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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hereditary_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hereditary_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hereditary disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hereditary_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infection_with_cytomegalovirus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infection_with_cytomegalovirus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Infection with cytomegalovirus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infection_with_cytomegalovirus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Farming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Other causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inherited_polymorphisms_of_the_DNA_repair_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inherited_polymorphisms_of_the_DNA_repair_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Inherited polymorphisms of the DNA repair genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inherited_polymorphisms_of_the_DNA_repair_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pathophysiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_type_of_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_type_of_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>By type of cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_type_of_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_grade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_grade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>By grade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_grade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>By location</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Integrated diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Refractory_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refractory_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Refractory disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refractory_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_effectiveness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_effectiveness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Relative effectiveness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_effectiveness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Research_Directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Research_Directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>New Research Directions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Research_Directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Prognosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prognosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low_grade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_grade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Low grade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_grade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_grade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_grade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>High grade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_grade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffuse_midline_glioma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffuse_midline_glioma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Diffuse midline glioma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffuse_midline_glioma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IDH1_and_IDH2-mutated_glioma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IDH1_and_IDH2-mutated_glioma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span><i>IDH1</i> and <i>IDH2-</i>mutated glioma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IDH1_and_IDH2-mutated_glioma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Glioma</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%8A" title="ورم دبقي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ورم دبقي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE" title="গ্লিওমা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গ্লিওমা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Γλοίωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλοίωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7" title="گلیوما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گلیوما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliome" title="Gliome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gliome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B5%90%EC%A2%85" title="신경교종 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경교종" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliomo" title="Gliomo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gliomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%94" title="גליומה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גליומה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioom" title="Glioom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glioom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E8%86%A0%E8%85%AB" title="神経膠腫 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経膠腫" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glejak" title="Glejak – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glejak" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Глиома – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Глиома" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma" title="Glioma – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Glioma" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliooma" title="Gliooma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gliooma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliom" title="Gliom – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gliom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гліома – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гліома" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E8%86%A0%E8%B3%AA%E7%98%A4" title="神經膠質瘤 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神經膠質瘤" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1365309#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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The specific problem is: <b>Article is full of grammatical and tone errors.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Glioma" title="Special:EditPage/Glioma">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Glioma</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Glioma.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Glioma.gif/220px-Glioma.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Glioma.gif/330px-Glioma.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Glioma.gif/440px-Glioma.gif 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="453" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Glioma in the left parietal lobe (brain CT scan), WHO grade 2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Advanced age, ionizing radiation<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Brain imaging</a><sup id="cite_ref-ref1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>glioma</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Primary_tumor" title="Primary tumor">primary</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumor</a> that starts in the <a href="/wiki/Glial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cells">glial cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. They are <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancerous</a> but some are extremely slow to develop.<sup id="cite_ref-CRUK23_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRUK23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CRUK_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRUK-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gliomas comprise about 30 percent of all <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a> and central nervous system tumours, and 80 percent of all malignant brain tumours.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodenberger2012_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenberger2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symptoms of gliomas depend on which part of the central nervous system is affected. A brain glioma can cause <a href="/wiki/Headaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Headaches">headaches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial nerve">cranial nerve</a> disorders as a result of increased intracranial pressure. Also, different <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_impairment" title="Cognitive impairment">cognitive impairments</a> can arise as a sign of tumor growth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A glioma of the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> can cause vision loss. Spinal cord gliomas can cause <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weakness" title="Weakness">weakness</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Numbness" class="mw-redirect" title="Numbness">numbness</a> in the extremities. Gliomas do not usually <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasize</a> by the bloodstream, but they can spread via the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> and cause "drop metastases" to the spinal cord. Complex visual hallucinations have been described as a symptom of low-grade glioma.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A child who has a subacute disorder of the central nervous system that produces cranial nerve abnormalities (especially of cranial nerve VII and the lower bulbar nerves), long-tract signs, unsteady gait secondary to spasticity, and some behavioral changes is most likely to have a pontine glioma.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hereditary_disorders">Hereditary disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hereditary disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exact causes of gliomas are not known. <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic disorders">Hereditary disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurofibromatoses">neurofibromatoses</a> (type 1 and type 2) and <a href="/wiki/Tuberous_sclerosis_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberous sclerosis complex">tuberous sclerosis complex</a> are known to predispose to their development.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different oncogenes can cooperate in the development of gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation">Radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The best-known risk factor is exposure to ionizing radiation, and CT scan radiation is an important cause.<sup id="cite_ref-nrsCT1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrsCT1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nrsIR1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrsIR1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dose-response for the relationship between low-dose ionising radiation and glioma risk is a risk increase of 55% per 100 milligray of radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-nrsCT1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrsCT1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A link between gliomas and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cell_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell phones">cell phones</a> has not been conclusively proven.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was considered possible,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though several large studies have found no conclusive evidence, as summarized by the NIH's <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a> review of the topic<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its numerous citations,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/FCC" class="mw-redirect" title="FCC">FCC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, further research is still being pursued to obtain more robust evidence and verify that there is no relationship (the NIH's National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences most recent press release discussed an ongoing study<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing mildly positive results,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it appears there may have been issues with the control group dying prematurely<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infection_with_cytomegalovirus">Infection with cytomegalovirus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Infection with cytomegalovirus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some studies have reported that glioblastomas are infected with <a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus" title="Cytomegalovirus">cytomegalovirus</a>, with suggestions that this may speed the development of tumors.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is a controversial opinion, with recent in-depth studies failing to find an association between viral infection and glioma growth.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence that previous studies may have been impacted by false-positive antibody staining artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farming">Farming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Farming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have shown that farmers have higher rates of gliomas compared to the general population. In a 2021 meta-analysis, 40 of 52 studies since 1998 reported positive associations between farming and brain cancer with effect estimates ranging from 1.03 to 6.53, of which 80% are gliomas. Livestock farming was associated with a greater risk compared with crop farming. Farmers with documented exposure to pesticides had greater than a 20% elevated risk of brain cancer<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (January 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> The TRACTOR project study, including 1017 brain tumors among 1 036 069 farm managers, published in 2022, showed an increased risk of glioma in pig farming (HR = 2.28), crop farming (HR = 1.28) and fruit arboriculture (HR = 1.72)<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (January 2024)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_causes">Other causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data show that architects, surveyors, retail workers, butchers, and engineers have higher rates of gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inherited_polymorphisms_of_the_DNA_repair_genes">Inherited polymorphisms of the DNA repair genes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Inherited polymorphisms of the DNA repair genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Germ-line (inherited) polymorphisms of the DNA repair genes <i><a href="/wiki/ERCC1" title="ERCC1">ERCC1</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/ERCC2" title="ERCC2">ERCC2</a></i> (<i>XPD</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/XRCC1" title="XRCC1">XRCC1</a></i> increase the risk of glioma.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24500421_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24500421-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This indicates that altered or deficient repair of DNA damage contributes to the formation of gliomas. DNA damages are a likely major primary cause of progression to cancer in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excess DNA damages can give rise to mutations through <a href="/wiki/Mutation#Error_prone_replication_by-pass" title="Mutation">translesion synthesis</a>. Furthermore, incomplete DNA repair can give rise to <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetic</a> alterations or epimutations.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such mutations and epimutations may provide a cell with a proliferative advantage which can then, by a process of natural selection, lead to progression to cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics" title="Cancer epigenetics">Epigenetic</a> repression of DNA repair genes is often found in progression to <a href="/wiki/Cancer#Heredity" title="Cancer">sporadic</a> <a href="/wiki/Glioblastoma" title="Glioblastoma">glioblastoma</a>. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Methylation" title="Methylation">methylation</a> of the DNA repair gene <a href="/wiki/O-6-methylguanine-DNA_methyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase"><i>MGMT</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoter</a> was observed in 51% to 66% of glioblastoma specimens.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22672670_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22672670-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spiegel_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiegel-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, in some glioblastomas, the MGMT protein is deficient due to another type of epigenetic alteration. MGMT protein expression may also be reduced due to increased levels of a <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a> that inhibits the ability of the <i>MGMT</i> <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> to produce the MGMT protein.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiegel_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiegel-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang et al.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22570426_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22570426-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found, in the glioblastomas without methylated <i>MGMT</i> <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoters</a>, that the level of microRNA miR-181d is inversely correlated with protein expression of MGMT and that the direct target of miR-181d is the <i>MGMT</i> mRNA 3'UTR (the three prime untranslated region of <i>MGMT</i> messenger RNA).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epigenetic reductions in expression of another DNA repair protein, <i><a href="/wiki/ERCC1" title="ERCC1">ERCC1</a></i>, were found in an assortment of 32 gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19626585_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19626585-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 17 of the 32 (53%) of the gliomas tested, ERCC1 protein expression was reduced or absent. In the case of 12 gliomas (37.5%) this reduction was due to methylation of the <i>ERCC1</i> promoter. For the other 5 gliomas with reduced ERCC1 protein expression, the reduction could have been due to epigenetic alterations in <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a> that affect <i>ERCC1</i> expression.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When expression of DNA repair genes is reduced, DNA damages accumulate in cells at a higher than normal level, and such excess damages cause increased frequencies of mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-Narayanan_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narayanan-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hegan_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hegan-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tutt_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tutt-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutations in gliomas frequently occur in either <i><a href="/wiki/Isocitrate_dehydrogenase" title="Isocitrate dehydrogenase">isocitrate dehydrogenase</a></i> (<i>IDH</i>) <i>1</i> or <i>2</i> genes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these mutations (mostly in <i>IDH1</i>) occurs in about 80% of low grade gliomas and secondary high-grade gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang et al.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22824796_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22824796-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pointed out that <i>IDH1</i> and <i>IDH2</i> mutant cells produce an excess metabolic intermediate, 2-hydroxyglutarate, which binds to catalytic sites in key enzymes that are important in altering <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histone</a> and DNA <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoter</a> methylation. Thus, mutations in <i>IDH1</i> and <i>IDH2</i> generate a "DNA CpG island methylator phenotype or CIMP"<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10411935_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10411935-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid24834258_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24834258-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that causes promoter hypermethylation and concomitant silencing of tumor suppressor genes such as DNA repair genes <i>MGMT</i> and <i>ERCC1</i>. On the other hand, Cohen et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Molenaar et al.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pointed out that mutations in <i>IDH1</i> or <i>IDH2</i> can cause increased oxidative stress. Increased oxidative damage to DNA could be mutagenic. This is supported by an increased number of DNA double-strand breaks in <i>IDH1</i>-mutated glioma cells.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, <i>IDH1</i> or <i>IDH2</i> mutations act as driver mutations in glioma carcinogenesis, though it is not clear by which role they are primarily acting. A study, involving 51 patients with brain gliomas who had two or more biopsies over time, showed that mutation in the <i>IDH1</i> gene occurred prior to the occurrence of a <i>p53</i> mutation or a 1p/19q loss of heterozygosity, indicating that an <i>IDH1</i> mutation is an early driver mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19246647_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19246647-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High-grade gliomas are highly <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tumor" title="Vascular tumor">vascular tumors</a> and have a tendency to infiltrate diffusely.<sup id="cite_ref-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have extensive areas of <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a>. Often, tumor growth causes a breakdown of the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a> in the vicinity of the tumor. As a rule, high-grade gliomas almost always grow back even after complete surgical excision, so are commonly called recurrent cancer of the brain.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (September 2019)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, low-grade gliomas grow slowly, often over many years, and can be followed without treatment unless they grow and cause symptoms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (September 2019)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Several acquired (not inherited) genetic mutations have been found in gliomas. <a href="/wiki/P53" title="P53">Tumor suppressor protein 53</a> (p53) is mutated early in the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> p53 is the "guardian of the genome", which, during DNA and cell duplication, makes sure the DNA is copied correctly and destroys the cell (<a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>) if the DNA is mutated and cannot be fixed. When p53 itself is mutated, other mutations can survive. <a href="/wiki/Phosphatase_and_tensin_homolog" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphatase and tensin homolog">Phosphatase and tensin homolog</a> (PTEN), another tumor suppressor gene, is itself lost or mutated. <a href="/wiki/Epidermal_growth_factor_receptor" title="Epidermal growth factor receptor">Epidermal growth factor receptor</a>, a growth factor that normally stimulates cells to divide, is amplified and stimulates cells to divide too much. Together, these mutations lead to cells dividing uncontrollably, a hallmark of cancer. In 2009, mutations in <i><a href="/wiki/IDH1" title="IDH1">IDH1</a></i> and<i> <a href="/wiki/IDH2" title="IDH2">IDH2</a></i> were found to be part of the mechanism and associated with a less favorable prognosis.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_type_of_cell">By type of cell</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: By type of cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gliomas are named according to the specific type of cell with which they share <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histological</a> features, but not necessarily from which they originate. The main types of glioma are:<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ependymoma" title="Ependymoma">Ependymomas</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ependymal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Ependymal cell">ependymal cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrocytoma" title="Astrocytoma">Astrocytomas</a>: <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Glioblastoma_multiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Glioblastoma multiforme">glioblastoma multiforme</a> is a malignant astrocytoma and the most common primary brain tumor among adults).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendroglioma" title="Oligodendroglioma">Oligodendrogliomas</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainstem_glioma" title="Brainstem glioma">Brainstem glioma</a>: develop in the <a href="/wiki/Brain_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain stem">brain stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve_glioma" title="Optic nerve glioma">Optic nerve glioma</a>: develop in or around the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a></li> <li>Chordoid glioma, a rare low-grade tumor of the <a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">third ventricle</a><sup id="cite_ref-Zarghouni_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarghouni-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mixed gliomas, such as <a href="/wiki/Oligoastrocytomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligoastrocytomas">oligoastrocytomas</a>, contain cells from different types of glia</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_grade">By grade</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: By grade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gliomas are further categorised according to their <a href="/wiki/Grading_(tumors)" title="Grading (tumors)">grade</a>, which is determined by <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathologic</a> evaluation of the tumor. The neuropathological evaluation and diagnostics of brain tumor specimens is performed according to WHO Classification of Tumours of the Central Nervous System.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG/220px-MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG/330px-MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG/440px-MRI_glioma_28_yr_old_male.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1523" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>Low-grade brain glioma in a 28-year-old male. (Taken on 10 July 2007)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Biologically benign gliomas [WHO grade I] are comparatively low risk and can be removed surgically depending on their location<sup id="cite_ref-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Low-grade gliomas [WHO grade II] are well-differentiated (not <a href="/wiki/Anaplasia" title="Anaplasia">anaplastic</a>); these tend to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">benign</a> tendencies and portend a better prognosis for the patient. However, they have a uniform rate of recurrence and increase in grade over time so should be classified as malignant.</li> <li>High-grade [WHO grades III–IV] gliomas are undifferentiated or <a href="/wiki/Anaplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaplastic">anaplastic</a>; these are <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">malignant</a> and carry a worse prognosis. Despite being classified as a high-grade glioma, infant-type hemispheric gliomas have relatively good clinical outcomes, yet they endure significant deficits, making them good candidates for therapy de-escalation and trials of molecular targeted therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Of numerous grading systems in use, the most common is the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) grading system for astrocytoma, under which tumors are graded from I (least advanced disease—best prognosis) to IV (most advanced disease—worst prognosis). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_location">By location</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: By location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gliomas can be classified according to whether they are above or below a membrane in the brain called the <a href="/wiki/Tentorium_cerebelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tentorium cerebelli">tentorium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tentorium separates the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> (above) from the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> (below). </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Supratentorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Supratentorial">supratentorial</a> is above the tentorium, in the cerebrum, and mostly found in adults (70%).<sup id="cite_ref-Persaud-Sharma_16_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Persaud-Sharma_16-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Infratentorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Infratentorial">infratentorial</a> is below the tentorium, in the cerebellum, and mostly found in children (70%).<sup id="cite_ref-Persaud-Sharma_16_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Persaud-Sharma_16-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The pontine tumors are located in the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> of the brainstem. The brainstem has three parts (pons, midbrain, and medulla); the pons controls critical functions such as breathing, making surgery on these extremely dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrated_diagnosis">Integrated diagnosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Integrated diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png/220px-Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png/330px-Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png/440px-Diagnosis_of_diffuse_glioma.png 2x" data-file-width="2153" data-file-height="1736" /></a><figcaption>Diagnosis of diffuse glioma. MVP = microvascular proliferation. The presence and absence of the diagnostically most relevant molecular alterations for each tumor type are highlighted with red and green boxes.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The modern approach to the diagnosis of diffuse gliomas takes mainly the histopathology and molecular profile into account.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tissue specimens obtained through biopsy sampling in patients with diffuse gliomas are routinely assessed by immunohistochemistry for the presence of R132H-mutant IDH1 and loss of nuclear ATRX.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In patients aged >55 years with a histologically typical glioblastoma, without a pre-existing lower grade glioma, with a non-midline tumor location and with retained nuclear ATRX expression, immunohistochemical negativity for IDH1 R132H suffices for the classification as IDH-wild-type glioblastoma.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all other instances of diffuse gliomas, a lack of IDH1 R132H immunopositivity should be followed by IDH1 and IDH2 DNA sequencing to detect or exclude the presence of non-canonical mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IDH-wild-type diffuse astrocytic gliomas without microvascular proliferation or necrosis should be tested for EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation and a +7/–10 cytogenetic signature as molecular characteristics of IDH-wild-type glioblastomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the presence of histone H3.3 G34R/V mutations should be assessed by immunohistochemistry or DNA sequencing to identify H3.3 G34-mutant <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_hemispheric_glioma" title="Diffuse hemispheric glioma">diffuse hemispheric gliomas</a>, in particular in young patients with IDH-wild-type gliomas (such as those <50 years of age with nuclear ATRX loss in tumour cells).<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diffuse gliomas of the thalamus, brainstem or spinal cord should be evaluated for histone H3 K27M mutations and loss of nuclear K27-trimethylated histone H3 (H3K27me3) to identify H3 K27M-mutant diffuse midline gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png/220px-Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png/330px-Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png/440px-Management_of_IDH_wild_type_glioblastoma.png 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="1316" /></a><figcaption>Management of IDH wild type glioblastoma, WHO grade 4. KPS, Karnofsky performance status.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png/220px-Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png/330px-Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png/440px-Management_of_IDH-mutant_glioma.png 2x" data-file-width="2156" data-file-height="1758" /></a><figcaption>Management of IDH-mutant glioma. KPS, Karnofsky performance status; PCV, procarbazine, lomustine and vincristine.<sup id="cite_ref-Weller2020_61-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weller2020-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Treatment for brain gliomas depends on the location, the cell type, and the grade of malignancy. Current treatment options include surgical removal, radiation (<a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>. In some cases, tumour treating fields (<a href="/wiki/Alternating_electric_field_therapy" title="Alternating electric field therapy">alternating electric field therapy</a>), a recently developed technology, may be used.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, treatment is a combined approach, using surgery, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>. For many, treatment consists of just surgery, or even "watchful waiting" (waiting to see when an intervention is justified due to tumour progression). Doctors carefully balance the specifics of the patient's tumour and the downsides of intervention, since there can be significant side effects from medical intervention, despite recent attempts to predict outcomes have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Awake_craniotomy" title="Awake craniotomy">Awake surgery</a> can be performed to monitor for example language and other cognitive functions, as well as motor functions and vision.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Awake surgery is known to improve extent of resection while perserving functions<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and exetent of resection is directly associated with survival in low-grade gliomas.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radiation and chemotherapy remain the mainstays of treatment beyond surgery. Radiation therapy is delivered in the form of external beam radiation or the <a href="/wiki/Stereotactic_surgery" title="Stereotactic surgery">stereotactic</a> approach using <a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">radiosurgery</a>. <a href="/wiki/Temozolomide" title="Temozolomide">Temozolomide</a> is a common chemotherapy drug which can be administered easily in an outpatient setting and is able to cross the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a> effectively. </p><p>There are a wide variety of novel treatments currently being tested in clinical trials, ranging from IDH inhibitors like <a href="/wiki/Ivosidenib" title="Ivosidenib">Ivosidenib</a>, to the recently approved <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell-based_cancer_vaccine" title="Dendritic cell-based cancer vaccine">Dendritic cell-based cancer vaccine</a> approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart2013_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart2013-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment using <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">immunotherapy</a> is another promising research path that may help treat glioma in the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental therapies like oncolytic viruses have shown potential therapeutic benefits in clinical trials (but have not been approved for use in non-experimental settings).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refractory_disease">Refractory disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Refractory disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For recurrent high-grade glioblastoma, recent studies have taken advantage of <a href="/wiki/Angiogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiogenic">angiogenic</a> blockers such as <a href="/wiki/Bevacizumab" title="Bevacizumab">bevacizumab</a> in combination with conventional chemotherapy, with encouraging results.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17947716_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17947716-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relative_effectiveness">Relative effectiveness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Relative effectiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2017 meta-analysis compared surgical resection versus biopsy as the initial surgical management option for a person with a low-grade glioma.<sup id="cite_ref-Jiang2017_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiang2017-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Results show the evidence is insufficient to make a reliable decision.<sup id="cite_ref-Jiang2017_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiang2017-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative effectiveness of surgical resection compared to biopsy for people with malignant glioma (high-grade) is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For high-grade gliomas, a 2003 meta-analysis compared radiotherapy with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. It showed a small but clear improvement from using chemotherapy with radiotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 meta-analysis suggested that for people with less aggressive gliomas, radiotherapy may increase the risk of long term neurocognitive side effects.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst, evidence is uncertain on whether there are long term neurocognitive side effects associated with chemoradiotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Temozolomide is effective for treating Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) compared to radiotherapy alone.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart2013_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart2013-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 meta-analysis showed that Temozolomide prolongs survival and delays progression, but is associated with an increase in side effects such as blood complications, fatigue, and infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart2013_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart2013-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For people with recurrent GBM, when comparing temozolomide with chemotherapy, there may be an improvement in the <a href="/wiki/Time_to_progression" class="mw-redirect" title="Time to progression">time-to-progression</a> and the person's quality of life, but no improvement in overall survival, with temozolomide treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart2013_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart2013-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence suggests that for people with recurrent high-grade gliomas who have not had chemotherapy before, there are similar survival and time-to-progression outcomes between treatment with temozolomide or the chemotherapy multidrug known as PCV (procarvazine, lomustine and vincristine).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A mutational analysis of 23 initial low-grade gliomas and recurrent tumors from the same patients has challenged the benefits and usage of Temozolomide. The study showed that when lower-grade brain tumors of patients are removed and patients are further treated with Temozolomide, 6 out of 10 times the recurrent tumors were more aggressive and acquired alternative and more mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one of the last authors, Costello, stated "They had a 20- to 50-fold increase in the number of mutations. A patient who received surgery alone who might have had 50 mutations in the initial tumor and 60 in the recurrence. But patients who received TMZ might have 2,000 mutations in the recurrence."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, new mutations were verified to carry known signatures of Temozolomide induced mutations. The research suggests that Temozolomide for the treatment of certain brain tumors should be thoroughly thought. Unjudicious usage of Temozolomide might lower the prognosis of the patients further, or increase their burden. Further understanding of the mechanisms of Temozolomide induced mutations and novel combination approaches could be promising.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (September 2019)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Research_Directions">New Research Directions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: New Research Directions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Newcastle_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle disease">Newcastle disease</a> has been noted to be helpful in some cases of glioma.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phase_III_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase III trials">Phase III trials</a> with Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine (MTH-68/H) are expected soon. Strains of Newcastle disease virus have also been used to create viral vector vaccine candidates against <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Covid-19" class="mw-redirect" title="Covid-19">Covid-19</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Torticollis" title="Torticollis">Torticollis</a> in foul shows the level of avian severity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Prognosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. <br /><small>Last update: (see <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24711712">24711712</a> for a better source)</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Prognosis of gliomas is given in relation to what grade (as scored by the World Health Organization system) of tumour the patient presents with. Typically, any tumour presenting as above WHO grade I (i.e. a malignant tumour as opposed to a benign tumour) will have a prognosis resulting in eventual death, varying from years (WHO grade II/III) to months (WHO grade IV).<sup id="cite_ref-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prognosis can also be given based on cellular subtype, which may also impact prognosis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_grade">Low grade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Low grade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For low-grade tumors, the prognosis is somewhat more optimistic. Patients diagnosed with a low-grade glioma are 17 times as likely to die as matched patients in the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-lgg_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lgg-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The age-standardized 10-year relative survival rate was 47% according to research in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-lgg_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lgg-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study reported that low-grade <a href="/wiki/Oligodendroglioma" title="Oligodendroglioma">oligodendroglioma</a> patients have a median survival of 11.6 years;<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another reported a median survival of 16.7 years.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, approximately 70% of low-grade (WHO grade-II) will progress to high-grade tumours within 5–10 years<sup id="cite_ref-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malignant_glioma:_genetics_and_biol-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grade II gliomas, despite often being labeled as benign, are considered a uniformly fatal illness.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_grade">High grade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: High grade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This group comprises <a href="/wiki/Anaplastic_astrocytoma" title="Anaplastic astrocytoma">anaplastic astrocytomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glioblastoma_multiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Glioblastoma multiforme">glioblastoma multiforme</a>. Whereas the median overall survival of anaplastic (WHO grade III) gliomas is approximately 3 years, <a href="/wiki/Glioblastoma_multiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Glioblastoma multiforme">glioblastoma multiforme</a> has a poor median overall survival of c. 15 months.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postoperative conventional daily radiotherapy improves survival for adults with good functional well‐being and high grade glioma compared to no postoperative radiotherapy. Hypofractionated radiation therapy has similar efficacy for survival as compared to conventional radiotherapy, particularly for individuals aged 60 and older with glioblastoma.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffuse_midline_glioma">Diffuse midline glioma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Diffuse midline glioma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_midline_glioma" title="Diffuse midline glioma">Diffuse midline glioma</a> (DMG), also known as diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG), primarily affects children, usually between the ages of 5 and 7.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The median survival time with DIPG is under 12 months.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surgery to attempt tumour removal is usually not possible or advisable for pontine gliomas. By their very nature, these tumours invade diffusely throughout the brain stem, growing between normal nerve cells. Aggressive surgery would cause severe damage to neural structures vital for arm and leg movement, eye movement, swallowing, breathing, and even consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (May 2014)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup> Trials of drug candidates have been unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disease is primarily treated with radiation therapy alone.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (October 2019)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IDH1_and_IDH2-mutated_glioma"><i>IDH1</i> and <i>IDH2-</i>mutated glioma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: IDH1 and IDH2-mutated glioma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Patients with glioma carrying mutations in either <i>IDH1</i> or <i>IDH2</i> have a relatively favorable survival, compared with patients with glioma with wild-type <i>IDH1/2</i> genes. In WHO grade III glioma, <i>IDH1/2</i>-mutated glioma have a median prognosis of ~3.5 years, whereas <i>IDH1/2</i> wild-type glioma perform poor with a median overall survival of c. 1.5 years.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ref1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41572-024-00524-y">"Glioma"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Disease Primers</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 34. 9 May 2024. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41572-024-00524-y">10.1038/s41572-024-00524-y</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2056-676X">2056-676X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38724549">38724549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Disease+Primers&rft.atitle=Glioma&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34&rft.date=2024-05-09&rft.issn=2056-676X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38724549&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41572-024-00524-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41572-024-00524-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlioma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRUK23-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CRUK23_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/brain-tumours/types/glioma-adults?_gl=1*iiq8vr*_gcl_au*MTg2NjcyMDYyNy4xNzIxODM0MjY4*_ga*NDI2Mjg3MDg3LjE3MjE4MzM3MTM.*_ga_58736Z2GNN*MTcyMTgzMzcxMy4xLjEuMTcyMTgzNDI2Ny42LjAuMA..">"Glioma"</a>. <i>www.cancerresearchuk.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cancerresearchuk.org&rft.atitle=Glioma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancerresearchuk.org%2Fabout-cancer%2Fbrain-tumours%2Ftypes%2Fglioma-adults%3F_gl%3D1%2Aiiq8vr%2A_gcl_au%2AMTg2NjcyMDYyNy4xNzIxODM0MjY4%2A_ga%2ANDI2Mjg3MDg3LjE3MjE4MzM3MTM.%2A_ga_58736Z2GNN%2AMTcyMTgzMzcxMy4xLjEuMTcyMTgzNDI2Ny42LjAuMA..&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlioma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRUK-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CRUK_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/brain-tumours/types/primary-secondary-tumours#:~:text=Primary%20brain%20tumours%20can%20be,that%20protect%20the%20brain%20(meninges)">"Primary and secondary brain tumours"</a>. <i>www.cancerresearchuk.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cancerresearchuk.org&rft.atitle=Primary+and+secondary+brain+tumours&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancerresearchuk.org%2Fabout-cancer%2Fbrain-tumours%2Ftypes%2Fprimary-secondary-tumours%23%3A~%3Atext%3DPrimary%2520brain%2520tumours%2520can%2520be%2Cthat%2520protect%2520the%2520brain%2520%28meninges%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlioma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodenberger2012-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goodenberger2012_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodenbergerJenkins2012" class="citation journal cs1">Goodenberger ML, Jenkins RB (December 2012). 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</ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glioma&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proteinatlas.org/humanpathology/glioma">Glioma</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170925230247/https://www.proteinatlas.org/humanpathology/glioma">Archived</a> 25 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proteinatlas.org">the Human Protein Atlas</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200304041657/http://www.proteinatlas.org/">Archived</a> 4 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080824224047/http://www.abta.org/index.cfm?contentid=59">American Brain Tumor Association: Malignant Gliomas</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513082649/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brainandspinaltumors/detail_brainandspinaltumors.htm">Brain and Spinal Tumors: Hope Through Research (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703183739/http://rad.usuhs.mil/rad/who/who-index.html">WHO Classification of Glioma</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090126005415/http://rad.usuhs.mil/medpix/medpix.html?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=malignant%20glioma&srch_type=all#top">Glioma Images</a> MedPix Database</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system_tumors" title="Template:Nervous system tumors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system_tumors" title="Template talk:Nervous system tumors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system_tumors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system tumors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tumours_of_the_nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system_neoplasm" title="Nervous system neoplasm">Tumours of the nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland_neoplasm" title="Endocrine gland neoplasm">Endocrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/WHO_classification_of_the_tumors_of_the_central_nervous_system#6._Tumours_of_the_sellar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system">Sellar</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craniopharyngioma" title="Craniopharyngioma">Craniopharyngioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituicytoma" title="Pituicytoma">Pituicytoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>Other:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinealoma" title="Pinealoma">Pinealoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/WHO_classification_of_the_tumors_of_the_central_nervous_system#1._Tumours_of_neuroepithelial_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system">Neuroepithelial</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Spinal_tumor" title="Spinal tumor">spinal tumors</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glioma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocytoma" title="Astrocytoma">Astrocytoma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilocytic_astrocytoma" title="Pilocytic astrocytoma">Pilocytic astrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleomorphic_xanthoastrocytoma" title="Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma">Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subependymal_giant_cell_astrocytoma" title="Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma">Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrillary_astrocytoma" title="Fibrillary astrocytoma">Fibrillary astrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaplastic_astrocytoma" title="Anaplastic astrocytoma">Anaplastic astrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glioblastoma" title="Glioblastoma">Glioblastoma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendroglioma" title="Oligodendroglioma">Oligodendroglioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaplastic_oligodendroglioma" title="Anaplastic oligodendroglioma">Anaplastic oligodendroglioma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependyma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ependymoma" title="Ependymoma">Ependymoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subependymoma" title="Subependymoma">Subependymoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus" title="Choroid plexus">Choroid plexus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus_tumor" title="Choroid plexus tumor">Choroid plexus tumor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus_papilloma" title="Choroid plexus papilloma">Choroid plexus papilloma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus_carcinoma" title="Choroid plexus carcinoma">Choroid plexus carcinoma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple/unknown</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligoastrocytoma" title="Oligoastrocytoma">Oligoastrocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliomatosis_cerebri" title="Gliomatosis cerebri">Gliomatosis cerebri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliosarcoma" title="Gliosarcoma">Gliosarcoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mature<br /><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganglioneuroma" title="Ganglioneuroma">Ganglioneuroma</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ganglioglioma" title="Ganglioglioma">Ganglioglioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoblastoma" title="Retinoblastoma">Retinoblastoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocytoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocytoma">Neurocytoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysembryoplastic_neuroepithelial_tumour" title="Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour">Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhermitte%E2%80%93Duclos_disease" title="Lhermitte–Duclos disease">Lhermitte–Duclos disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">CNS embryonal tumors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medulloblastoma" title="Medulloblastoma">Medulloblastoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_teratoid_rhabdoid_tumor" title="Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor">Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryonal_tumour_with_multilayered_rosettes" title="Embryonal tumour with multilayered rosettes">Embryonal tumour with multilayered rosettes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meningioma" title="Meningioma">Meningioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemangiopericytoma" title="Hemangiopericytoma">Hemangiopericytoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/WHO_classification_of_the_tumors_of_the_central_nervous_system#4._Tumors_of_the_haematopoietic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system">Hematopoietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_central_nervous_system_lymphoma" title="Primary central nervous system lymphoma">Primary central nervous system lymphoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuroblastoma" title="Neuroblastoma">Neuroblastoma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esthesioneuroblastoma" title="Esthesioneuroblastoma">Esthesioneuroblastoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganglioneuroblastoma" title="Ganglioneuroblastoma">Ganglioneuroblastoma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_sheath_tumor" title="Nerve sheath tumor">Nerve sheath tumor</a></li> <li>Cranial and paraspinal nerves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurofibroma" title="Neurofibroma">Neurofibroma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatosis" title="Neurofibromatosis">Neurofibromatosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemmoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurilemmoma">Neurilemmoma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Schwannoma" title="Schwannoma">Schwannoma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_schwannoma" title="Vestibular schwannoma">Acoustic neuroma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malignant_peripheral_nerve_sheath_tumor" title="Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor">Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WHO_classification_of_the_tumors_of_the_central_nervous_system" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system">WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><i>Note: Not all brain tumors are of nervous tissue, and not all nervous tissue tumors are in the brain (see <a href="/wiki/Brain_metastasis" title="Brain metastasis">brain metastasis</a>).</i><br /></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1365309" class="extiw" title="d:Q1365309">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/C71">C71</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=191">191</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases_for_Oncology" title="International Classification of Diseases for Oncology">ICD-O</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://progenetix.org/subsets/?term_id=icdom:9380_3">M9380/3</a>-9460/3</li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005910">D005910</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb31468.htm">31468</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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