> rules for both-sides-contacted <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">silicon</a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> with conversion efficiencies of 26% and above, Earth's highest for this type of solar cell.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>7 May – Researchers address a key problem of <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cells</a> by increasing their stability and long-term reliability with a <a href="/wiki/Self-assembled_monolayer" title="Self-assembled monolayer">form of "molecular glue"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>21 May – The first industrial commercial production line of perovskite solar panels, using an inkjet printing procedure, is launched in Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>13 December – Researchers report the development of a database and analysis tool about <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cells</a> which systematically integrates over 15,000 publications, in particular device-data about over 42,400 of such photovoltaic devices.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>16 December – ML System from <a href="/wiki/Jasionka,_Rzesz%C3%B3w_County" title="Jasionka, Rzeszów County">Jasionka</a>, Poland, opens first quantum glass production line. The factory started the production of windows integrating a transparent quantum-dots layer that can produce electricity while also capable of cooling buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2022">2022</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 2022"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>30 May - A team at <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_ISE" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraunhofer ISE">Fraunhofer ISE</a> led by Frank Dimroth developed a 4-junction solar cell with an efficiency of 47.6% - a new world record for solar energy conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>13 July – Researchers report the development of <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">semitransparent solar cells</a> that are as large as windows,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after team members achieved record efficiency with high transparency in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 4 July, researchers report the fabrication of solar cells with a record average visible transparency of 79%, being nearly invisible.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>9 December – Researchers report the development of 3D-printed <a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">flexible</a> <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">paper-thin organic photovoltaics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>19 December – A new world record <a href="/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency" title="Solar-cell efficiency">solar cell efficiency</a> for a silicon-perovskite <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">tandem solar cell</a> is achieved, with a German team of scientists converting 32.5% of sunlight into electrical energy.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="The material preceding this tag may lack sufficient importance. (February 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2024">2024</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 2024"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>12 March – Scientists demonstrate the first monolithically integrated tandem solar cell using <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> as the photoabsorbing layer in the top cell, and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> as the photoabsorbing layer in the bottom cell.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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topics">List of energy topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_energy_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of solar energy topics">List of solar energy topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics" title="Financial incentives for photovoltaics">Financial incentives for photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid#Research" title="Smart grid">Smart grid#Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies" title="Timeline of hydrogen technologies">Timeline of hydrogen technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020%E2%80%93present" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present">Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" title="List of years in science">List of years in science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200507163731/https://www.unige.ch/sphn/Publications/ArchivesSciences/AdS%202004-2015/AdS%202005%20Vol%2058%20Fasc%202/149-158_58_2.pdf">"Recreating Edmond Becquerel's electrochemical actinometer"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recreating+Edmond+Becquerel%27s+electrochemical+actinometer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unige.ch%2Fsphn%2FPublications%2FArchivesSciences%2FAdS%25202004-2015%2FAdS%25202005%2520Vol%252058%2520Fasc%25202%2F149-158_58_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecquerel1839" class="citation journal cs1">Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond (1839). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comptes-rendus-hebdomadaires-des-seances-...-academie-des-bpt-6k-2968p">"Recherche sur les effets de la radiation chimique de la lumière solaire, au moyen des courants électriques"</a>. <i>Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences</i>. <b>9</b>: 145–149<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+rendus+hebdomadaires+des+s%C3%A9ances+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+des+sciences&rft.atitle=Recherche+sur+les+effets+de+la+radiation+chimique+de+la+lumi%C3%A8re+solaire%2C+au+moyen+des+courants+%C3%A9lectriques&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=145-149&rft.date=1839&rft.aulast=Becquerel&rft.aufirst=Alexandre+Edmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomptes-rendus-hebdomadaires-des-seances-...-academie-des-bpt-6k-2968p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1873" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Willoughby (20 February 1873). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F007303e0">"Effect of Light on Selenium During the Passage of An Electric Current"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>7</b> (173): 303. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1873Natur...7R.303.">1873Natur...7R.303.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F007303e0">10.1038/007303e0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Effect+of+Light+on+Selenium+During+the+Passage+of+An+Electric+Current&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=173&rft.pages=303&rft.date=1873-02-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F007303e0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1873Natur...7R.303.&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Willoughby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F007303e0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1874" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (April 1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JbNK9lRLHPEC&pg=PA67"><i>The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk Maxwell: Volume 3, 1874-1879</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: P. M. Harman. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25627-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25627-8"><bdi>978-0-521-25627-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027213439/https://books.google.com/books?id=JbNK9lRLHPEC&pg=PA67">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Letters+and+Papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+Volume+3%2C+1874-1879&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=P.+M.+Harman&rft.date=1874-04&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25627-8&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJbNK9lRLHPEC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cleantechnica.com/2014/12/31/photovoltaic-dreaming-first-attempts-commercializing-pv/">"Photovoltaic Dreaming 1875–1905: First Attempts At Commercializing PV"</a>. 31 December 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525170459/https://cleantechnica.com/2014/12/31/photovoltaic-dreaming-first-attempts-commercializing-pv/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Photovoltaic+Dreaming+1875%E2%80%931905%3A+First+Attempts+At+Commercializing+PV&rft.date=2014-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcleantechnica.com%2F2014%2F12%2F31%2Fphotovoltaic-dreaming-first-attempts-commercializing-pv%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Issue date: May 7, 1935. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.google.com/patents?id=QNh4AAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22this+invention+relates+to+photoelectric+devices+and+more+particularly+to%22lamb&source=bl&ots=XzsdoV3IEx&sig=bfrJAf1YEM6qI8ODcu8qRzEMYC8&hl=en&ei=YFYtTbTtPMKt8Aaa162NCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22this%20invention%20relates%20to%20photoelectric%20devices%20and%20more%20particularly%20to%22lamb&f=false">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=patent+lamb+%222000642%22&hl=en&num=10&lr=&ft=i&cr=&safe=images&tbs=#sclient=psy&hl=en&lr=&tbs=bks:1&q=%22AH+Lamb.+2.000%2C042%22&aq=&aqi=&aql=f&oq=&gs_rfai=&pbx=1&fp=fc8aae4abccfd483">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027213440/https://www.google.com/gen_204?atyp=csi&ei=7sV5YY6TL8HJ-gSl3qbYCw&s=web&t=all&bl=VsEN&frtp=288&wh=10520&imn=1&ima=0&imad=0&aftp=-1&adh=&ime=1&imex=1&imeh=0&imea=0&imeb=0&scp=0&fld=800&net=dl.10000,ect.4g,rtt.50&mem=ujhs.11,tjhs.14,jhsl.4295,dm.8&sto=&sys=hc.30&rt=sct.266,frt.313,aft.376,aftqf.379,prt.376,dcl.413,xjsls.415,xjses.569,xjsee.664,xjs.665,ol.1362,wsrt.123,cst.10,dnst.0,rqst.407,rspt.308,sslt.6,rqstt.24,unt.7,cstt.14,dit.536&zx=1635370480224#sclient=psy&hl=en&lr=&tbs=bks:1&q=%22AH+Lamb.+2.000%2C042%22&aq=&aqi=&aql=f&oq=&gs_rfai=&pbx=1&fp=fc8aae4abccfd483">Archived</a> 2021-10-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_C._Brock2006" class="citation journal cs1">David C. Brock (Spring 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615124737/http://www.chemheritage.org/pubs/ch-v24n1-articles/haw_germanium.html">"Useless No More: Gordon K. Teal, Germanium, and Single-Crystal Transistors"</a>. <i>Chemical Heritage Magazine</i>. <b>24</b> (1). Chemical Heritage Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemheritage.org/pubs/ch-v24n1-articles/haw_germanium.html">the original</a> on June 15, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=Useless+No+More%3A+Gordon+K.+Teal%2C+Germanium%2C+and+Single-Crystal+Transistors&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006&rft.au=David+C.+Brock&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemheritage.org%2Fpubs%2Fch-v24n1-articles%2Fhaw_germanium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200904/physicshistory.cfm">"April 25, 1954: Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell"</a>. <i>APS News</i>. <b>18</b> (4). American Physical Society. April 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180128132644/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200904/physicshistory.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on January 28, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 15,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=APS+News&rft.atitle=April+25%2C+1954%3A+Bell+Labs+Demonstrates+the+First+Practical+Silicon+Solar+Cell&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2009-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F200904%2Fphysicshistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._M._ChapinC._S._FullerG._L._Pearson1954" class="citation journal cs1">D. M. Chapin; C. S. Fuller & G. L. Pearson (May 1954). "A New Silicon p-n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power". <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>. <b>25</b> (5): 676–677. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954JAP....25..676C">1954JAP....25..676C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1721711">10.1063/1.1721711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Physics&rft.atitle=A+New+Silicon+p-n+Junction+Photocell+for+Converting+Solar+Radiation+into+Electrical+Power&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=676-677&rft.date=1954-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1721711&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1954JAP....25..676C&rft.au=D.+M.+Chapin&rft.au=C.+S.+Fuller&rft.au=G.+L.+Pearson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2016" class="citation book cs1">Black, Lachlan E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156698511.pdf"><i>New Perspectives on Surface Passivation: Understanding the Si-Al2O3 Interface</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Springer. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-32521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-32521-7"><bdi>978-3-319-32521-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304010528/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156698511.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Surface+Passivation%3A+Understanding+the+Si-Al2O3+Interface&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-32521-7&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Lachlan+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F156698511.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lojek-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lojek_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLojek2007" class="citation book cs1">Lojek, Bo (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historysemicondu00loje_697"><i>History of Semiconductor Engineering</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historysemicondu00loje_697/page/n128">120</a>& 321-323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-34258-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-34258-8"><bdi>978-3-540-34258-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Semiconductor+Engineering&rft.pages=120%26+321-323&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-34258-8&rft.aulast=Lojek&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorysemicondu00loje_697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2016" class="citation book cs1">Black, Lachlan E. 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"Monolithic Selenium/Silicon Tandem Solar Cells". <i>PRX Energy</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 013013. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.05996">2307.05996</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPRXEnergy.3.013013">10.1103/PRXEnergy.3.013013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PRX+Energy&rft.atitle=Monolithic+Selenium%2FSilicon+Tandem+Solar+Cells&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=013013&rft.date=2024-03-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2307.05996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPRXEnergy.3.013013&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Rasmus&rft.au=Crovetto%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Assar%2C+Alireza&rft.au=Hansen%2C+Ole&rft.au=Chorkendorff%2C+Ib&rft.au=Vesborg%2C+Peter+C.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+solar+cells" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_solar_cells&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://us.sunpower.com/solar-resources">Solar Resources</a></i>". SunPower Corporation, 2004.</li> <li>"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-solar-cells-1992435">History: Photovoltaics Timeline</a></i>". About, Inc., 2005.</li> <li>Lenardic, Denis, "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pvresources.com/en/introduction/history.php">Photovoltaics - Historical Development</a></i>". PVResources.com, 2015.</li> <li>Perlin, John, "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208155823/http://www.californiasolarcenter.org/solareclips/2002.07/20020709-8.html">Making Electricity Directly from Sunlight</a></i>". Rahus Institute, 2002.</li> <li>Trinkaus, George, "<i>The Lost Inventions of Nikola Tesla</i>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.t0.or.at/tesla/tesfreee.htm">Free Energy Receiver</a>, Chapter 9.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eetimes.com/news/semi/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=185300504">Firm ups solar cell forecast for 2006, 2007</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Thermal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a><br />and related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">Concentrator photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_solar" title="Floating solar">Floating solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic array</a> (and systems)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">Photovoltaic effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Photovoltaic module</a> (solar panel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">Concentrator photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliostat" title="Heliostat">Heliostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_trough" title="Parabolic trough">Parabolic trough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />and proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chemical" title="Solar chemical">Solar chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">artificial photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-pumped_laser" title="Solar-pumped laser">Solar-pumped laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_updraft_tower" title="Solar updraft tower">Solar updraft tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">Thermoelectric generator</a></li> <li>Space-related <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail" title="Magnetic sail">Magnetic sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_rocket" title="Solar thermal rocket">Solar thermal rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Armenia" title="Solar power in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Austria" title="Solar power in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Brazil" title="Solar power in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Denmark" title="Solar power in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Israel" title="Solar power in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Mexico" title="Solar power in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Morocco" title="Solar power in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Myanmar" title="Solar power in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_New_Zealand" title="Solar power in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Pakistan" title="Solar power in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Portugal" title="Solar power in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Solar power in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Somalia" title="Solar power in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Turkey" title="Solar power in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Ukraine" title="Solar power in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Yemen" title="Solar power in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Shade_Control_Act" title="Solar Shade Control Act">Solar Shade Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Distribution<br />and uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_material" title="Phase-change material">Phase-change material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">seasonal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adoption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics" title="Financial incentives for photovoltaics">Financial incentives for photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_balloon" title="Solar balloon">Solar balloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">Greenhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytunnel" title="Polytunnel">Polytunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Row_cover" title="Row cover">Row cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Building</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lighting</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(architecture)" title="Daylighting (architecture)">Daylighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_lighting" title="Hybrid solar lighting">Hybrid solar lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_tube" title="Light tube">Light tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Process heat</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Salt evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooker" title="Solar cooker">Solar cooker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disinfection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_solarization" title="Soil solarization">Soil solarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_disinfection" title="Solar water disinfection">Solar water disinfection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Desalination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_still" title="Solar still">Solar still</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water heating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_controller" title="Solar controller">Solar controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_power_by_country" title="Template:Solar power by country">Solar power by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Solar_energy" title="Category:Solar energy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Solar_energy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Solar energy">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Photovoltaics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photovoltaics" title="Template talk:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photovoltaics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_constant" title="Solar constant">Solar constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Quantum efficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_power_(photovoltaic)" title="Nominal power (photovoltaic)">Nominal power (Watt-peak)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell" title="Third-generation photovoltaic cell">Third-generation photovoltaic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_research" title="Solar cell research">Solar cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">Thermodynamic efficiency limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun-free_photovoltaics" title="Sun-free photovoltaics">Sun-free photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarizing_organic_photovoltaics" title="Polarizing organic photovoltaics">Polarizing organic photovoltaics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon (c-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">Cadmium telluride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon (a-Si)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Timeline of solar cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic<br />system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell" title="Hybrid solar cell">Hybrid solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmonic_solar_cell" title="Plasmonic solar cell">Plasmonic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaics" title="Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics">Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_solar_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed solar panel">Printed solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance of system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charge_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar charge controller">Solar charge controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_shingles" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar shingles">Solar shingles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_mirror#Photovoltaic_augmentation" title="Solar mirror">Solar mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronverter" title="Synchronverter">Synchronverter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fill factor (solar cell)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system_performance" title="Photovoltaic system performance">PV system performance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Appliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_refrigerator" title="Solar-powered refrigerator">Solar-powered refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#Photovoltaic_(PV)_solar_cooling" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_watch" title="Solar-powered watch">Solar-powered watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_keyboard" title="Photovoltaic keyboard">Photovoltaic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_road_stud" title="Solar road stud">Solar road stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_radio" title="Solar-powered radio">Solar-powered radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_flashlight" title="Solar-powered flashlight">Solar-powered flashlight</a></li> <li>Solar-powered fan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_street_light" title="Solar street light">Solar street light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_traffic_light" title="Solar traffic light">Solar traffic light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Land transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_golf_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar golf cart">Solar golf cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quiet_Achiever" title="The Quiet Achiever">The Quiet Achiever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Air transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Solar_Riser" title="Mauro Solar Riser">Mauro Solar Riser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-Powered_Aircraft_Developments_Solar_One" title="Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One">Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinetiq_Zephyr" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinetiq Zephyr">Qinetiq Zephyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Water transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat#Types" title="Electric boat">Solar boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Solar vehicle racing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car_racing" title="Solar car racing">Solar car racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_car_teams" title="List of solar car teams">List of solar car teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_challenge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Solar challenge (disambiguation)">Solar challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge">World Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Challenge" title="American Solar Challenge">American Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_Sun_Grand_Prix" title="Formula Sun Grand Prix">Formula Sun Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Cup" title="Solar Cup">Solar Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Solar_Challenge" title="Frisian Solar Challenge">Frisian Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Splash" title="Solar Splash">Solar Splash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Solar_Challenge" title="South African Solar Challenge">South African Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_Sol" title="Tour de Sol">Tour de Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt-Winston_School_Solar_Car_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge">Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Model_Solar_Vehicle_Challenge" title="Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge">Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Generation<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="PV_power_station" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">PV power station</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">List of photovoltaic power stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Building-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">Rooftop photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Ark" title="Solar Ark">Solar Ark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Solar power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chile" title="Solar power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Switzerland" title="Solar power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">PV companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_production" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by photovoltaics production">List of countries by photovoltaics production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Individual producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_CELLS" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q CELLS">Hanwha Q CELLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motech_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Motech Solar">Motech Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation" title="Renewable Energy Corporation">REC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Solar" title="Sharp Solar">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Frontier" title="Solar Frontier">Solar Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solyndra" title="Solyndra">Solyndra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNGEN_International_Limited" title="SUNGEN International Limited">Sungen Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunpower">Sunpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suntech" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntech">Suntech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yingli_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingli Solar">Yingli Solar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" 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