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href="#Benjamin_Rush"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.8 Benjamin Rush </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benjamin_Rush-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christoph_Meiners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christoph_Meiners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.9 Christoph Meiners </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christoph_Meiners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_thinkers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_thinkers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Later thinkers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_thinkers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Jefferson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Thomas Jefferson </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samuel_Stanhope_Smith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samuel_Stanhope_Smith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Samuel Stanhope Smith </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samuel_Stanhope_Smith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Georges_Cuvier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Georges_Cuvier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Georges Cuvier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Georges_Cuvier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arthur_Schopenhauer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthur_Schopenhauer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 Arthur Schopenhauer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthur_Schopenhauer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franz_Ignaz_Pruner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franz_Ignaz_Pruner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.5 Franz Ignaz Pruner </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franz_Ignaz_Pruner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Racial theories in physical anthropology (1850–1918) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Racial theories in physical anthropology (1850–1918) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arthur_de_Gobineau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthur_de_Gobineau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Arthur de Gobineau </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthur_de_Gobineau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carl_Vogt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_Vogt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Carl Vogt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_Vogt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles_Darwin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Darwin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Charles Darwin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Darwin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herbert_Hope_Risley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbert_Hope_Risley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Herbert Hope Risley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbert_Hope_Risley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ernst_Haeckel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ernst_Haeckel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Ernst Haeckel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ernst_Haeckel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationalism_of_Lapouge_and_Herder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalism_of_Lapouge_and_Herder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Nationalism of Lapouge and Herder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalism_of_Lapouge_and_Herder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Craniometry_and_physical_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Craniometry_and_physical_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Craniometry and physical anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Craniometry_and_physical_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samuel_George_Morton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samuel_George_Morton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 Samuel George Morton </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samuel_George_Morton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicolás_Palacios" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicolás_Palacios"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Nicolás Palacios </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicolás_Palacios-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monogenism_and_polygenism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monogenism_and_polygenism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Monogenism and polygenism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monogenism_and_polygenism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Typologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideological_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ideological applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ideological_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ideological applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ideological_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nordicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nordicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Nordicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nordicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justification_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justification_of_slavery_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Justification of slavery in the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justification_of_slavery_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_African_apartheid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_African_apartheid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 South African apartheid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_African_apartheid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eugenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eugenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Eugenics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eugenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interbellum_to_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interbellum_to_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Interbellum to World War II </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interbellum_to_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interbellum to World War II subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interbellum_to_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_intelligence_testing_and_the_Immigration_Act_of_1924" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_intelligence_testing_and_the_Immigration_Act_of_1924"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Early intelligence testing and the Immigration Act of 1924 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_intelligence_testing_and_the_Immigration_Act_of_1924-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Sweden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nazi_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Nazi Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 After 1945 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Scientific racism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" > 33 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عنصرية علمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عنصرية علمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmi_irq%C3%A7ilik" title="Elmi irqçilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmi irqçilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="বৈজ্ঞানিক বর্ণবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈজ্ঞানিক বর্ণবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dni_rasizam" title="Naučni rasizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Naučni rasizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racisme_cient%C3%ADfic" title="Racisme científic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Racisme científic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bdeck%C3%BD_rasismus" title="Vědecký rasismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vědecký rasismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racel%C3%A6re" title="Racelære – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Racelære" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Επιστημονικός ρατσισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστημονικός ρατσισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racismo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Racismo científico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Racismo científico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_rasismo" title="Scienca rasismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca rasismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrazismo_zientifiko" title="Arrazismo zientifiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arrazismo zientifiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="نژادگرایی علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نژادگرایی علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%EC%9D%B8%EC%A2%85%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="과학적 인종주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학적 인종주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="वैज्ञानिक प्रजातिवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक प्रजातिवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasisme_ilmiah" title="Rasisme ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rasisme ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razzismo_scientifico" title="Razzismo scientifico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Razzismo scientifico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%96%D7%A2" title="תורת הגזע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תורת הגזע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslinis_rasizmas" title="Mokslinis rasizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslinis rasizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyos_rasszizmus" title="Tudományos rasszizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudományos rasszizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijk_racisme" title="Wetenschappelijk racisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijk racisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E4%BA%BA%E7%A8%AE%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="科学的人種主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学的人種主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasebiologi" title="Rasebiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rasebiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87" title="علمي توکمپالنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="علمي توکمپالنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasizm_naukowy" title="Rasizm naukowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rasizm naukowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:16.0em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> History</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Historical concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_terminology_for_race" title="Biblical terminology for race">Biblical terminology for race</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_terminology_for_race" title="Color terminology for race">Color terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_relations" title="Race relations">Race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">scientific racism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_equality" title="Racial equality">Racial equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_politics" title="Racial politics">Racial politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Race and...</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime" title="Race and crime">Crime</a> (<a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Race and crime in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_States" title="Race and crime in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_in_horror_films" title="Race in horror films">Horror films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">Intelligence</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_race_and_intelligence_controversy" title="History of the race and intelligence controversy">history</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_race" title="Neuroscience and race">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sexuality" title="Race and sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_society" title="Race and society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sports" title="Race and sports">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_video_games" title="Race and video games">Video games</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By location</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_censuses" title="Race and ethnicity in censuses">Race and ethnicity in censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_Brazil" title="Race and ethnicity in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_Colombia" title="Race and ethnicity in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_Latin_America" title="Race and ethnicity in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakedness_and_colonialism" title="Nakedness and colonialism">Nakedness and colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">Human skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_racism-related_articles" title="Index of racism-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Race_(human_categorization)" title="Category:Race (human categorization)">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li>Scientific racism</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> belief that the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human species</a> is divided into biologically distinct <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> called "<a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">races</a>",<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> and that <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> exists to support or justify <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>, racial inferiority, or <a href="/wiki/Racial_superiority" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial superiority">racial superiority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciRac_Gould-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciRac_CSI-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPSS-7">[7]</a> Before the mid-20th century, scientific racism was accepted throughout the scientific community, but it is no longer considered scientific.<a href="#cite_note-SciRac_Gould-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciRac_CSI-6">[6]</a> The division of humankind into biologically separate groups, along with the assignment of particular physical and mental characteristics to these groups through constructing and applying corresponding <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">explanatory models</a>, is referred to as racialism, race realism, or race science by those who support these ideas. Modern scientific consensus rejects this view as being irreconcilable with modern <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Templeton2016-8">[8]</a> Scientific racism misapplies, misconstrues, or distorts <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a>), <a href="/wiki/Craniometry" title="Craniometry">craniometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, and other disciplines or pseudo-disciplines through proposing anthropological <a href="/wiki/Typology_(anthropology)" title="Typology (anthropology)">typologies</a> to <a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">classify human populations</a> into physically discrete human races, some of which might be asserted to be superior or inferior to others. Scientific racism was common during the period from the 1600s to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and was particularly prominent in European and American academic writings from the mid-19th century through the early-20th century. Since the second half of the 20th century, scientific racism has been discredited and criticized as obsolete, yet has persistently been used to support or validate racist world-views based upon belief in the existence and significance of racial categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> During the 20th century, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> and biologists <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lancelot_Hogben" title="Lancelot Hogben">Lancelot Hogben</a> were among the earliest leading critics of scientific racism. Skepticism towards the validity of scientific racism grew during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and by the end of World War II, scientific racism in theory and action was formally denounced, especially in <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s early <a href="/wiki/Scientific_anti-racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific anti-racism">antiracist</a> statement, "<a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question">The Race Question</a>" (1950): "The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes, 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years, it has taken a heavy toll in human lives, and caused untold suffering".<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Since that time, developments in <a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_genetics" title="Human evolutionary genetics">human evolutionary genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">physical anthropology</a> have led to a new consensus among anthropologists that human races are a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The term scientific racism is generally used pejoratively when applied to more modern theories, such as those in <a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve" title="The Bell Curve">The Bell Curve</a> (1994). Critics argue that such works postulate racist conclusions, such as a genetic connection between <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race and intelligence</a>, that are unsupported by available evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker07-16">[16]</a> Publications such as the <a href="/wiki/Mankind_Quarterly" title="Mankind Quarterly">Mankind Quarterly</a>, founded explicitly as a "race-conscious" journal, are generally regarded as platforms of scientific racism because they publish fringe interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(trait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (trait)">intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, and race. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antecedents">Antecedents</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enlightenment_thinkers">Enlightenment thinkers</h3></div> During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> (an era from the 1650s to the 1780s), concepts of <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a> became popular, though they would only be systematized epistemologically during the 19th century. Monogenism contends that all races have a single origin, while polygenism is the idea that each race has a separate origin. Until the 18th century, the words "race" and "species" were interchangeable.<a href="#cite_note-Jen_E._Boyle_2010_page_74-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="François_Bernier">François Bernier</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bernier" title="François Bernier">François Bernier</a> (1620–1688) was a French physician and traveller. In 1684, he published a brief essay dividing humanity into what he called "races", distinguishing individuals, particularly women, by skin color and a few other physical traits. The article was published anonymously in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_des_Savants" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal des Savants">Journal des Savants</a>, the earliest academic journal published in Europe, and titled "New Division of the Earth by the Different Species or 'Races' of Man that Inhabit It".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In the essay, he distinguished four different races: <ul><li>The first race included populations from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, India, south-east Asia, and the Americas</li> <li>The second race consisted of the sub-<a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a> Africans</li> <li>The third race consisted of the east- and northeast Asians</li> <li>The fourth race consisted of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sámi people">Sámi people</a>.</li></ul> A product of French <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a> culture, the essay placed an emphasis on different kinds of female beauty. Bernier emphasized that his novel classification was based on his personal experience as a traveler in different parts of the world. Bernier offered a distinction between essential genetic differences and accidental ones that depended on environmental factors. He also suggested that the latter criterion might be relevant to distinguish sub-types.<a href="#cite_note-Rubiés-19">[19]</a> His biological classification of racial types never sought to go beyond physical traits, and he also accepted the role of climate and diet in explaining degrees of human diversity. Bernier had been the first to extend the concept of "species of man" to racially classify the entirety of humanity, but he did not establish a cultural hierarchy between the so-called "races" that he had conceived. On the other hand, he clearly placed white Europeans as the norm from which other "races" deviated.<a href="#cite_note-Stuurman-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rubiés-19">[19]</a> The qualities which he attributed to each race were not strictly <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a>, because he thought that peoples of temperate Europe, the Americas, and India—although culturally very different from one another—belonged to roughly the same racial group, and he explained the differences between the civilizations of India (his main area of expertise) and Europe through climate and institutional history. By contrast, he emphasized the biological difference between Europeans and Africans, and made very negative comments towards the Sámi (Lapps) of the coldest climates of Northern Europe,<a href="#cite_note-Stuurman-20">[20]</a> and about Africans living at the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>. For example, Bernier wrote: "The 'Lappons' compose the 4th race. They are a small and short race with thick legs, wide shoulders, a short neck, and a face that I don't know how to describe, except that it's long, truly awful, and seems reminiscent of a bear's face. I've only ever seen them twice in <a href="/wiki/Danzig" class="mw-redirect" title="Danzig">Danzig</a>, but according to the portraits I've seen, and from what I've heard from a number of people, they're ugly animals".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The significance of Bernier's ideology for the emergence of what Joan-Pau Rubiés called the "modern racial discourse" has been debated, with Siep Stuurman considering it the beginning of modern racial thought,<a href="#cite_note-Stuurman-20">[20]</a> while Rubiés believes it is less significant if Bernier's entire view of humanity is taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-Rubiés-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_Boyle">Robert Boyle</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/220px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/330px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/440px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3327" data-file-height="4200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></figcaption></figure> An early scientist who studied race was <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> (1627–1691), an Anglo-Irish <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural philosopher">natural philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a>, physicist, and inventor. Boyle believed in what today is called <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a>, that is, that all races, no matter how diverse, came from the same source: <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a>. He studied reported stories of parents' giving birth to differently coloured <a href="/wiki/Albinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Albinos">albinos</a>, so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white, and that whites could give birth to different coloured races. Theories of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> about color and light via <a href="/wiki/Optical_dispersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical dispersion">optical dispersion</a> in physics were also extended by Robert Boyle into discourses of <a href="/wiki/Polygenesis_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenesis (biology)">polygenesis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jen_E._Boyle_2010_page_74-17">[17]</a> speculating that perhaps these differences were due to "seminal impressions". However, Boyle's writings mentioned that at his time, for "European Eyes", beauty was not measured so much in colour, but in "stature, comely symmetry of the parts of the body, and good features in the face".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Various members of the scientific community rejected his views, and described them as "disturbing" or "amusing".<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Richard_Bradley">Richard Bradley</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bradley_(botanist)" title="Richard Bradley (botanist)">Richard Bradley</a> (1688–1732) was an English naturalist. In his book titled Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (1721), Bradley claimed there to be "five sorts of men" based on their skin colour and other physical characteristics: white Europeans with beards; white men in America without beards (meaning Native Americans); men with copper-coloured skin, small eyes, and straight black hair; Blacks with straight black hair; and Blacks with curly hair. It has been speculated that Bradley's account inspired Linnaeus' later categorisation.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lord_Kames">Lord Kames</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Martin_(1737-1797)_-_Henry_Home_(1696%E2%80%931782),_Lord_Kames,_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/220px-David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/330px-David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/440px-David_Martin_%281737-1797%29_-_Henry_Home_%281696%E2%80%931782%29%2C_Lord_Kames%2C_Scottish_Judge_and_Author_-_PG_822_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames" title="Henry Home, Lord Kames">Henry Home, Lord Kames</a></figcaption></figure> The Scottish lawyer <a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames" title="Henry Home, Lord Kames">Henry Home, Lord Kames</a> (1696–1782) was a <a href="/wiki/Polygenist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenist">polygenist</a>; he believed God had created different races on Earth in separate regions. In his 1734 book Sketches on the History of Man, Home claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson05_39-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carl_Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unbalanced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:DUE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:DUE">unbalanced</a> towards certain viewpoints. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_racism&action=edit">improve the article</a> or discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Scientific_racism" title="Talk:Scientific racism">talk page</a>. (June 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urville-Patagonians3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Urville-Patagonians3.jpg/170px-Urville-Patagonians3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Urville-Patagonians3.jpg/255px-Urville-Patagonians3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Urville-Patagonians3.jpg/340px-Urville-Patagonians3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1073" /></a><figcaption>Homo monstrosus, or Patagonian giants, from Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Océanie (Voyage to the South Pole, and in Oceania), by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (1707–1778), the Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist, modified the established <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> bases of <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a> for fauna and flora, and also made a classification of humans into different subgroups. In the twelfth edition of <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a> (1767), he labeled five<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Variety_(botany)" title="Variety (botany)">varieties</a>"<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> of human species. Each one was described as possessing the following physiognomic characteristics "varying by culture and place":<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <ul><li>The Americanus: red, choleric, upright; black, straight, thick hair; nostrils flared; face freckled; beardless chin; stubborn, zealous, free; painting themself with red lines; governed by habit.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Europeanus</a>: white, sanguine, muscular; with yellowish, long hair; blue eyes; gentle, acute, inventive; covered with close vestments; governed by customs.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li>The Asiaticus: yellow, melancholic, stiff; black hair, dark eyes; austere, haughty, greedy; covered with loose clothing; governed by beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li> <li>The Afer or Africanus: black, phlegmatic, relaxed; black, frizzled hair; silky skin, flat nose, tumid lips; females with <a href="/wiki/Elongated_labia" title="Elongated labia">elongated labia</a>; mammary glands give milk abundantly; sly, lazy, negligent; anoints themself with grease; governed by caprice.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li>The Monstrosus were mythologic humans which did not appear in the first editions of Systema Naturae. The sub-species included: the "four-footed, mute, hairy" Homo feralis (Feral man); the animal-reared Juvenis lupinus hessensis (Hessian <a href="/wiki/Feral_child" title="Feral child">wolf boy</a>); the Juvenis hannoveranus (<a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Wild_Boy" title="Peter the Wild Boy">Hannoverian boy</a>); the Puella campanica (<a href="/wiki/Marie-Ang%C3%A9lique_Memmie_Le_Blanc" title="Marie-Angélique Memmie Le Blanc">Wild-girl of Champagne</a>); the agile, but faint-hearted Homo monstrosus (Monstrous man); the <a href="/wiki/Patagon" title="Patagon">Patagonian</a> giant; the Dwarf of the Alps; and the <a href="/wiki/Monorchid" class="mw-redirect" title="Monorchid">monorchid</a> <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a> (Hottentot). In Amoenitates academicae (1763), Linnaeus presented the <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythologic</a> Homo anthropomorpha (Anthropomorphic man), or humanoid creatures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Troglodytae" title="Troglodytae">troglodyte</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Satyr" title="Satyr">satyr</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra" title="Lernaean Hydra">hydra</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a>, incorrectly identified as <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">simian</a> creatures.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li></ul> There are disagreements about the basis for Linnaeus' human taxa. On the one hand, his harshest critics say the classification was not only ethnocentric, but seemed to be based upon skin colour. Renato G. Mazzolini argued that classifications based on skin colour, at its core, were a white/black polarity, and that Linnaeus' thinking became paradigmatic for later racist beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> On the other hand, Quintyn (2010) points out that some authors believed that Linnaeus' classification was based upon geographical distribution, being cartographically-based, and not hierarchical.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In the opinion of <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_A._R._Kennedy" title="Kenneth A. R. Kennedy">Kenneth A. R. Kennedy</a> (1976), Linnaeus certainly considered his own culture as superior, but his motives for the classification of human varieties were not race-centered.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> (1994) argued that the taxa was "not in the ranked order favored by most Europeans in the racist tradition", and that Linnaeus' division was influenced by the medical <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">theory of humors</a>, which said that a person's temperament may be related to biological fluids.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In a 1994 essay, Gould added: "I don't mean to deny that Linnaeus held conventional beliefs about the superiority of his own European variety over others... nevertheless, and despite these implications, the overt geometry of Linnaeus' model is not linear or hierarchical".<a href="#cite_note-Gould_1994-43">[43]</a> In a 2008 essay published by the <a href="/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_London" title="Linnean Society of London">Linnean Society of London</a>, Marie-Christine Skuncke interpreted Linnaeus' statements as reflecting a view that "Europeans' superiority resides in "culture", and that the decisive factor in Linnaeus' taxa was "culture", not race". Thus, regarding this topic, Skuncke considers Linnaeus' view as merely "<a href="/wiki/Eurocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocentric">eurocentric</a>", arguing that Linnaeus never called for racist action, and did not use the word "race", which was only introduced later "by his French opponent, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a>".<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> However, the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Ashley_Montagu" title="Ashley Montagu">Ashley Montagu</a>, in his book Man's Most Dangerous Myth: the Fallacy of Race, points out that Buffon, indeed "the enemy of all rigid classifications",<a href="#cite_note-Montagu1-45">[45]</a> was diametrically opposed to such broad categories, and did not use the word "race" to describe them. "It was quite clear, after reading Buffon, that he uses the word in no narrowly defined, but rather in a general sense",<a href="#cite_note-Montagu1-45">[45]</a> wrote Montagu, pointing out that Buffon did employ the French word la race, but as a collective term for whatever population he happened to be discussing at the time; for instance: "The Danish, Swedish, and Muscovite Laplanders, the inhabitants of Nova-Zembla, the Borandians, the Samoiedes, the Ostiacks of the old continent, the Greenlanders, and the savages to the north of the Esquimaux Indians, of the new continent, appear to be of one common race".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Scholar Stanley A. Rice agrees that Linnaeus' classification was not meant to "imply a hierarchy of humanness or superiority";<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> however, modern critics regard Linnaeus' classification as obviously <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotyped</a> and erroneous for having included <a href="/wiki/Anthropological" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological">anthropological</a>, non-biological features, such as customs or traditions.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_White,_physician_(1728%E2%80%931813)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Charles_White%2C_physician_%281728%E2%80%931813%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="811" /></a><figcaption>Charles White</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charles_White">Charles White</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Charles_White_(physician)" title="Charles White (physician)">Charles White</a> (1728–1813), an English physician and surgeon, believed that races occupied different stations in the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a>", and he tried to scientifically prove that human races had distinct origins from each other. He speculated that whites and Negroes were two different species. White was a believer in <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygeny</a>, the idea that different races had been created separately. His Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799) provided an empirical basis for this idea. White defended the theory of polygeny by rebutting French naturalist <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>'s interfertility argument, which said that only the same species can interbreed. White pointed to species hybrids, such as foxes, <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jackal" title="Jackal">jackals</a>, which were separate groups that were still able to interbreed. For White, each race was a separate species, divinely created for its own geographical region.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson05_39-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buffon_and_Blumenbach">Buffon and Blumenbach</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg/130px-Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg/195px-Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg/260px-Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="1128" /></a><figcaption>Johann Friedrich Blumenbach</figcaption></figure> The French naturalist <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a> (1707–1788) and the German anatomist <a href="/wiki/Johann_Blumenbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Blumenbach">Johann Blumenbach</a> (1752–1840) were proponents of <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a>, the concept that all races have a single origin.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> Buffon and Blumenbach believed a "degeneration theory" of the origins of racial difference.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> Both asserted that <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> were white, and that other races came about by degeneration owing to environmental factors, such as climate, disease, and diet.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> According to this model, Negroid <a href="/wiki/Pigmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigmentation">pigmentation</a> arose because of the heat of the tropical sun; that cold wind caused the tawny colour of the <a href="/wiki/Eskimos" class="mw-redirect" title="Eskimos">Eskimos</a>; and that the Chinese had fairer skins than the <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tartars</a>, because the former kept mostly in towns, and were protected from environmental factors.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> Environmental factors, poverty, and hybridization could make races "degenerate", and differentiate them from the original white race by a process of "raciation".<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> Interestingly, both Buffon and Blumenbach believed that the degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original white race.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> According to Blumenbach, there are five races, all belonging to a single species: <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid" title="Mongoloid">Mongolian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Negroid" title="Negroid">Negroid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">American</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Malay_race" title="Malay race">Malay race</a>. Blumenbach stated: "I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian for the reasons given below, which make me esteem it the primeval one".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Before <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> and the emergence of scientific geology, many believed the Earth was only 6,000 years old. Buffon had conducted experiments with heated balls of iron, which he believed were a model for the Earth's core, and concluded that the Earth was 75,000 years old, but did not extend the time since <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a> and the origin of humanity back more than 8,000 years—not much further than the 6,000 years of the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Ussher_chronology" title="Ussher chronology">Ussher chronology</a> subscribed to by most of the monogenists.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> Opponents of monogenism believed that it would have been difficult for races to change markedly in such a short period of time.<a href="#cite_note-Harris-2001-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benjamin_Rush">Benjamin Rush</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> (1745–1813), a <a href="/wiki/Founding_Father_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding Father of the United States">Founding Father of the United States</a> and a physician, proposed that being black was a hereditary <a href="/wiki/Skin_condition" title="Skin condition">skin disease</a>, which he called "negroidism", and that it could be cured. Rush believed non-whites were actually white underneath, but that they were stricken with a non-contagious form of <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, which darkened their skin color. Rush drew the conclusion that "whites should not tyrannize over [blacks], for their disease should entitle them to a double portion of humanity. However, by the same token, whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the 'disorder'... attempts must be made to cure the disease".<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christoph_Meiners">Christoph Meiners</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christoph_Meiners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Christoph_Meiners.jpg/130px-Christoph_Meiners.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Christoph_Meiners.jpg/195px-Christoph_Meiners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Christoph_Meiners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Christoph Meiners</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Meiners" title="Christoph Meiners">Christoph Meiners</a> (1747–1810) was a German <a href="/wiki/Polygenist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenist">polygenist</a>, and believed that each race had a separate origin. Meiners studied the physical, mental, and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on his findings. Meiners split mankind into two divisions, which he labelled the "beautiful <a href="/wiki/White_race" class="mw-redirect" title="White race">white race</a>" and the "ugly <a href="/wiki/Black_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Black race">black race</a>". In his book titled The Outline of History of Mankind, Meiners argued that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. Meiners thought only the white race to be beautiful, and considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral, and animal-like. Meiners wrote about how the dark, ugly peoples were differentiated from the white, beautiful peoples by their "sad" lack of virtue and their "terrible vices".<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Meiners hypothesized about how the Negro felt less pain than any other race, and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that the Negro had thick nerves, and thus, was not sensitive like the other races. He went so far as to say that the Negro possessed "no human, barely any animal, feeling". Meiners described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive. Halfway through the burning, the Negro asked to smoke a pipe, and smoked it like nothing was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> of the Negro, and came to the conclusion that Negroes were all <a href="/wiki/Carnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivores">carnivores</a>, based upon his observations that Negroes had bigger teeth and jaws than any other race. Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger, but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners theorized that the Negro was the most unhealthy race on Earth because of its poor diet, mode of living, and lack of morals.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta07-52">[52]</a> Meiners studied the diet of the Americans, and said they fed off any kind of "foul <a href="/wiki/Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>", and consumed copious amounts of alcohol. He believed their skulls were so thick that the blades of Spanish swords shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of an American is thicker than that of an ox.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta07-52">[52]</a> Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>. This was based upon assertions that they were able to conquer various parts of the world, they were more sensitive to heat and cold, and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed that <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> are an inferior race, "less sensitive and content with eating rough food". He described stories of Slavs allegedly eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also counterproductive; as an example, Meiners described their practice of warming up sick people in ovens, then making them roll in the snow.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta07-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_thinkers">Later thinkers</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (1743–1826) was an American politician, scientist,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and slave owner. His contributions to scientific racism have been noted by many historians, scientists, and scholars. According to an article published in the McGill Journal of Medicine: "One of the most influential pre-Darwinian racial theorists, Jefferson's call for science to determine the obvious 'inferiority' of African Americans is an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Writing for <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Paul Finkelman</a> described how as "a scientist, Jefferson nevertheless speculated that blackness might come 'from the color of the blood,' and concluded that blacks were 'inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind'".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In his "<a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia" title="Notes on the State of Virginia">Notes on the State of Virginia</a>", Jefferson described black people as follows:<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <blockquote>They seem to require less sleep. A black, after hard labor through the day, will be induced by the slightest amusements to sit up till midnight, or later, though knowing he must be out with the first dawn of the morning. They are at least as brave, and more adventuresome. But, this may perhaps proceed from a want of forethought, which prevents their seeing a danger till it be present. When present, they do not go through it with more coolness or steadiness than the whites. They are more ardent after their female: but love seems with them to be more an eager desire, than a tender delicate mixture of sentiment and sensation. Their griefs are transient. Those numberless afflictions, which render it doubtful whether heaven has given life to us in mercy or in wrath, are less felt, and sooner forgotten with them. In general, their existence appears to participate more of sensation than reflection... Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me, that in memory, they are equal to the whites; in reason, much inferior, as I think one [black] could scarcely be found capable of tracing and comprehending the investigations of Euclid; and that in imagination, they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous... I advance it, therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind.</blockquote> However, by 1791, Jefferson had to reassess his earlier suspicions of whether blacks were capable of intelligence when he was presented with a letter and almanac from <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Banneker" title="Benjamin Banneker">Benjamin Banneker</a>, an educated black mathematician. Delighted to have discovered scientific proof for the existence of black intelligence, Jefferson wrote to Banneker:<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <blockquote>No body wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has given to our black brethren, talents equal to those of the other colors of men, & that the appearance of a want of them is owing merely to the degraded condition of their existence both in Africa & America. I can add with truth that no body wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced for raising the condition both of their body & mind to what it ought to be, as fast as the imbecility of their present existence, and other circumstance which cannot be neglected, will admit. </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samuel_Stanhope_Smith">Samuel Stanhope Smith</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Stanhope_Smith" title="Samuel Stanhope Smith">Samuel Stanhope Smith</a> (1751–1819) was an American Presbyterian minister and author of the Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species (1787). Smith claimed that Negro pigmentation was nothing more than a huge freckle that covered the whole body as a result of an oversupply of bile, which was caused by tropical climates.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Georges_Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/170px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/255px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/340px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Georges Cuvier</figcaption></figure> Racial studies by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (1769–1832), the French <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoologist">zoologist</a>, influenced both scientific <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a> and scientific racism. Cuvier believed there were three distinct races: the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a> (white), <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid" title="Mongoloid">Mongolian</a> (yellow), and the Ethiopian (black). He rated each for the beauty or ugliness of the skull and quality of their civilizations. Cuvier wrote about Caucasians: "The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilised people of Europe belong, and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage, and activity".<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Regarding Negroes, Cuvier wrote:<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <blockquote>The Negro race ... is marked by black complexion, crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium, and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism.</blockquote> He thought <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> were Caucasian, and hence, the original race of mankind. The other two races arose by survivors escaping in different directions after a major catastrophe hit the earth approximately 5,000 years ago. Cuvier theorized that the survivors lived in complete isolation from each other, and developed separately as a result.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> One of Cuvier's pupils, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Tiedemann" title="Friedrich Tiedemann">Friedrich Tiedemann</a>, was among the first to make a scientific contestation of racism. Tiedemann asserted that based upon his documentation of craniometric and brain measurements of Europeans and black people from different parts of the world, that the then-common European belief that Negroes have smaller brains, and are thus intellectually inferior, was scientifically unfounded, and based merely on the prejudice of travellers and explorers.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arthur_Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer,_1859b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg/220px-Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg/330px-Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg/440px-Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1997" data-file-height="2552" /></a><figcaption>Arthur Schopenhauer</figcaption></figure> The German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> (1788–1860) attributed civilizational primacy to the white races, who gained sensitivity and intelligence via the refinement caused by living in the rigorous Northern climate:<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <blockquote> The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste, or race, is fairer in colour than the rest, and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a>, and the rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">South Sea Islands</a>. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention, because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers, and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want, and misery, which, in their many forms, were brought about by the climate. This they had to do to make up for the <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">parsimony</a> of nature, and out of it all came their high civilization.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franz_Ignaz_Pruner">Franz Ignaz Pruner</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Franz_Ignaz_Pruner" title="Franz Ignaz Pruner">Franz Ignaz Pruner</a> (1808–1882) was a German physician, ophthalmologist, and anthropologist who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt. In a book Pruner wrote in 1846, he claimed that Negro blood had a negative influence on the Egyptian moral character. He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro's skeleton is <a href="/wiki/Prognathism" title="Prognathism">prognathism</a>, which he claimed was the Negro's relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had brains very similar to those of apes and that Negroes have a shortened big toe, a characteristic, he said, that connected Negroes closely to apes.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)">Racial theories in physical anthropology (1850–1918)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scientific_racism_irish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/260px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/390px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/520px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A late-19th-century illustration by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "<a href="/wiki/Irish_Iberian" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Iberian">Irish Iberian</a>" and "Negro" features in contrast to the higher "Anglo-Teutonic"</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">scientific classification</a> established by Carl Linnaeus is requisite to any human racial classification scheme. In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">unilineal evolution</a>, or classical social evolution, was a conflation of competing sociologic and anthropologic theories proposing that <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western European culture</a> was the acme of human socio-cultural evolution. The Christian Bible was interpreted to sanction <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and from the 1820s to the 1850s was often used in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931849)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1789–1849)">antebellum</a> Southern United States, by writers such as the Rev. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Furman" title="Richard Furman">Richard Furman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Cobb" title="Thomas R. Cobb">Thomas R. Cobb</a>, to enforce the idea that Negroes had been created inferior, and thus suited to slavery.<a href="#cite_note-drace-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arthur_de_Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg/170px-Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg/255px-Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg/340px-Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a> by the Comtesse de la Tour, 1876</figcaption></figure> The French aristocrat and writer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a> (1816–1882), is best known for his book <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_the_Human_Races" title="An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races">An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races</a> (1853–55) which proposed three human races (black, white and yellow) were natural barriers and claimed that <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">race mixing</a> would lead to the collapse of culture and civilization. He claimed that "The white race originally possessed the monopoly of beauty, intelligence and strength" and that any positive accomplishments or thinking of blacks and Asians were due to an admixture with whites. His works were praised by many white supremacist American pro-slavery thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hotze" title="Henry Hotze">Henry Hotze</a>. Gobineau believed that the different races originated in different areas, the white race had originated somewhere in Siberia, the Asians in the Americas and the blacks in Africa. He believed that the white race was superior, writing: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I will not wait for the friends of equality to show me such and such passages in books written by missionaries or sea captains, who declare some Wolof is a fine carpenter, some Hottentot a good servant, that a Kaffir dances and plays the violin, that some Bambara knows arithmetic... Let us leave aside these puerilities and compare together not men, but groups.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></blockquote> Gobineau later used the term "<a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryans</a>" to describe the Germanic peoples (la race germanique).<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Gobineau's works were also influential to the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, which published his works in German. They played a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">master race</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carl_Vogt">Carl Vogt</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>Carl Vogt in 1870</figcaption></figure> Another <a href="/wiki/Polygenist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenist">polygenist</a> evolutionist was <a href="/wiki/Carl_Vogt" title="Carl Vogt">Carl Vogt</a> (1817–1895) who believed that the Negro race was related to the ape. He wrote the white race was a separate species to Negroes. In Chapter VII of his Lectures of Man (1864) he compared the Negro to the white race whom he described as "two extreme human types". The difference between them, he claimed are greater than those between two species of ape; and this proves that Negroes are a separate species from the whites.<a href="#cite_note-GustavJahoda-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_Darwin">Charles Darwin</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron,_c._1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/255px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/340px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2348" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption>Charles Darwin in 1868</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s views on race have been a topic of much discussion and debate. According to Jackson and Weidman, Darwin was a moderate in the 19th century debates about race. "He was not a confirmed racist — he was a staunch abolitionist, for example — but he did think that there were distinct races that could be ranked in a hierarchy".<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Darwin's influential 1859 book <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> did not discuss human origins. The extended wording on the title page, which adds by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, uses the general terminology of <a href="/wiki/Race_(biology)" title="Race (biology)">biological races</a> as an alternative for "<a href="/wiki/Variety_(botany)" title="Variety (botany)">varieties</a>" such as "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage", and does not carry the modern connotation of <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">human races</a>. In <a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man,_and_Selection_in_Relation_to_Sex" title="The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex">The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</a> (1871), Darwin examined the question of "Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species" and reported no racial distinctions that would indicate that human races are discrete species.<a href="#cite_note-drace-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The historian Richard Hofstadter wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Although Darwinism was not the primary source of the belligerent ideology and dogmatic racism of the late nineteenth century, it did become a new instrument in the hands of the theorists of race and struggle... The Darwinist mood sustained the belief in Anglo-Saxon racial superiority which obsessed many American thinkers in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The measure of world domination already achieved by the 'race' seemed to prove it the fittest.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></blockquote> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Gertrude Himmelfarb</a>, "The subtitle of [The Origin of Species] made a convenient motto for racists: 'The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.' Darwin, of course, took 'races' to mean varieties or species; but it was no violation of his meaning to extend it to human races.... Darwin himself, in spite of his aversion to slavery, was not averse to the idea that some races were more fit than others".<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> On the other hand, Robert Bannister defended Darwin on the issue of race, writing that "Upon closer inspection, the case against Darwin himself quickly unravels. An ardent opponent of slavery, he consistently opposed the oppression of nonwhites... Although by modern standards The Descent of Man is frustratingly inconclusive on the critical issues of human equality, it was a model of moderation and scientific caution in the context of midcentury racism".<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> According to Myrna Perez Sheldon, Darwin believed that different races gained their 'population-level characteristics' via sexual selection. Previously, race theorists conceptualized race as a 'stable blood essence' and that these 'essences' mixed when miscegenation occurred.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbert_Hope_Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H_H_Risley.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black-and-white photograph of a man." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/H_H_Risley.png/170px-H_H_Risley.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/H_H_Risley.png/255px-H_H_Risley.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/H_H_Risley.png/340px-H_H_Risley.png 2x" data-file-width="1137" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>Herbert Hope Risley</figcaption></figure> As an exponent of "race science", colonial administrator <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a> (1851–1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indian people</a> into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">castes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh2011171-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ernst_Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ErnstHaeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ErnstHaeckel.jpg/170px-ErnstHaeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ErnstHaeckel.jpg/255px-ErnstHaeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ErnstHaeckel.jpg/340px-ErnstHaeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Ernst Haeckel</figcaption></figure> Like most of Darwin's supporters,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (1834–1919) put forward a doctrine of evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a> based on the ideas of the linguist and polygenist <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen (German for 'original humans'), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and, under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Haeckel was also an advocate of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Out_of_Asia_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Out of Asia theory (page does not exist)">out of Asia theory</a> by writing that the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia; he believed that <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a> (South Asia) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Haeckel also wrote that Negroes have stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race which is evidence that Negroes are related to apes because when apes stop climbing in trees they hold on to the trees with their toes. Haeckel compared Negroes to "four-handed" apes. Haeckel also believed Negroes were savages and that whites were the most civilised.<a href="#cite_note-GustavJahoda-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalism_of_Lapouge_and_Herder">Nationalism of Lapouge and Herder</h3></div> At the 19th century's end, scientific racism conflated <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> eugenicism with <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>'s concept of voluntary <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> to produce a form of coercive, anti-immigrant government programs influenced by other socio-political <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a> and events. Such institutional racism was effected via <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>, telling character from physiognomy; <a href="/wiki/Craniometry" title="Craniometry">craniometric</a> skull and skeleton studies; thus skulls and skeletons of black people and other colored volk, were displayed between apes and white men. In 1906, <a href="/wiki/Ota_Benga" title="Ota Benga">Ota Benga</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">Pygmy</a>, was displayed as the "Missing Link", in the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_Zoo" title="Bronx Zoo">Bronx Zoo</a>, New York City, alongside apes and animals. The most influential theorists included the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Georges Vacher de Lapouge</a> (1854–1936) who proposed "anthroposociology"; and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> (1744–1803), who applied "race" to <a href="/wiki/Nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist">nationalist</a> theory, thereby developing the first conception of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a>. In 1882, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a> contradicted Herder with a nationalism based upon the "will to live together", not founded upon ethnic or racial prerequisites (see <a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a>). Scientific racist discourse posited the historical existence of "national races" such as the <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">Deutsche Volk</a> in Germany, and the "French race" being a branch of the basal "<a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a>" extant for millennia, to advocate for <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitical</a> borders parallel to the racial ones. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Craniometry_and_physical_anthropology">Craniometry and physical anthropology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Craniometry" title="Craniometry">Craniometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrus-Camper-(professor).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg/130px-Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg/195px-Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg/260px-Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Pieter Camper</figcaption></figure> The Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Camper" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Camper">Pieter Camper</a> (1722–89), an early craniometric theoretician, used "craniometry" (interior skull-volume measurement) to scientifically justify racial differences. In 1770, he conceived of the <a href="/wiki/Facial_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Facial angle">facial angle</a> to measure intelligence among species of men. The facial angle was formed by drawing two lines: a horizontal line from nostril to ear; and a vertical line from the upper-jawbone prominence to the forehead prominence. Camper's craniometry reported that antique statues (the Greco-Roman ideal) had a 90-degree facial angle, whites an 80-degree angle, blacks a 70-degree angle, and the <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a> a 58-degree facial angle—thus he established a racist biological hierarchy for mankind, per the <a href="/wiki/Decadence" title="Decadence">Decadent</a> conception of history. Such scientific racist researches were continued by the naturalist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a> (1772–1844) and the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> (1824–1880). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samuel_George_Morton">Samuel George Morton</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morton_drawing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Morton_drawing.png/220px-Morton_drawing.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Morton_drawing.png/330px-Morton_drawing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Morton_drawing.png/440px-Morton_drawing.png 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Racialist differences: "a Negro head ... a Caucasian skull ... a Mongol head", <a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a>, 1839</figcaption></figure> In the 19th century, an early American <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropologist</a>, physician and polygenist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a> (1799–1851), collected human skulls from worldwide, and attempted a logical classification scheme. Influenced by contemporary racialist theory, Dr Morton said he could judge racial intellectual capacity by measuring the interior <a href="/wiki/Cranial_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial capacity">cranial capacity</a>, hence a large skull denoted a large brain, thus high <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectual</a> capacity. Conversely, a small skull denoted a small brain, thus low intellectual capacity; superior and inferior established. After inspecting three mummies from ancient Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since interpretations of the bible indicated that <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a> had washed up on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ararat" title="Mount Ararat">Mount Ararat</a> only a thousand years earlier, Morton claimed that Noah's sons could not possibly account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of polygenesis, races have been separate since the start.<a href="#cite_note-DavidHurst-82">[82]</a> In Morton's Crania Americana, his claims were based on <a href="/wiki/Craniometry" title="Craniometry">craniometry</a> data, that the Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Native Americans were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches.<a href="#cite_note-DavidHurst-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Races_and_skulls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/177px-Races_and_skulls.png" decoding="async" width="177" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/266px-Races_and_skulls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/354px-Races_and_skulls.png 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="3612" /></a><figcaption>Illustration from Types of Mankind (1854), whose authors <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Clark_Nott" class="mw-redirect" title="Josiah Clark Nott">Josiah Clark Nott</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Robins_Gliddon" class="mw-redirect" title="George Robins Gliddon">George Robins Gliddon</a> implied that "<a href="/wiki/Negroes" class="mw-redirect" title="Negroes">Negroes</a>" were a <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creational</a> rank between "<a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a></figcaption></figure>In <a href="/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man" title="The Mismeasure of Man">The Mismeasure of Man</a> (1981), the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historian of science</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> argued that Samuel Morton had falsified the craniometric data, perhaps inadvertently over-packing some skulls, to so produce results that would legitimize the racist presumptions he was attempting to prove. A subsequent study by the <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologist</a> John Michael found Morton's original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that "[c]ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity".<a href="#cite_note-jsmichael-83">[83]</a> Jason Lewis and colleagues reached similar conclusions as Michael in their reanalysis of Morton's skull collection; however, they depart from Morton's racist conclusions by adding that "studies have demonstrated that modern human variation is generally continuous, rather than discrete or "racial", and that most variation in modern humans is within, rather than between, populations".<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In 1873, Paul Broca, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological Society of Paris">Anthropological Society of Paris</a> (1859), found the same pattern of measures—that Crania Americana reported—by weighing specimen brains at <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a>. Other historical studies, proposing a black race–white race, intelligence–brain size difference, include those by Bean (1906), Mall (1909), Pearl (1934), and Vint (1934). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicolás_Palacios">Nicolás Palacios</h3></div> After the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific" title="War of the Pacific">War of the Pacific</a> (1879–83) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among the Chilean ruling class.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In his 1918 book physician <a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Palacios" title="Nicolás Palacios">Nicolás Palacios</a> argued for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Chilean_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean people">Chilean</a> race and its superiority when compared to neighboring peoples. He thought Chileans were a mix of two <a href="/wiki/Martial_race" title="Martial race">martial races</a>: the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Mapuche" title="Mapuche">Mapuches</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Visigoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigoth">Visigoths</a> of Spain, who descended ultimately from <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland" title="Götaland">Götaland</a> in Sweden. Palacios argued on medical grounds against immigration to Chile from southern Europe claiming that <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">Mestizos</a> who are of south European stock lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monogenism_and_polygenism">Monogenism and polygenism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">Monogenism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">Polygenism</a></div> Samuel Morton's followers, especially Dr <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a> (1804–1873) and <a href="/wiki/George_Gliddon" title="George Gliddon">George Gliddon</a> (1809–1857), extended Dr Morton's ideas in Types of Mankind (1854), claiming that Morton's findings supported the notion of <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a> (mankind has discrete genetic ancestries; the races are evolutionarily unrelated), which is a predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">modern human multiregional origin hypothesis</a>. Moreover, Morton himself had been reluctant to espouse polygenism, because it <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologically</a> challenged the Christian <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> espoused in the Bible. Later, in <a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="The Descent of Man">The Descent of Man</a> (1871), Charles Darwin proposed the <a href="/wiki/Single-origin_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-origin hypothesis">single-origin hypothesis</a>, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a>—mankind has a common genetic ancestry, the races are related, opposing everything that the polygenism of Nott and Gliddon proposed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typologies">Typologies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png/330px-Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png/495px-Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png/660px-Ripley_map_of_cephalic_index_in_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Cephalic Index. <a href="/wiki/William_Z._Ripley" title="William Z. Ripley">William Z. Ripley</a>'s European cephalic index map, <a href="/wiki/The_Races_of_Europe_(1899_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Races of Europe (1899 book)">The Races of Europe</a> (1899).</figcaption></figure> One of the first <a href="/wiki/Typology_(anthropology)" title="Typology (anthropology)">typologies</a> used to classify various human races was invented by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Georges Vacher de Lapouge</a> (1854–1936), a theoretician of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>, who published in 1899 L'Aryen et son rôle social ("The <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> and his social role"). In this book, he classified humanity into various, hierarchized races, spanning from the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", to the "brachycephalic", "mediocre and inert" race, best represented by Southern European, Catholic peasants".<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the "<a href="/wiki/Nordic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic theory">Homo europaeus</a>" (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "<a href="/wiki/Homo_alpinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo alpinus">Homo alpinus</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Auvergne_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auvergne (province)">Auvergnat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a>, etc.), and finally the "<a href="/wiki/Homo_mediterraneus" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo mediterraneus">Homo mediterraneus</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neapolitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia">Andalus</a>, etc.) Jews were dolichocephalic like the Aryans, according to Lapouge, but exactly for this reason he considered them to be dangerous; they were the only group, he thought, threatening to displace the Aryan aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirators of <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi racial policies">Nazi racist ideology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Vacher de Lapouge's classification was mirrored in <a href="/wiki/William_Z._Ripley" title="William Z. Ripley">William Z. Ripley</a> in The Races of Europe (1899), a book which had a large influence on American <a href="/wiki/White_supremacism" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacism">white supremacism</a>. Ripley even made a map of Europe according to the alleged <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_index" title="Cephalic index">cephalic index</a> of its inhabitants. He was an important influence of the American eugenist <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Deniker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Joseph_Deniker.jpg/130px-Joseph_Deniker.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Joseph_Deniker.jpg/195px-Joseph_Deniker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Joseph_Deniker.jpg/260px-Joseph_Deniker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Joseph Deniker</figcaption></figure> Furthermore, according to John Efron of <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, the late 19th century also witnessed "the scientizing of anti-Jewish prejudice", stigmatizing Jews with <a href="/wiki/Male_menstruation" class="mw-redirect" title="Male menstruation">male menstruation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histrionic_personality_disorder" title="Histrionic personality disorder">pathological hysteria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nymphomania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nymphomania">nymphomania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Efron-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bodek-91">[91]</a> At the same time, several Jews, such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jacobs" title="Joseph Jacobs">Joseph Jacobs</a> or Samuel Weissenberg, also endorsed the same pseudoscientific theories, convinced that the Jews formed a distinct race.<a href="#cite_note-Efron-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bodek-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Zhitlovsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Zhitlovsky">Chaim Zhitlovsky</a> also attempted to define <a href="/wiki/Yiddishkayt" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddishkayt">Yiddishkayt</a> (Ashkenazi Jewishness) by turning to contemporary racial theory.<a href="#cite_note-Chaim-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Deniker" title="Joseph Deniker">Joseph Deniker</a> (1852–1918) was one of <a href="/wiki/William_Z._Ripley" title="William Z. Ripley">William Z. Ripley</a>'s principal opponents; whereas Ripley maintained, as did Vacher de Lapouge, that the European populace comprised three races, Joseph Deniker proposed that the European populace comprised ten races (six primary and four sub-races). Furthermore, he proposed that the concept of "race" was ambiguous, and in its stead proposed the compound word "<a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a>", which later prominently featured in the works of <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_C._Haddon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred C. Haddon">Alfred C. Haddon</a>. Moreover, Ripley argued that Deniker's "race" idea should be denoted a "type", because it was less biologically rigid than most racial classifications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideological_applications">Ideological applications</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madison_Grant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Madison_Grant.jpg/130px-Madison_Grant.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Madison_Grant.jpg/195px-Madison_Grant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Madison_Grant.jpg/260px-Madison_Grant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Madison Grant, creator of the Nordic race term</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nordicism">Nordicism</h3></div> Joseph Deniker's contribution to racist theory was La Race nordique (the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_race" title="Nordic race">Nordic race</a>), a generic, racial-stock descriptor, which the American <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a> (1865–1937) presented as the white racial engine of world civilization. Having adopted Ripley's three-race European populace model, but disliking the Teuton race name, he transliterated la race nordique into 'the Nordic race', the acme of the concocted racial hierarchy, based upon his racial classification theory, popular in the 1910s and 1920s. The <a href="/wiki/State_Institute_for_Racial_Biology" title="State Institute for Racial Biology">State Institute for Racial Biology</a> (Swedish: Statens Institut för Rasbiologi) and its director <a href="/wiki/Herman_Lundborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Lundborg">Herman Lundborg</a> in Sweden were active in racist research. Furthermore, much of early research on <a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic languages</a> was coloured by attempts at justifying the view that European peoples east of Sweden were Asian and thus of an inferior race, justifying colonialism, eugenics and racial hygiene.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The book <a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a> (Or, The Racial Basis of European History) by American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant was published in 1916. Though influential, the book was largely ignored when it first appeared, and it went through several revisions and editions. Nevertheless, the book was used by people who advocated restricted immigration as justification for what became known as scientific racism.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justification_of_slavery_in_the_United_States">Justification of slavery in the United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuelcartwright.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Samuelcartwright.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="120" data-file-height="157" /></a><figcaption>Samuel Cartwright, M.D.</figcaption></figure> In the United States, scientific racism justified Black African slavery to assuage moral opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen described black men as uniquely fitted for bondage, because of their "primitive psychological organization".<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In 1851, in antebellum Louisiana, the physician <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a> (1793–1863) wrote of slave escape attempts as "<a href="/wiki/Drapetomania" title="Drapetomania">drapetomania</a>", a treatable <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>, that "with proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented". The term drapetomania (mania of the runaway slave) derives from the Greek δραπέτης (drapetes, 'a runaway [slave]') and μανία (mania, 'madness, frenzy').<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Cartwright also described <a href="/wiki/Dysaesthesia_aethiopica" title="Dysaesthesia aethiopica">dysaesthesia aethiopica</a>, called "rascality" by overseers. The <a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1840 United States Census">1840 United States Census</a> claimed that Northern, free blacks suffered mental illness at higher rates than did their Southern, enslaved counterparts. Though the census was later found to have been severely flawed by the <a href="/wiki/American_Statistical_Association" title="American Statistical Association">American Statistical Association</a>, it became a political weapon against <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionists</a>. Southern slavers concluded that escaping Negroes were suffering from "mental disorders".<a href="#cite_note-Higgins,_1994-96">[96]</a> At the time of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–1865), the matter of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a> prompted studies of ostensible physiological differences between <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Negro" title="Negro">Negroes</a>. Early <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Clark_Nott" class="mw-redirect" title="Josiah Clark Nott">Josiah Clark Nott</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Robins_Gliddon" class="mw-redirect" title="George Robins Gliddon">George Robins Gliddon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Knox_(surgeon)" title="Robert Knox (surgeon)">Robert Knox</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a>, aimed to scientifically prove that Negroes were a human species different from the white people; that the rulers of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> were not African; and that mixed-race offspring (the product of miscegenation) tended to physical weakness and infertility. After the Civil War, Southern (Confederacy) physicians wrote textbooks of scientific racism based upon studies claiming that black freemen (ex-slaves) were becoming extinct, because they were inadequate to the demands of being a free man—implying that black people benefited from enslavement. In Medical Apartheid, Harriet A. Washington noted the prevalence of two different views on blacks in the 19th century: the belief that they were inferior and "riddled with imperfections from head to toe", and the idea that they did not know true pain and suffering because of their primitive nervous systems (and that slavery was therefore justifiable). Washington noted the failure of scientists to accept the inconsistency between these two viewpoints, writing that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scientific racism was simply science, and it was promulgated by the very best minds at the most prestigious institutions of the nation. Other, more logical medical theories stressed the equality of Africans and laid poor black health at the feet of their abusers, but these never enjoyed the appeal of the medical philosophy that justified slavery and, along with it, our nation's profitable way of life.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></blockquote> Even after the end of the Civil War, some scientists continued to justify the institution of slavery by citing the effect of topography and climate on racial development. <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Shaler" title="Nathaniel Shaler">Nathaniel Shaler</a>, a prominent geologist at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> from 1869 to 1906, published the book Man and the Earth in 1905 describing the physical geography of different continents and linking these geologic settings to the intelligence and strength of human races that inhabited these spaces. Shaler argued that North American climate and geology was ideally suited for the institution of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_African_apartheid">South African apartheid</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Commission_on_the_Poor_White_Problem_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa">Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa</a></div> Scientific racism played a role in establishing <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> in South Africa. In South Africa, white scientists, like Dudly Kidd, who published The essential <a href="/wiki/Kaffir_(racial_term)" title="Kaffir (racial term)">Kafir</a> in 1904, sought to "understand the African mind". They believed that the cultural differences between whites and blacks in South Africa might be caused by physiological differences in the brain. Rather than suggesting that Africans were "overgrown children", as early white explorers had, Kidd believed that Africans were "misgrown with a vengeance". He described Africans as at once "hopelessly deficient", yet "very shrewd".<a href="#cite_note-Dubow-99">[99]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Commission_on_the_Poor_White_Problem_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa">Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa</a> played a key role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. According to one memorandum sent to Frederick Keppel, then president of the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Corporation">Carnegie Corporation</a>, there was "little doubt that if the natives were given full economic opportunity, the more competent among them would soon outstrip the less competent whites".<a href="#cite_note-swar-100">[100]</a> Keppel's support for the project of creating the report was motivated by his concern with the maintenance of existing racial boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-swar-100">[100]</a> The preoccupation of the Carnegie Corporation with the so-called poor white problem in South Africa was at least in part the outcome of similar misgivings about the state of poor whites in the southern United States.<a href="#cite_note-swar-100">[100]</a> The report was five volumes in length.<a href="#cite_note-amcentry-101">[101]</a> Around the start of the 20th century, white Americans, and whites elsewhere in the world, felt uneasy because poverty and economic depression seemed to strike people regardless of race.<a href="#cite_note-amcentry-101">[101]</a> Though the ground work for apartheid began earlier, the report provided support for this central idea of black inferiority. This was used to justify <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> and discrimination<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> in the following decades.<a href="#cite_note-haunted-103">[103]</a> The report expressed fear about the loss of white racial pride, and in particular pointed to the danger that the poor white would not be able to resist the process of "Africanisation".<a href="#cite_note-swar-100">[100]</a> Although scientific racism played a role in justifying and supporting <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a> in South Africa, it was not as important in South Africa as it has been in Europe and the United States. This was due in part to the "poor white problem", which raised serious questions for supremacists about white racial superiority.<a href="#cite_note-Dubow-99">[99]</a> Since poor whites were found to be in the same situation as natives in the African environment, the idea that intrinsic white superiority could overcome any environment did not seem to hold. As such, scientific justifications for racism were not as useful in South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Dubow-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eugenics">Eugenics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francis_Galton2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Francis_Galton2.jpg/170px-Francis_Galton2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c2/Francis_Galton2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> in his later years</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> described <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a> (1916) as "the most influential tract of American scientific racism". In the 1920s–30s, the German <a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">racial hygiene</a> movement embraced Grant's <a href="/wiki/Nordic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic theory">Nordic theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ploetz" title="Alfred Ploetz">Alfred Ploetz</a> (1860–1940) coined the term Rassenhygiene in Racial Hygiene Basics (1895), and founded the <a href="/wiki/German_Society_for_Racial_Hygiene" title="German Society for Racial Hygiene">German Society for Racial Hygiene</a> in 1905. The movement advocated <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">compulsory sterilization</a>, and a close alignment of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> with <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>. Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but with emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a>—what philosopher and historian <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> has called <a href="/wiki/State_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="State racism">state racism</a>. In 1869, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> (1822–1911) proposed the first social measures meant to preserve or enhance biological characteristics, and later coined the term eugenics. Galton, a statistician, introduced <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a> and discovered <a href="/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean" title="Regression toward the mean">regression toward the mean</a>. He was also the first to study human differences and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of intelligence">inheritance of intelligence</a> with statistical methods. He introduced the use of <a href="/wiki/Questionnaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Questionnaires">questionnaires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">surveys</a> to collect data on population sets, which he needed for genealogical and biographical works and for <a href="/wiki/Anthropometrics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropometrics">anthropometric</a> studies. Galton also founded <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometrics</a>, the science of measuring mental faculties, and <a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">differential psychology</a>, a branch of psychology concerned with psychological differences between people rather than common traits. Like scientific racism, eugenics grew popular in the early 20th century, and both ideas influenced <a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi racial policies">Nazi racial policies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a>. In 1901, Galton, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a> (1857–1936) and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Frank_Raphael_Weldon" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Frank Raphael Weldon">Walter F. R. Weldon</a> (1860–1906) founded the <a href="/wiki/Biometrika" title="Biometrika">Biometrika</a> scientific journal, which promoted <a href="/wiki/Biometrics" title="Biometrics">biometrics</a> and statistical analysis of heredity. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Davenport" title="Charles Davenport">Charles Davenport</a> (1866–1944) was briefly involved in the review. In Race Crossing in Jamaica (1929), he made statistical arguments that biological and cultural degradation followed white and black <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">interbreeding</a>. Davenport was connected to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> before and during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In 1939 he wrote a contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Festschrift" title="Festschrift">festschrift</a> for <a href="/wiki/Otto_Reche" title="Otto Reche">Otto Reche</a> (1879–1966), who became an important figure within the plan to remove populations considered "inferior" from eastern Germany.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interbellum_to_World_War_II">Interbellum to World War II</h2></div> Scientific racism continued through the early 20th century, and soon <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence testing">intelligence testing</a> became a new source for racial comparisons. Before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–45), scientific racism remained common to <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and was used as justification for <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> programs, <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">compulsory sterilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">anti-miscegenation laws</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">immigration restrictions</a> in Europe and the United States. The <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> (1933–45) discredited scientific racism in academia,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but racist legislation based upon it remained in some countries until the late 1960s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_intelligence_testing_and_the_Immigration_Act_of_1924">Early intelligence testing and the Immigration Act of 1924</h3></div> Before the 1920s, social scientists agreed that whites were superior to blacks, but they needed a way to prove this to back social policy in favor of whites. They felt the best way to gauge this was through testing intelligence. By interpreting the tests to show favor to whites these test makers' research results portrayed all minority groups very negatively.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker07-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In 1908, <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Goddard" title="Henry H. Goddard">Henry Goddard</a> translated the Binet intelligence test from French and in 1912 began to apply the test to incoming immigrants on Ellis Island.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Some claim that in a study of immigrants Goddard reached the conclusion that 87% of Russians, 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, and 79% of Italians were feeble-minded and had a mental age less than 12.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Some have also claimed that this information was taken as "evidence" by lawmakers and thus it affected social policy for years.<a href="#cite_note-Shultz08_237-108">[108]</a> Bernard Davis has pointed out that, in the first sentence of his paper, Goddard wrote that the subjects of the study were not typical members of their groups but were selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis has further noted that Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that "we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens".<a href="#cite_note-davis-109">[109]</a> In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups.<a href="#cite_note-APA-110">[110]</a> In his book <a href="/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man" title="The Mismeasure of Man">The Mismeasure of Man</a>, Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence testing results played a major role in the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a> that restricted immigration to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Gould-111">[111]</a> However, Mark Snyderman and <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Herrnstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard J. Herrnstein">Richard J. Herrnstein</a>, after studying the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Record" title="Congressional Record">Congressional Record</a> and committee hearings related to the Immigration Act, concluded "the [intelligence] testing community did not generally view its findings as favoring restrictive immigration policies like those in the 1924 Act, and Congress took virtually no notice of intelligence testing".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Juan N. Franco contested the findings of Snyderman and Herrnstein. Franco stated that even though Snyderman and Herrnstein reported that the data collected from the results of the intelligence tests were in no way used to pass The Immigration Act of 1924, the IQ test results were still taken into consideration by legislators. As suggestive evidence, Franco pointed to the following fact: Following the passage of the immigration act, information from the 1890 census was used to set quotas based on percentages of immigrants coming from different countries. Based on these data, the legislature restricted the entrance of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe into the United States and allowed more immigrants from northern and Western Europe into the country. The use of the 1900, 1910 or 1920 census data sets would have resulted in larger numbers of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe being allowed into the U.S. However, Franco pointed out that using the 1890 census data allowed congress to exclude southern and eastern Europeans (who performed worse on IQ tests of the time than did western and northern Europeans) from the U.S. Franco argued that the work Snyderman and Herrnstein conducted on this matter neither proved or disproved that intelligence testing influenced immigration laws.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden">Sweden</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG/220px-Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG/330px-Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG/440px-Dean%27s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2075" data-file-height="1485" /></a><figcaption>The Swedish <a href="/wiki/State_Institute_for_Racial_Biology" title="State Institute for Racial Biology">State Institute for Racial Biology</a>, founded in 1922, was the world's first government-funded institute performing research into racial biology. It was housed in what is now the Dean's house at <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala</a> and was closed down in 1958.</figcaption></figure> Following the creation of the first society for the promotion of racial hygiene, the <a href="/wiki/German_Society_for_Racial_Hygiene" title="German Society for Racial Hygiene">German Society for Racial Hygiene</a> in 1905—a Swedish society was founded in 1909 as the Svenska sällskapet för rashygien, the third in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FoF-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> By lobbying Swedish parliamentarians and medical institutes the society managed to pass a decree creating a government-run institute in the form of the Swedish <a href="/wiki/State_Institute_for_Racial_Biology" title="State Institute for Racial Biology">State Institute for Racial Biology</a> in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-FoF-114">[114]</a> By 1922 the institute was built and opened in <a href="/wiki/Uppsala" title="Uppsala">Uppsala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FoF-114">[114]</a> It was the first such government-funded institute in the world performing research into "racial biology" and remains highly controversial to this day.<a href="#cite_note-FoF-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> It was the most prominent institution for the study of "racial science" in Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The goal was to cure criminality, alcoholism and psychiatric problems through research in <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and racial hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-FoF-114">[114]</a> As a result of the institute's work, a law permitting <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">compulsory sterilization</a> of certain groups was enacted in Sweden in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The second president of the institute <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Dahlberg" title="Gunnar Dahlberg">Gunnar Dahlberg</a> was highly critical of the validity of the science performed at the institute and reshaped the institute toward a focus on <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Uppsala-119">[119]</a> In 1958 it closed down and all remaining research was moved to the Department of Medical Genetics at Uppsala University.<a href="#cite_note-Uppsala-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazi_Germany">Nazi Germany</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racial policy of Nazi Germany</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748,_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>Nazi poster promoting eugenics</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> and its sympathizers published many books on scientific racism, seizing on the <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> ideas with which they were widely associated, although these ideas had been in circulation since the 19th century. Books such as <a href="/wiki/Rassenkunde_des_deutschen_Volkes" title="Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes">Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes</a> ("Racial Science of the German People") by <a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Hans Günther</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> (first published in 1922)<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> and Rasse und Seele ("Race and Soul") by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Ferdinand_Clau%C3%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Ferdinand Clauß (page does not exist)">Ludwig Ferdinand Clauß</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Ferdinand_Clau%C3%9F" class="extiw" title="de:Ludwig Ferdinand Clauß">de</a>]<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> (published under different titles between 1926 and 1934)<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>: 394  attempted to scientifically identify differences between the German, <a href="/wiki/Nordic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic theory">Nordic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> people and other, supposedly inferior, groups.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] German schools used these books as texts during the Nazi era.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In the early 1930s, the Nazis used <a href="/wiki/Racialized" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialized">racialized</a> scientific rhetoric based on <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">social Darwinism</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] to push its restrictive and discriminatory social policies. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Nazi racialist beliefs became anathema in the United States, and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boasians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a> consolidated their institutional power. After the war, discovery of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and Nazi abuses of scientific research (such as <a href="/wiki/Josef_Mengele" title="Josef Mengele">Josef Mengele</a>'s ethical violations and other <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> revealed at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a>) led most of the scientific community to repudiate scientific support for racism. Propaganda for the Nazi eugenics program began with propaganda for eugenic sterilization. Articles in <a href="/wiki/Neues_Volk" title="Neues Volk">Neues Volk</a> described the appearance of the mentally ill and the importance of preventing such births.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Photographs of mentally incapacitated children were juxtaposed with those of healthy children.<a href="#cite_note-Claudia_Koonz_p_119-126">[126]</a>: 119  The film <a href="/wiki/Das_Erbe" title="Das Erbe">Das Erbe</a> showed conflict in nature in order to legitimize the <a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Prevention_of_Hereditarily_Diseased_Offspring" title="Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring">Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring</a> by sterilization. Although the child was "the most important treasure of the people", this did not apply to all children, even German ones, only to those with no hereditary weaknesses.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazism and race">racially based</a> social policies placed the improvement of the <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a> through eugenics at the center of Nazi ideology. People targeted by this policy included criminals, <a href="/wiki/Social_degeneration" title="Social degeneration">"degenerates"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">"dissidents"</a> who opposed the Nazification of Germany, the "feeble minded", Jewish people, <a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexual_people_in_Nazi_Germany_and_the_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="History of homosexual people in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust">homosexuals</a>, the insane, idle and "weak". As they were seen as people who fit the criteria of "<a href="/wiki/Life_unworthy_of_life" title="Life unworthy of life">life unworthy of life</a>" (German: Lebensunwertes Leben), they should thus not be allowed to procreate and pass on their genes or <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heritage</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although they were still regarded as "Aryan", Nazi ideology deemed <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Poles, Russians, Ukrainians</a>, etc.) to be racially inferior to the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">master race</a>, suitable for expulsion, enslavement, or even extermination.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>: 180  <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> banned <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> (IQ) testing for being "Jewish".<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a>: 16  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lothrop_Stoddard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Lothrop_Stoddard.JPG/170px-Lothrop_Stoddard.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/14/Lothrop_Stoddard.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a> (1883–1950)</figcaption></figure> In the 20th century, concepts of scientific racism, which sought to prove the physical and mental inadequacy of groups deemed "inferior", was relied upon to justify <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Involuntary sterilization">involuntary sterilization</a> programs.<a href="#cite_note-JacksonWeidman-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Such programs, promoted by eugenicists such as <a href="/wiki/Harry_H._Laughlin" title="Harry H. Laughlin">Harry H. Laughlin</a>, were upheld as constitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in <a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a> (1927). In all, between 60,000 and 90,000 Americans were subjected to involuntary sterilization.<a href="#cite_note-JacksonWeidman-130">[130]</a> Scientific racism was also used as a justification for the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Quota Act of 1921">Emergency Quota Act of 1921</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a> (Johnson–Reed Act), which imposed racial quotas limiting Italian American immigration to the United States and immigration from other southern European and eastern European nations. Proponents of these quotas, who sought to block "undesirable" immigrants, justifying restrictions by invoking scientific racism.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a> published many racialist books on what he saw as the peril of immigration, his most famous being <a href="/wiki/The_Rising_Tide_of_Color_Against_White_World-Supremacy" title="The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy">The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy</a> in 1920. In this book he presented a view of the world situation pertaining to race focusing concern on the coming population explosion among the "colored" peoples of the world and the way in which "white world-supremacy" was being lessened in the wake of World War I and the collapse of colonialism. Stoddard's analysis divided world politics and situations into "white", "yellow", "black", "Amerindian", and "brown" peoples and their interactions. Stoddard argued race and heredity were the guiding factors of history and civilization, and that the elimination or absorption of the "white" race by "colored" races would result in the destruction of Western civilization. Like Madison Grant, Stoddard divided the white race into three main divisions: Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean. He considered all three to be of good stock, and far above the quality of the colored races, but argued that the Nordic was the greatest of the three and needed to be preserved by way of eugenics. Unlike Grant, Stoddard was less concerned with which varieties of European people were superior to others (Nordic theory), but was more concerned with what he called "bi-racialism", seeing the world as being composed of simply "colored" and "white" races. In the years after the Great Migration and World War I, Grant's racial theory would fall out of favor in the U.S. in favor of a model closer to Stoddard's.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An influential publication was <a href="/wiki/The_Races_of_Europe_(1939_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Races of Europe (1939 book)">The Races of Europe</a> (1939) by <a href="/wiki/Carleton_S._Coon" title="Carleton S. Coon">Carleton S. Coon</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a> from 1930 to 1961. Coon was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">multiregional origin of modern humans</a>. He divided Homo sapiens into five main races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid (including Native Americans), Australoid, Congoid, and <a href="/wiki/Capoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Capoid">Capoid</a>. Coon's school of thought was the object of increasing opposition in mainstream anthropology after World War II. <a href="/wiki/Ashley_Montagu" title="Ashley Montagu">Ashley Montagu</a> was particularly vocal in denouncing Coon, especially in his Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. By the 1960s, Coon's approach had been rendered obsolete in mainstream anthropology, but his system continued to appear in publications by his student <a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_Angel" title="John Lawrence Angel">John Lawrence Angel</a> as late as in the 1970s. In the late 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896) <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> decision—which upheld the constitutional legality of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> under the doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>"—was intellectually rooted in the racism of the era, as was the popular support for the decision.<a href="#cite_note-rlac-133">[133]</a> Later, in the mid-20th century, the Supreme Court's <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> of Topeka (1954) decision rejected <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racialist</a> arguments about the "need" for racial segregation—especially in <a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">public schools</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_1945">After 1945</h2></div> By 1954, 58 years after the Plessy v. Ferguson upholding of racial segregation in the United States, American popular and scholarly opinions of scientific racism and its sociologic practice had evolved.<a href="#cite_note-rlac-133">[133]</a> In 1960, the journal <a href="/wiki/Mankind_Quarterly" title="Mankind Quarterly">Mankind Quarterly</a> was founded, which is commonly described as a venue for scientific racism and white supremacy,<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> and as lacking a legitimate scholarly purpose.<a href="#cite_note-jackson-137">[137]</a> The journal was founded in 1960, partly in response to the Supreme Court decision <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> which desegregated the American public school system.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-jackson-137">[137]</a> In April 1966, <a href="/wiki/Alex_Haley" title="Alex Haley">Alex Haley</a> interviewed <a href="/wiki/American_Nazi_Party" title="American Nazi Party">American Nazi Party</a> founder <a href="/wiki/George_Lincoln_Rockwell" title="George Lincoln Rockwell">George Lincoln Rockwell</a> for <a href="/wiki/Playboy" title="Playboy">Playboy</a>. Rockwell justified his belief that blacks were inferior to whites by citing a long 1916 study by G. O. Ferguson which claimed to show that the intellectual performance of black students was correlated with their percentage of white ancestry, stating "pure negroes, negroes three-fourths pure, mulattoes and quadroons have, roughly, 60, 70, 80 and 90 percent, respectively, of white intellectual efficiency".<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Playboy later published the interview with an editorial note claiming the study was a "discredited ... pseudoscientific rationale for racism".<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> International bodies such as <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Educational,_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization">UNESCO</a> attempted to draft resolutions that would summarize the state of scientific knowledge about race and issued calls for the resolution of racial conflicts. In its 1950 "<a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question">The Race Question</a>", UNESCO did not reject the idea of a biological basis to racial categories,<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> but instead defined a race as: "A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species Homo sapiens", which were broadly defined as the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongoloid race">Mongoloid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Negroid_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Negroid race">Negroid</a> races but stated that "It is now generally recognized that intelligence tests do not in themselves enable us to differentiate safely between what is due to innate capacity and what is the result of environmental influences, training and education".<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Despite scientific racism being largely dismissed by the scientific community after World War II, some researchers have continued to propose theories of racial superiority in the past few decades.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> These authors themselves, while seeing their work as scientific, may dispute the term racism and may prefer terms such as "race realism" or "racialism".<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In 2018, British science journalist and author <a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Angela Saini</a> expressed strong concern about the return of these ideas into the mainstream.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Saini followed up on this idea with her 2019 book <a href="/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science" title="Superior: The Return of Race Science">Superior: The Return of Race Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> One such post-World War II scientific racism researcher is <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Jensen" title="Arthur Jensen">Arthur Jensen</a>. His most prominent work is <a href="/wiki/The_g_Factor:_The_Science_of_Mental_Ability" title="The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability">The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability</a> in which he supports the theory that black people are inherently less intelligent than whites. Jensen argues for differentiation in education based on race, stating that educators must "take full account of all the facts of [students'] nature".<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Responses to Jensen criticized his lack of emphasis on environmental factors.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Scarr" title="Sandra Scarr">Sandra Scarr</a> describes Jensen's work as "conjur[ing] up images of blacks doomed to failure by their own inadequacies".<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Philippe_Rushton" title="J. Philippe Rushton">J. Philippe Rushton</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" title="Pioneer Fund">Pioneer Fund</a> (<a href="/wiki/Race,_Evolution,_and_Behavior" title="Race, Evolution, and Behavior">Race, Evolution, and Behavior</a>) and a defender of Jensen's The g Factor,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> also has multiple publications perpetuating scientific racism. Rushton argues "race differences in brain size likely underlie their multifarious life history outcomes".<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Rushton's theories are defended by other scientific racists such as <a href="/wiki/Glayde_Whitney" title="Glayde Whitney">Glayde Whitney</a>. Whitney published works suggesting higher crime rates among people of African descent can be partially attributed to genetics.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Whitney draws this conclusion from data showing higher crime rates among people of African descent across different regions. Other researchers point out that proponents of a genetic crime-race link are ignoring confounding social and economic variables, drawing conclusions from correlations.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chris_Brand" title="Chris Brand">Christopher Brand</a> was a proponent of Arthur Jensen's work on racial intelligence differences.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Brand's <a href="/wiki/The_g_Factor:_General_Intelligence_and_Its_Implications" title="The g Factor: General Intelligence and Its Implications">The g Factor: General Intelligence and Its Implications</a> claims black people are intellectually inferior to whites.<a href="#cite_note-Brand-1996-156">[156]</a> He argues the best way to combat IQ disparities is to encourage low-IQ women to reproduce with high-IQ men.<a href="#cite_note-Brand-1996-156">[156]</a> He faced intense public backlash, with his work being described as a promotion of eugenics.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Brand's book was withdrawn by the publisher and he was dismissed from his position at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>. Other prominent modern proponents of scientific racism include <a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Charles Murray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Herrnstein" title="Richard Herrnstein">Richard Herrnstein</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve" title="The Bell Curve">The Bell Curve</a>). <a href="/wiki/Kevin_MacDonald_(evolutionary_psychologist)" title="Kevin MacDonald (evolutionary psychologist)">Kevin MacDonald</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Critique_series" title="The Culture of Critique series">Culture of Critique</a> series, used arguments from <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> to promote <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> theories that Jews as a group have biologically evolved to be highly ethnocentric and hostile to the interests of <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a>. He asserts Jewish behavior and culture are central causes of antisemitism, and promotes <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canard" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canard">conspiracy theories</a> about alleged Jewish control and influence in government policy and political movements. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg/220px-Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg/330px-Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg/440px-Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2231" data-file-height="2286" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lynn" title="Richard Lynn">Richard Lynn</a> (1930–2023)</figcaption></figure> Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lynn" title="Richard Lynn">Richard Lynn</a> has published multiple papers and a book supporting theories of scientific racism. In <a href="/wiki/IQ_and_the_Wealth_of_Nations" title="IQ and the Wealth of Nations">IQ and the Wealth of Nations</a>, Lynn claims that national GDP is determined largely by national average IQ.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> He draws this conclusion from the correlation between average IQ and GDP and argues low intelligence in African nations is the cause of their low levels of growth. Lynn's theory has been criticized for attributing causal relationship between correlated statistics.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Lynn supports scientific racism more directly in his 2002 paper "Skin Color and Intelligence in African Americans", where he proposes "the level of intelligence in African Americans is significantly determined by the proportion of Caucasian genes".<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> As with IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Lynn's methodology is flawed, and he purports a causal relationship from what is simply correlation.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wade" title="Nicholas Wade">Nicholas Wade</a>'s book (<a href="/wiki/A_Troublesome_Inheritance" title="A Troublesome Inheritance">A Troublesome Inheritance</a>) faced strong backlash from the scientific community, with 142 geneticists and biologists signing a letter describing Wade's work as "misappropriation of research from our field to support arguments about differences among human societies".<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> On June 17, 2020, Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that <a href="/wiki/J._Philippe_Rushton" title="J. Philippe Rushton">J. Philippe Rushton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Templer" title="Donald Templer">Donald Templer</a> had published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal Personality and Individual Differences.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The article falsely claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jena_Declaration" title="Jena Declaration">Jena Declaration</a>, published by the <a href="/wiki/German_Zoological_Society" title="German Zoological Society">German Zoological Society</a>, rejects the idea of human races and distances itself from the racial theories of 20th century scientists. It states that <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a> between <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">human populations</a> is smaller than within them, demonstrating that the biological concept of "races" is invalid. The statement highlights that there are no specific <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_marker" title="Genetic marker">genetic markers</a> that match with conventional racial <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categorizations</a>. It also indicates that the idea of "races" is based on <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> rather than any <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> factuality.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Clarence Gravlee writes that disparities in the incidence of such medical conditions as diabetes, stroke, cancer, and low birth weight should be viewed with a societal lens. He argues that <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequalities</a>, not genetic differences between races, are the reason for these differences. He writes that genetic differences between different population groups are based on climate and geography, not race, and he calls for replacing incorrect biological explanations of racial disparities with an analysis of the social conditions that lead to disparate medical outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> In his book Is Science Racist, Jonathan Marks similarly asserts that races exist, though they lack a natural categorization in the realm of biology. Cultural rules such as the "<a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">one-drop rule</a>" must be devised to establish categories of race, even if they go against the natural patterns within our species. According to Marks' writing, racist ideas propagated by scientists are what make science racist.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> In her book Medical Apartheid<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Harriet Washington describes the abuse of Black people in medical research and experimentation. Black people were tricked into participating in medical experiments through the use of unclear language on consent forms and a failure to list the risks and side effects of the treatment. Washington mentions that, because Black people were denied <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">adequate health care</a>, they were often desperate for medical help, and medical experimenters were able to exploit that need. Washington also emphasizes that when treatments were perfected and refined as a result of those experiments, Black people almost never benefited from the treatments.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> A 2018 statement by the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Society of Human Genetics">American Society of Human Genetics</a> (ASHG) expressed alarm at the "resurgence of groups rejecting the value of genetic diversity and using discredited or distorted genetic concepts to bolster bogus claims of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>". The ASHG denounced this as a "misuse of genetics to feed racist ideologies", and highlighted several factual errors upon which white supremacist claims have been based. The statement affirms that genetics "demonstrates that humans cannot be divided into biologically distinct subcategories" and that it "exposes the concept of 'racial purity'' as scientifically meaningless".<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 28em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_race_and_intelligence_controversy" title="History of the race and intelligence controversy">History of the race and intelligence controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_zoo" title="Human zoo">Human zoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Academic_Racism" title="Institute for the Study of Academic Racism">Institute for the Study of Academic Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism_and_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism and racism">Italian Fascism and racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Italian racial laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazism and race">Nazism and race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">Objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" title="Pioneer Fund">Pioneer Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racial policy of Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">Race and intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">Scientific imperialism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGarros2006" class="citation journal cs1">Garros, Joel Z. (January 9, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687899">"A brave old world: an analysis of scientific racism and BiDil"</a>. McGill Journal of Medicine. 9 (1): 54–60. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687899">2687899</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19529811">19529811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+brave+old+world%3A+an+analysis+of+scientific+racism+and+BiDil&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-60&rft.date=2006-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687899%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19529811&rft.aulast=Garros&rft.aufirst=Joel+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNortonQuillenBighamPearson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Norton, Heather L.; Quillen, Ellen E.; Bigham, Abigail W.; Pearson, Laurel N.; Dunsworth, Holly (July 9, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12052-019-0109-y">"Human races are not like dog breeds: refuting a racist analogy"</a>. Evolution: Education and Outreach. 12 (1): 17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12052-019-0109-y">10.1186/s12052-019-0109-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-6434">1936-6434</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255479613">255479613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution%3A+Education+and+Outreach&rft.atitle=Human+races+are+not+like+dog+breeds%3A+refuting+a+racist+analogy&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255479613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1936-6434&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12052-019-0109-y&rft.aulast=Norton&rft.aufirst=Heather+L.&rft.au=Quillen%2C+Ellen+E.&rft.au=Bigham%2C+Abigail+W.&rft.au=Pearson%2C+Laurel+N.&rft.au=Dunsworth%2C+Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs12052-019-0109-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenyon-Flatt2021" class="citation web cs1">Kenyon-Flatt, Britanny (March 19, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sapiens.org/biology/race-scientific-taxonomy/">"How Scientific Taxonomy Constructed the Myth of Race"</a>. Sapiens.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Scientific+Taxonomy+Constructed+the+Myth+of+Race&rft.pub=Sapiens&rft.date=2021-03-19&rft.aulast=Kenyon-Flatt&rft.aufirst=Britanny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sapiens.org%2Fbiology%2Frace-scientific-taxonomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Theodore M. Porter, Dorothy Ross (eds.) 2003. The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 7, The Modern Social Sciences Cambridge University Press, p. 293 "Race has long played a powerful popular role in explaining social and cultural traits, often in ostensibly scientific terms"; Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social Science Encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [<a href="/wiki/Sc." class="mw-redirect" title="Sc.">sc.</a> scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial Superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to Sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson, Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism". </li> <li id="cite_note-SciRac_Gould-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SciRac_Gould_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciRac_Gould_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1981">Gould 1981</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mismeasureofman00goulrich/page/28">28–29</a>. "Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely identified as lying within". </li> <li id="cite_note-SciRac_CSI-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SciRac_CSI_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciRac_CSI_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kurtz, Paul (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071123123232/http://www.csicop.org/si/2004-09/scientific-ethics.html">"Can the Sciences Help Us to Make Wise Ethical Judgments?"</a>. Skeptical Inquirer. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/2004-09/scientific-ethics.html">the original</a> on November 23, 2007. Retrieved December 1, 2007. <q>There have been abundant illustrations of pseudoscientific theories-monocausal theories of human behavior that were hailed as "scientific" – that have been applied with disastrous results. Examples: ... Many racists today point to IQ to justify a menial role for blacks in society and their opposition to affirmative action.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Can+the+Sciences+Help+Us+to+Make+Wise+Ethical+Judgments%3F&rft.date=2004-09&rft.aulast=Kurtz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2F2004-09%2Fscientific-ethics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPSS-7"><a href="#cite_ref-EPSS_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaldis2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kaldis, Byron, ed. (2013). Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences. Sage Publications. p. 779. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781452276045" title="Special:BookSources/9781452276045"><bdi>9781452276045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+and+the+Social+Sciences&rft.pages=779&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781452276045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Templeton2016-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Templeton2016_8-0">^</a> Templeton, A. (2016). "Evolution and Notions of Human Race". In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society (pp. 346–361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv7h0s6j.26">10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26</a>. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagnerYuIfekwunigweHarrell2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5299519">"Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics"</a>. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (2): 318–327. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.23120">10.1002/ajpa.23120</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5299519">5299519</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27874171">27874171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Anthropologists%27+views+on+race%2C+ancestry%2C+and+genetics&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=318-327&rft.date=2017-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5299519%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27874171&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.23120&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+K.&rft.au=Yu%2C+Joon-Ho&rft.au=Ifekwunigwe%2C+Jayne+O.&rft.au=Harrell%2C+Tanya+M.&rft.au=Bamshad%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Royal%2C+Charmaine+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5299519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists2019" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a> (March 27, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/">"AAPA Statement on Race and Racism"</a>. American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved June 19, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Association+of+Physical+Anthropologists&rft.atitle=AAPA+Statement+on+Race+and+Racism&rft.date=2019-03-27&rft.au=American+Association+of+Physical+Anthropologists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysanth.org%2Fabout%2Fposition-statements%2Faapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century". </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="rattansi" class="citation book cs1">Rattansi, Ali (2007). Racism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192805904" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192805904"><bdi>978-0192805904</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0192805904&rft.aulast=Rattansi&rft.aufirst=Ali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> UNESCO, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf">The Race Question</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGannon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gannon, Megan (February 5, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue/">"Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved December 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Race+Is+a+Social+Construct%2C+Scientists+Argue&rft.date=2016-02-05&rft.aulast=Gannon&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Frace-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaleyOnwuegbuzie2011" class="citation book cs1">Daley, C. E.; Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2011). "Race and Intelligence". In Sternberg, R.; Kaufman, S. B. (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521518062" title="Special:BookSources/9780521518062"><bdi>9780521518062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Race+and+Intelligence&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Intelligence&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+New+York&rft.pages=293-306&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521518062&rft.aulast=Daley&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft.au=Onwuegbuzie%2C+A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Smay,_George_Armelagos2000" class="citation journal cs1">Diana Smay, George Armelagos (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180818073338/http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf">"Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race in forensic anthropolopy"</a> (PDF). Transforming Anthropology. 9 (2): 22–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Ftran.2000.9.2.19">10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 18, 2018. Retrieved July 13, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transforming+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Galileo+wept%3A+A+critical+assessment+of+the+use+of+race+in+forensic+anthropolopy&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=22-24&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Ftran.2000.9.2.19&rft.au=Diana+Smay%2C+George+Armelagos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anthropology.emory.edu%2FFACULTY%2FANTGA%2FWeb%2520Site%2FPDFs%2FGalileo%2520Wept-%2520A%2520Critical%2520Assessment%2520of%2520the%2520Use%2520of%2520Race%2520in%2520Forensic%2520Anthropology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotimi2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rotimi, Charles N. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng1439">"Are medical and nonmedical uses of large-scale genomic markers conflating genetics and 'race'?"</a>. Nature Genetics. 36 (11 Suppl): 43–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng1439">10.1038/ng1439</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15508002">15508002</a>. <q>Two facts are relevant: (i) as a result of different evolutionary forces, including natural selection, there are geographical patterns of genetic variations that correspond, for the most part, to continental origin; and (ii) observed patterns of geographical differences in genetic information do not correspond to our notion of social identities, including 'race' and 'ethnicity</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Are+medical+and+nonmedical+uses+of+large-scale+genomic+markers+conflating+genetics+and+%27race%27%3F&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=11+Suppl&rft.pages=43-47&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng1439&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15508002&rft.aulast=Rotimi&rft.aufirst=Charles+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fng1439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tucker07-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker07_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker07_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTucker2007">Tucker 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jen_E._Boyle_2010_page_74-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jen_E._Boyle_2010_page_74_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jen_E._Boyle_2010_page_74_17-1">b</a> Jen E. Boyle (2010), "Anamorphosis in Early Modern Literature: Mediation and Affect", Ashgate, p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> François Bernier, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524134126/http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/reader/bernier.PDF">"A New Division of the Earth"</a> from <a href="/wiki/Journal_des_Scavans" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal des Scavans">Journal des Scavans</a>, 24 April 1684. Translated by T. Bendyshe in Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London, vol. 1, 1863–64, pp. 360–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubiés-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubiés_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubiés_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubiés_19-2">c</a> Joan-Pau Rubiés, «Race, climate and civilization in the works of François Bernier», L'inde des Lumières. Discours, histoire, savoirs (XVIIe-XIXe siècle), Purushartha 31, París, Éditions de l'EHESSS, 2013, pp. 53–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuurman-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stuurman_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuurman_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuurman_20-2">c</a> Stuurman, S. (2000), "François Bernier and the invention of racial classification", History Workshop Journal, 50, pp. 1–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> French introduction by France Bhattacharya to an edition of Voyage dans les Etats du Grand Mogol (Paris: Fayard, 1981). </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Robert Boyle (1664), "Experiments and Considerations Touching Colours", Henry Herringman, London, pp. 160–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmeri,_Frank2006" class="citation book cs1">Palmeri, Frank (2006). Humans And Other Animals in Eighteenth-Century British Culture: Representation, Hybridity, Ethics. pp. 49–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humans+And+Other+Animals+in+Eighteenth-Century+British+Culture%3A+Representation%2C+Hybridity%2C+Ethics&rft.pages=49-67&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Palmeri%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaffan_Müller-Wille2014" class="citation book cs1">Staffan Müller-Wille (2014). "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World". The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900. pp. 191–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137338211_10">10.1057/9781137338211_10</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F16833">10871/16833</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-46395-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-46395-4"><bdi>978-1-349-46395-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linnaeus+and+the+Four+Corners+of+the+World&rft.btitle=The+Cultural+Politics+of+Blood%2C+1500%E2%80%931900&rft.pages=191-209&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10871%2F16833&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137338211_10&rft.isbn=978-1-349-46395-4&rft.au=Staffan+M%C3%BCller-Wille&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson05_39-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson05_39_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson05_39_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, pp. 39–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Initially, Linnaeus had only described four categories: Europæus albesc[ens], Americanus rubesc[ens], Asiaticus fuscus, & Africanus nigr[iculus](Note the color references were whitish, reddish, and blackish, in difference to later editions white, red and black). Only later editions included the "Monstrosus". </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Linnaeus did not use the term "race". He used the term "Homo variat", as can be seen in Systema naturae, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Gloria Ramon (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f00/web2/ramon2.html">"Race: Social Concept, Biological Idea"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Linnaeus used the Latin term: diurnus, varians cultura, loco: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eIVAAAAYAAJ&q=Mammalia.+Primates.+Homo">Systema Naturae, 13th edition, p. 29</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> In latin: rufus, cholericus, rectus. Pilis: nigris, rectis, crassis. Naribus: Patulis. Facie: ephelitica. Mento: subimberbi. Pertinax, contentus, liber. Pingit: Se lineis daedaleis rubris. Regitur Consuetudine. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> In latin: albus, sanguineus, torosus. Pilis flavescentibus, prolixis. Oculis caeruleis. Levis, argutus, inventor. Tegitur Vestimentis arctis. Regitur Ritibus. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> In latin: luridus, melancholicus, rigidus. Pilis nigricantibus. Oculis fuscis. Severus, fastuosus, avarus. Tegitur Indumentis laxis. Regitur Opinionibus. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> In latin: niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. Pilis atris, contortuplicatis. Cute holosericea. Naso simo. Labiis tumidis. Feminis sinus pudoris. Mammae lactantes prolixae. Vafer, segnis, negligens. Ungit se pingui. Regitur Arbitrio. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiebinger" class="citation web cs1">Schiebinger, Londa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wp.nyu.edu/tift/wp-content/uploads/sites/9559/2020/06/00-Week-One-Readings-2.0.pdf">"Taxonomy for Human Beings"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Taxonomy+for+Human+Beings&rft.aulast=Schiebinger&rft.aufirst=Londa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwp.nyu.edu%2Ftift%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F9559%2F2020%2F06%2F00-Week-One-Readings-2.0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race">"Linnaeus and Race"</a>. The Linnean Society. Retrieved May 5, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=Linnaeus+and+Race&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linnean.org%2Flearning%2Fwho-was-linnaeus%2Flinnaeus-and-race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-geometer-of-race">"The Geometer of Race"</a>. Discover Magazine. Retrieved May 5, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discover+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Geometer+of+Race&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discovermagazine.com%2Fmind%2Fthe-geometer-of-race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2009" class="citation journal cs1">Reid, Gordon McGregor (2009). "Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778): His Life, Philosophy and Science and Its Relationship to Modern Biology and Medicine". Taxon. 58 (1): 18–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ftax.581005">10.1002/tax.581005</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27756820">27756820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Carolus+Linnaeus+%281707%E2%80%931778%29%3A+His+Life%2C+Philosophy+and+Science+and+Its+Relationship+to+Modern+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-31&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ftax.581005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27756820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Gordon+McGregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Renato G Mazzolini – Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology. in: Reproduction, Race, and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences. Ed. Susanne Lettow. 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Conrad B. Quintyn (2010), "The Existence Or Non-existence of Race?, Teneo Press p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Kenneth A.R. Kennedy (1976), "Human Variation in Space and Time". Wm. C. Brown Company, p. 25. Kennedy writes that while "Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties. It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort". </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould1981">Gould 1981</a>, p. 67 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Rachel N. Hastings (2008), "Black Eyez: Memoirs of a Revolutionary", p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould_1994-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Gould_1994_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1994" class="citation magazine cs1">Gould, Stephen Jay (November 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-geometer-of-race">"The Geometer of Race"</a>. Discover. pp. 65–69. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0274-7529">0274-7529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discover&rft.atitle=The+Geometer+of+Race&rft.pages=65-69&rft.date=1994-11&rft.issn=0274-7529&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discovermagazine.com%2Fmind%2Fthe-geometer-of-race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Mary J. Morris & Leonie Berwick (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linnean.org/Resources/LinneanSociety/Documents/Publications/Other/Special%20Issue%208%20-%20The%20Linneaen%20Legacy.pdf">The Linnaean Legacy: Three Centuries after his birth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513171426/http://www.linnean.org/Resources/LinneanSociety/Documents/Publications/Other/Special%20Issue%208%20-%20The%20Linneaen%20Legacy.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, A forum for natural history. The Linnean Special Issue No. 8. <a href="/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_London" title="Linnean Society of London">Linnean Society of London</a>, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London. Was Linnaeus a racist?, p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-Montagu1-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Montagu1_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montagu1_45-1">b</a> Montagu, A. (2001 edition) Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Buffon, trans. Barr, (1807) Natural History, General and Particular, volume 4, p.191 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Stanley A. Rice (2009), "Encyclopedia of Evolution", Infobase Publishing, p. 195. Stanley states: "Even though the prejudice and racism of the attributes are obvious to modern scientists, Linnaeus did not apparently mean to imply a hierarchy of humanness or superiority". </li> <li id="cite_note-Harris-2001-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris-2001_48-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2001" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Marvin (2001) [1968]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef5uAAAAQBAJ">The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture</a> (Updated ed.). Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press. pp. 84–87, 110–111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1699-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1699-3"><bdi>978-0-7591-1699-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Anthropological+Theory%3A+A+History+of+Theories+of+Culture&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+California&rft.pages=84-87%2C+110-111&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-1699-3&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEf5uAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader, 1997, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Rush, Benjamin (1799). "Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (As It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIsaac2004">Isaac 2004</a>, p. 150 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gupta07-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta07_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta07_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta07_52-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDas_Gupta,_Tania2007" class="citation book cs1">Das Gupta, Tania (2007). 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McGill Journal of Medicine. 9 (1): 54–60. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687899">2687899</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19529811">19529811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+Brave+Old+World%3A+An+Analysis+of+Scientific+Racism+and+BiDil&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-60&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687899%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19529811&rft.aulast=Garrod&rft.aufirst=Joel+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html?pagewanted=all">"The Monster of Monticello"</a>. The New York Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia" title="Notes on the State of Virginia">Notes on the State of Virginia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> (Jefferson's Letter to Benjamin Banneker, August 30, 1791. Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol 22, August 6, 1791 – December 31, 1791, ed. Charles T. Cullen. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986, pp. 49–54.) </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, p. 87 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Georges Cuvier, Tableau elementaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux (Paris, 1798) p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Georges Cuvier, The Animal Kingdom: Arranged in Conformity with its Organization, Translated from the French by H.M. Murtrie, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, pp. 41–42 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Colin Kidd, The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000, 2006, p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiedemann,_Friedrich1836" class="citation journal cs1">Tiedemann, Friedrich (1836). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laboratoriogene.info/Ciencia_Hoje/Tiedemann_1836.pdf">"On the Brain of the Negro, Compared with that of the European and the Orang-outang"</a> (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 126: 497–527. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1836RSPT..126..497T">1836RSPT..126..497T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1836.0025">10.1098/rstl.1836.0025</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115347088">115347088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+the+Brain+of+the+Negro%2C+Compared+with+that+of+the+European+and+the+Orang-outang&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=497-527&rft.date=1836&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A115347088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1836.0025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1836RSPT..126..497T&rft.au=Tiedemann%2C+Friedrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaboratoriogene.info%2FCiencia_Hoje%2FTiedemann_1836.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays, Volume II, Section 92 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Jahoda" title="Gustav Jahoda">Gustav Jahoda</a>, Images of Savages: Ancients [sic] Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture, 1999, p. 82 </li> <li id="cite_note-drace-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-drace_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-drace_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2006" class="citation web cs1">Price, R.G. (June 24, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm">"The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist"</a>. rationalrevolution.net. Retrieved January 6, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mis-portrayal+of+Darwin+as+a+Racist&rft.pub=rationalrevolution.net&rft.date=2006-06-24&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=R.G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rationalrevolution.net%2Farticles%2Fdarwin_nazism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> D'Souza, Dinesh "Is Racism a Western Idea?" pp. 517–39 from The American Scholar, Vol. 64, No. 4 Autumn 1995, p.538 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> A. J. Woodman, 2009, The Cambridge Companion to Tacitus, p. 294. (The Germanic race was also regarded by Gobineau as beautiful, honourable and destined to rule: 'cette illustre famille humaine, la plus noble'. While <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">arya</a> was originally an <a href="/wiki/Endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonym">endonym</a> used only by <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>, "Aryan" became, partly because of the Essai a racial designation of a race, which Gobineau specified as 'la race germanique'. </li> <li id="cite_note-GustavJahoda-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GustavJahoda_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GustavJahoda_70-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Jahoda" title="Gustav Jahoda">Gustav Jahoda</a>, Images of Savages: Ancients [sic] Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture, 1999, p. 83 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, p. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> "It may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant... they graduate into each other, and.. it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them... As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from progenitors who had these same characters.", <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=238">The Descent of Man p. 225 onwards</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter1992" class="citation book cs1">Hofstadter, Richard (1992). Social Darwinism in American Thought. Beacon Press. pp. 172–173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807055038" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807055038"><bdi>978-0807055038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Darwinism+in+American+Thought&rft.pages=172-173&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0807055038&rft.aulast=Hofstadter&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimmelfarb1959" class="citation book cs1">Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1959). Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution. I.R. Dee. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1566631068" title="Special:BookSources/978-1566631068"><bdi>978-1566631068</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin+and+the+Darwinian+Revolution&rft.pub=I.R.+Dee&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-1566631068&rft.aulast=Himmelfarb&rft.aufirst=Gertrude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBannister1979" class="citation book cs1">Bannister, Robert C. (1979). Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought. Temple University Press. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0877221555" title="Special:BookSources/978-0877221555"><bdi>978-0877221555</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Darwinism%3A+Science+and+Myth+in+Anglo-American+Social+Thought&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0877221555&rft.aulast=Bannister&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheldon2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sheldon, Myrna Perez (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbjt.2021.2">"Sexual selection as race making"</a>. BJHS Themes. 6: 9–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbjt.2021.2">10.1017/bjt.2021.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BJHS+Themes&rft.atitle=Sexual+selection+as+race+making&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=9-23&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fbjt.2021.2&rft.aulast=Sheldon&rft.aufirst=Myrna+Perez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fbjt.2021.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrautmann1997203_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrautmann1997">Trautmann (1997)</a>, p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh2011171-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh2011171_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalsh2011">Walsh (2011)</a>, p. 171 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, p. 87 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer,_Douglas2006" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Douglas (2006). Prehistoric Past Revealed: The Four Billion Year History of Life on Earth. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520248274" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520248274"><bdi>978-0520248274</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Past+Revealed%3A+The+Four+Billion+Year+History+of+Life+on+Earth&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0520248274&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegal,_Brian2004" class="citation book cs1">Regal, Brian (2004). Human Evolution: A Guide to the Debates. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 73–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851094189" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851094189"><bdi>978-1851094189</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Evolution%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Debates&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1851094189&rft.au=Regal%2C+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DavidHurst-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DavidHurst_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DavidHurst_82-1">b</a> David Hurst Thomas, Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, And The Battle For Native American Identity, 2001, pp. 38–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-jsmichael-83"><a href="#cite_ref-jsmichael_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael,_J.S.1988" class="citation journal cs1">Michael, J.S. (1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research". Current Anthropology. 29 (2): 349–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F203646">10.1086/203646</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144528631">144528631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=A+New+Look+at+Morton%27s+Craniological+Research&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=349-354&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F203646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144528631%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Michael%2C+J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisDegustaMeyerMonge2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Jason E.; Degusta, David; Meyer, Marc R.; Monge, Janet M.; Mann, Alan E.; Holloway, Ralph L. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3110184">"The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias"</a>. PLOS Biology. 9 (6): e1001071+. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001071">10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3110184">3110184</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21666803">21666803</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Mismeasure+of+Science%3A+Stephen+Jay+Gould+versus+Samuel+George+Morton+on+Skulls+and+Bias&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e1001071%2B&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3110184%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21666803&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001071&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Jason+E.&rft.au=Degusta%2C+David&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Marc+R.&rft.au=Monge%2C+Janet+M.&rft.au=Mann%2C+Alan+E.&rft.au=Holloway%2C+Ralph+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3110184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Ericka Beckman Imperial Impersonations: Chilean Racism and the War of the Pacific, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalacios1918" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Palacios" title="Nicolás Palacios">Palacios, Nicolás</a> (1918), Raza Chilena (in Spanish), Editorial Chilena</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Raza+Chilena&rft.pub=Editorial+Chilena&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Palacios&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHecht2003">Hecht 2003</a>, p. 171 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHecht2003">Hecht 2003</a>, pp. 171–72 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Taguieff" title="Pierre-André Taguieff">Pierre-André Taguieff</a>, La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française ("Colour and Blood – Racist doctrines à la française"), Paris, <a href="/wiki/Mille_et_une_nuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Mille et une nuits">Mille et une nuits</a>, 2002, 203 pages, and La Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel <a href="/wiki/Gallimard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallimard">Gallimard</a>, La Découverte, 1987, 644 pages </li> <li id="cite_note-Efron-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Efron_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Efron_90-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEfron1994">Efron 1994</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bodek-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bodek_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bodek_91-1">b</a> Richard Bodek. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=1716846635467">Review of John M. Efron, Defenders of the Race: Jewish Doctors & Race Science in Fin-de-Siècle Europe"</a>, H-SAE, <a href="/wiki/H-Net" title="H-Net">H-Net</a> Reviews, May 1996 (in English) </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaim-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Chaim_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman,_Matthew2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffman, Matthew (January 2005). "From Pintele Yid to Racenjude: Chaim Zhitlovsky and Racial Conceptions of Jewishness". <a href="/wiki/Jewish_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish History">Jewish History</a>. 19 (1): 65–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10835-005-4358-7">10.1007/s10835-005-4358-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143976833">143976833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+History&rft.atitle=From+Pintele+Yid+to+Racenjude%3A+Chaim+Zhitlovsky+and+Racial+Conceptions+of+Jewishness&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-78&rft.date=2005-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10835-005-4358-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143976833%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Hoffman%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1917" class="citation journal cs1">Lindsay, J. A. (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2942213">"The passing of the great race, or the racial basis of european history"</a>. The Eugenics Review. 9 (2): 139–141. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2942213">2942213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Eugenics+Review&rft.atitle=The+passing+of+the+great+race%2C+or+the+racial+basis+of+european+history&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-141&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2942213%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2942213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jaacap.com/article/S0002-7138(09)61177-8/pdf">Racism and Psychiatry</a>. New York: Carol Publishing Group. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Samual A. Cartwright, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html">"Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race"</a>, <a href="/wiki/DeBow%27s_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="DeBow's Review">DeBow's Review</a> – Southern and Western States, Volume XI, New Orleans, 1851 </li> <li id="cite_note-Higgins,_1994-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Higgins,_1994_96-0">^</a> Higgins, 1994 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington2008" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Harriet A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=apGhwRt6A7QC&pg=PA42">Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0767929394" title="Special:BookSources/978-0767929394"><bdi>978-0767929394</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Apartheid%3A+The+Dark+History+of+Medical+Experimentation+on+Black+Americans+from+Colonial+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0767929394&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Harriet+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DapGhwRt6A7QC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaler1905" class="citation book cs1">Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate (1905). Man and the Earth. New York: Duffield & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+and+the+Earth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Duffield+%26+Company&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Shaler&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel+Southgate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dubow-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dubow_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dubow_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dubow_99-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubow,_Saul1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saul_Dubow" title="Saul Dubow">Dubow, Saul</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificracism0000dubo">Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521479073" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521479073"><bdi>978-0521479073</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Racism+in+Modern+South+Africa&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0521479073&rft.au=Dubow%2C+Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificracism0000dubo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-swar-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-swar_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swar_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swar_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swar_100-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFüredi,_Frank1998" class="citation book cs1">Füredi, Frank (1998). The Silent War: Imperialism and the Changing Perception of Race. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813526126" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813526126"><bdi>978-0813526126</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silent+War%3A+Imperialism+and+the+Changing+Perception+of+Race&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0813526126&rft.au=F%C3%BCredi%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-amcentry-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amcentry_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amcentry_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlater,_DavidTaylor,_Peter_J.1999" class="citation book cs1">Slater, David; Taylor, Peter J. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americancenturyc0000unse/page/290">The American Century: Consensus and Coercion in the Projection of American Power</a>. 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K.</a> (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rassenkundedesd00gngoog/">Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes</a> [Racial Science of the German People] (in German). <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">München</a>: <a href="/wiki/J._F._Lehmann" class="mw-redirect" title="J. F. Lehmann">J. F. Lehmann</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rassenkunde+des+deutschen+Volkes&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pub=J.+F.+Lehmann&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCnther&rft.aufirst=Hans+F.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frassenkundedesd00gngoog%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2010" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, Anne (2010). 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(2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NWaxXRILGjYC&pg=PA394">"Learning to See (Race): Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss's Racial Psychology as Applied Phenomenology"</a>. About Face: German Physiognomic Thought from Lavater to Auschwitz. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press" title="Wayne State University Press">Wayne State University Press</a>. pp. 273–332, 393–396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814331798" title="Special:BookSources/9780814331798"><bdi>9780814331798</bdi></a>. <q>Rasse und Seele has a curious publication history. The first edition appeared under this title in 1926 with the subtitle "Eine Einführung in die Gegenwart" (An Introduction to the contemporary world). A second, heavily revised edition appeared in 1929 under an entirely different title, Von Seele und Antlitz der Rassen und Völker (On the soul and face of races and nations). A third revised edition, which returned to the original title Rasse und Seele, was published in 1934, this time with the subtitle of "Eine Einführung in den Sinn der leiblichen Gestalt" (An introduction to the meaning of somatic form), and this latter edition remained the basis for all subsequent printings ... [t]he content of the three books is similar, though the various editions tend to organize this material in very different ways.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Learning+to+See+%28Race%29%3A+Ludwig+Ferdinand+Clauss%27s+Racial+Psychology+as+Applied+Phenomenology&rft.btitle=About+Face%3A+German+Physiognomic+Thought+from+Lavater+to+Auschwitz&rft.pages=273-332%2C+393-396&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780814331798&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNWaxXRILGjYC%26pg%3DPA394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Justin_E._H._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Justin E. H. Smith">Smith, Justin E. H.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DtmqBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10">"The Nature of Science and the Nature of Philosophy"</a>. Nature, Human Nature, and Human Difference. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 10–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400866311" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400866311"><bdi>978-1400866311</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Science+and+the+Nature+of+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Nature%2C+Human+Nature%2C+and+Human+Difference&rft.pages=10-15&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1400866311&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Justin+E.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDtmqBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodenfels2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Rodenfels, H. (2007) [Published in German in May 1939]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/nv39-05a.htm">"Frauen, die nicht Mutter werden dürfen"</a> [Women Who May Not Be Allowed to become Mothers]. <a href="/wiki/Neues_Volk" title="Neues Volk">Neues Volk</a>. Vol. 7. Translated by Bytwerk, Randall. pp. 16–21 – via German Propaganda Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neues+Volk&rft.atitle=Frauen%2C+die+nicht+Mutter+werden+d%C3%BCrfen&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=16-21&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Rodenfels&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.calvin.edu%2Fgerman-propaganda-archive%2Fnv39-05a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claudia_Koonz_p_119-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Claudia_Koonz_p_119_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoonz2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Koonz" title="Claudia Koonz">Koonz, Claudia</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naziconscience00koon/page/119">"Ethnic Revival and Racist Anxiety"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naziconscience00koon/page/103">The Nazi Conscience</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naziconscience00koon/page/103">103–130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674011724" title="Special:BookSources/9780674011724"><bdi>9780674011724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Revival+and+Racist+Anxiety&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+Conscience&rft.pages=103-130&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780674011724&rft.aulast=Koonz&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaziconscience00koon%2Fpage%2F119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_H._Nicholas" title="Lynn H. Nicholas">Nicholas, Lynn H.</a> (2006). Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web. <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780679776635" title="Special:BookSources/9780679776635"><bdi>9780679776635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cruel+World%3A+The+Children+of+Europe+in+the+Nazi+Web&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780679776635&rft.aulast=Nicholas&rft.aufirst=Lynn+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMineau2004" class="citation book cs1">Mineau, André (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLcDEUZfW4EC&pg=PA181">"Conclusion: Anthropology and the Peculiarities of the East"</a>. Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics against Human Dignity. <a href="/wiki/Rodopi_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodopi (publisher)">Rodopi</a>. pp. 180–182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042016330" title="Special:BookSources/9789042016330"><bdi>9789042016330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conclusion%3A+Anthropology+and+the+Peculiarities+of+the+East&rft.btitle=Operation+Barbarossa%3A+Ideology+and+Ethics+against+Human+Dignity&rft.pages=180-182&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789042016330&rft.aulast=Mineau&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZLcDEUZfW4EC%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEysenckFulker1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Eysenck, Hans Jürgen</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Fulker" title="David Fulker">Fulker, David W.</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ka_gAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">"Intelligence: The Development of a Concept"</a>. The Structure & Measurement of Intelligence. Die Naturwissenschaften. Vol. 68. New Brunswick: <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. pp. 8–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00365371">10.1007/bf00365371</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412839235" title="Special:BookSources/9781412839235"><bdi>9781412839235</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7300910">7300910</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7319985">7319985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intelligence%3A+The+Development+of+a+Concept&rft.btitle=The+Structure+%26+Measurement+of+Intelligence&rft.place=New+Brunswick&rft.series=Die+Naturwissenschaften&rft.pages=8-31&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00365371&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7319985%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7300910&rft.isbn=9781412839235&rft.aulast=Eysenck&rft.aufirst=Hans+J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=Fulker%2C+David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dka_gAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JacksonWeidman-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JacksonWeidman_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JacksonWeidman_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, p. 119 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Juliet_Hooker" title="Juliet Hooker">Juliet Hooker</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVy1DgAAQBAJ">Theorizing Race in the Americas: Douglass, Sarmiento, Du Bois, and Vasconcelos</a> (Oxford University Press, 2017), pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Christa Wirth, Memories of Belonging: Descendants of Italian Migrants to the United States, 1884–Present (<a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, 2015), pp. 190, 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-rlac-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rlac_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rlac_133-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarat,_Austin1997" class="citation book cs1">Sarat, Austin (1997). Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 55, 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195106220" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195106220"><bdi>978-0195106220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Law%2C+and+Culture%3A+Reflections+on+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=55%2C+59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0195106220&rft.au=Sarat%2C+Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinston2020" class="citation book cs1">Winston, Andrew S. (May 29, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-516">"Scientific Racism and North American Psychology"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190236557.013.516">10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.516</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023655-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023655-7"><bdi>978-0-19-023655-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Racism+and+North+American+Psychology&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Psychology&rft.date=2020-05-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190236557.013.516&rft.isbn=978-0-19-023655-7&rft.aulast=Winston&rft.aufirst=Andrew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fpsychology%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190236557.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190236557-e-516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGressonKincheloeSteinberg1997" class="citation book cs1">Gresson, Aaron; <a href="/wiki/Joe_L._Kincheloe" title="Joe L. Kincheloe">Kincheloe, Joe L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Shirley_R._Steinberg" title="Shirley R. Steinberg">Steinberg, Shirley R.</a>, eds. (March 14, 1997). <a href="/wiki/Measured_Lies:_The_Bell_Curve_Examined" class="mw-redirect" title="Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined">Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined</a> (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17228-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17228-2"><bdi>978-0-312-17228-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measured+Lies%3A+The+Bell+Curve+Examined&rft.pages=39&rft.edition=1st+St.+Martin%27s+Griffin&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1997-03-14&rft.isbn=978-0-312-17228-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> William H. Tucker, The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press, 2002, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jackson_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson_137-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonMcCarthy2005" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, John; McCarthy, John P. Jr (2005). Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education. New York: New York University Press. p. 148–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814742716" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814742716"><bdi>978-0814742716</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+for+Segregation%3A+Race%2C+Law%2C+and+the+Case+against+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=148-&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0814742716&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+John+P.+Jr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaffer2007">Schaffer 2007</a>, pp. 253–78 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1916" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, G.O. (April 1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/psychologyofnegr00ferg#page/124/mode/2up">"The Psychology of the Negro"</a>. Archives of Psychology. 36: 125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Psychology+of+the+Negro&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=125&rft.date=1916-04&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=G.O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpsychologyofnegr00ferg%23page%2F124%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaley1966" class="citation magazine cs1">Haley, Alex (April 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1966PlayboyInterview/MicrosoftWord-Document1#page/n7/mode/2up">"Interview: George Lincoln Rockwell"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Playboy" title="Playboy">Playboy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Playboy&rft.atitle=Interview%3A+George+Lincoln+Rockwell&rft.date=1966-04&rft.aulast=Haley&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1966PlayboyInterview%2FMicrosoftWord-Document1%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanton2008" class="citation book cs1">Banton, Michael (2008). "Race, Unesco statements on". In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. 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November 1, 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2018.10.011">10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.10.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6218810">6218810</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30348456">30348456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=ASHG+Denounces+Attempts+to+Link+Genetics+and+Racial+Supremacy&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=636&rft.date=2018-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6218810%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30348456&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2018.10.011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Fajhg%2Fpdf%2FS0002-9297%2818%2930363-X.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsséoFingsSparing,_FrankKenrick,_Donald1997" class="citation book cs1">Asséo, Henriette; Fings, Karola; Sparing, Frank; Kenrick, Donald; Heuss, Herbert (1997). 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New Haven CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300054408" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300054408"><bdi>978-0300054408</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defenders+of+the+race%3A+Jewish+doctors+and+race+science+in+fin-de-si%C3%A8cle+Europe&rft.place=New+Haven+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0300054408&rft.aulast=Efron&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefendersofracej0000efro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrenreich2007" class="citation book cs1">Ehrenreich, Eric (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naziancestralpro00ehre_0">The Nazi ancestral proof: genealogy, racial science, and the final solution</a>. 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New York: Basic Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryan+Myth%3A+A+History+of+Racist+and+Nationalist+Ideas+in+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Poliakov&rft.aufirst=Leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProctor1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Proctor" title="Robert N. Proctor">Proctor, Robert N.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racialhygiene00robe">Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racial+Hygiene%3A+Medicine+under+the+Nazis&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Proctor&rft.aufirst=Robert+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracialhygiene00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapp1987" class="citation book cs1">Sapp, Jan (1987). Beyond the gene: cytoplasmic inheritance and the struggle for authority in genetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195042061" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195042061"><bdi>978-0195042061</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+gene%3A+cytoplasmic+inheritance+and+the+struggle+for+authority+in+genetics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0195042061&rft.aulast=Sapp&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer2007" class="citation journal cs1">Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War". Journal of American Studies. 41 (2): 253–378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875807003477">10.1017/S0021875807003477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145322934">145322934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=%22%27Scientific%27+Racism+Again%3F%22%3A+Reginald+Gates%2C+the+Mankind+Quarterly+and+the+Question+of+%22Race%22+in+Science+after+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=253-378&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021875807003477&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145322934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schaffer&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaguieff1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Taguieff" title="Pierre-André Taguieff">Taguieff, Pierre-André</a> (1987). La Force du préjugé. Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles (in French). Paris: <a href="/wiki/Gallimard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallimard">Gallimard</a>, La Découverte. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2070719778" title="Special:BookSources/978-2070719778"><bdi>978-2070719778</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Force+du+pr%C3%A9jug%C3%A9.+Essai+sur+le+racisme+et+ses+doubles&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gallimard%2C+La+D%C3%A9couverte&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-2070719778&rft.aulast=Taguieff&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Tucker_(psychologist)" title="William H. Tucker (psychologist)">Tucker, William H.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/65rwe7dm9780252074639.html">The funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252074639" title="Special:BookSources/9780252074639"><bdi>9780252074639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+funding+of+Scientific+Racism%3A+Wickliffe+Draper+and+the+Pioneer+Fund&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780252074639&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.press.uillinois.edu%2Fbooks%2Fcatalog%2F65rwe7dm9780252074639.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2004" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-06663-010">"Racially stuffed shirts and other enemies of mankind: Horace Mann Bond's parody of segregationist psychology in the 1950s"</a>. In Winston, A. (ed.). Defining difference: Race and Racism in the History of Psychology. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 261–283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Racially+stuffed+shirts+and+other+enemies+of+mankind%3A+Horace+Mann+Bond%27s+parody+of+segregationist+psychology+in+the+1950s&rft.btitle=Defining+difference%3A+Race+and+Racism+in+the+History+of+Psychology&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pages=261-283&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Frecord%2F2003-06663-010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Psychologist1996" class="citation journal cs1">Neisser, U.; Boodoo, G.; Bouchard, T.J. Jr.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S.J.; et al. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100816090612/http://www.psych.illinois.edu/~broberts/Neisser%20et%20al,%201996,%20intelligence.pdf">"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns"</a> (PDF). American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.51.2.77">10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psych.illinois.edu/~broberts/Neisser%20et%20al,%201996,%20intelligence.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 16, 2010. Retrieved February 24, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Intelligence%3A+Knowns+and+unknowns&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=77-101&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.51.2.77&rft.aulast=Neisser&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Boodoo%2C+G.&rft.au=Bouchard%2C+T.J.+Jr.&rft.au=Boykin%2C+A.W.&rft.au=Brody%2C+N.&rft.au=Ceci%2C+S.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psych.illinois.edu%2F~broberts%2FNeisser%2520et%2520al%2C%25201996%2C%2520intelligence.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards1997" class="citation book cs1">Richards, G. (1997). Race, Racism, and Psychology: Towards a Reflexive History. New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Racism%2C+and+Psychology%3A+Towards+a+Reflexive+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultzShultz2008" class="citation book cs1">Shultz, D.P.; Shultz, S.E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology (9th ed.). Belmont CA: Thomson Higher Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Psychology&rft.place=Belmont+CA&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Thomson+Higher+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=D.P.&rft.au=Shultz%2C+S.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautmann1997" class="citation cs2">Trautmann, Thomas R. (1997), Aryans and British India, Vistaar</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryans+and+British+India&rft.pub=Vistaar&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Trautmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1994" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, W.H. (1994). The Science and Politics of Racial Research. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+and+Politics+of+Racial+Research&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=W.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2011" class="citation cs2">Walsh, Judith E. (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin0000wals_y0v7">A Brief History of India</a>, Facts On File, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816081431" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816081431"><bdi>978-0816081431</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+India&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0816081431&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Judith+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryofin0000wals_y0v7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Alexander, Nathan G. (2019). Race in a Godless World: Atheism, Race, and Civilization, 1850–1914. New York/Manchester: New York University Press/Manchester University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526142375" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526142375">978-1526142375</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2021" class="citation web cs1">Ball, Philip (June 9, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jun/09/human-genome-genes-genetic-code">"The unwelcome revival of 'race science': 20 years after the human genome was first sequenced, dangerous gene myths abound"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+unwelcome+revival+of+%27race+science%27%3A+20+years+after+the+human+genome+was+first+sequenced%2C+dangerous+gene+myths+abound&rft.date=2021-06-09&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2021%2Fjun%2F09%2Fhuman-genome-genes-genetic-code&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondit2010" class="citation book cs1">Condit, Celeste M. (2010). Rhetorical Engagements in the Scientist's Process of Remaking Race as Genetic. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_South_Carolina_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of South Carolina Press">The University of South Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1299241091" title="Special:BookSources/978-1299241091"><bdi>978-1299241091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetorical+Engagements+in+the+Scientist%27s+Process+of+Remaking+Race+as+Genetic&rft.pub=The+University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1299241091&rft.aulast=Condit&rft.aufirst=Celeste+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFredrickson2002" class="citation book cs1">Fredrickson, George M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racismshorthisto0000fred">Racism: A Short History</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00899-8"><bdi>978-0-691-00899-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racism%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00899-8&rft.aulast=Fredrickson&rft.aufirst=George+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracismshorthisto0000fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/scientific-racism-history">Scientific racism, history of</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cengage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage">Cengage</a>)</li> <li>Gardner, Dan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070819221453/http://www.sinc.sunysb.edu/Stu/lmarfogl/project/race_gerdner.htm">"Race Science: When Racial Categories Make No Sense"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail" title="The Globe and Mail">The Globe and Mail</a>, October 27, 1995.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-evolution-and-the-science-of-human-origins/">Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins</a>" by Allison Hopper, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> (July 5, 2021).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurves_DAugustine_GJFitzpatrick_D2001" class="citation book cs1">Purves D; Augustine GJ; Fitzpatrick D; et al., eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11129/box/A1833/">"Box D. Brain Size and Intelligence"</a>. Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Box+D.+Brain+Size+and+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Neuroscience&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK11129%2Fbox%2FA1833%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedman2016" class="citation book cs1">Redman, Samuel J. (2016). Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674660410" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674660410"><bdi>978-0674660410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bone+Rooms%3A+From+Scientific+Racism+to+Human+Prehistory+in+Museums&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0674660410&rft.aulast=Redman&rft.aufirst=Samuel+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaini2019" class="citation book cs1">Saini, Angela (2019). <a href="/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science" title="Superior: The Return of Race Science">Superior: The Return of Race Science</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Press" title="Beacon Press">Beacon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0008341008" title="Special:BookSources/978-0008341008"><bdi>978-0008341008</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superior%3A+The+Return+of+Race+Science&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0008341008&rft.aulast=Saini&rft.aufirst=Angela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiro2009" class="citation book cs1">Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. University of Vermont Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584657156" title="Special:BookSources/978-1584657156"><bdi>978-1584657156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defending+the+Master+Race%3A+Conservation%2C+Eugenics%2C+and+the+Legacy+of+Madison+Grant&rft.pub=University+of+Vermont+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1584657156&rft.aulast=Spiro&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+racism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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racism">Scientific racism</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Eugenics-and-Scientific-Racism">Fact Sheet on Eugenics and Scientific Racism</a> from the National Human Genome Research Institute</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm">The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist</a> – Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist or that his views inspired the Nazis</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/05-02-18/">Reviews of Race: The Reality of Human Differences</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/racescience/links/index.html">RaceSci: History of Race in Science</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211011719/http://web.mit.edu/racescience/links/index.html">Archived</a> February 11, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ferris-pages.org/ISAR/">Institute for the study of academic racism (ISAR)</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220117143633/https://www.ferris-pages.org/ISAR/">Archived</a> January 17, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_03_a-godeeper.htm">"Race, Science, and Social Policy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Race:_The_Power_of_an_Illusion" title="Race: The Power of an Illusion">Race: The Power of an Illusion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/cross-check/how-can-we-curb-the-spread-of-scientific-racism/">"How Can We Curb the Spread of Scientific Racism?"</a>—A review of Superior: The Return of Race Science by <a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Angela Saini</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apa.nyu.edu/hauntedfiles/about/timeline/">Timeline of Scientific Racism</a>—The Asian/Pacific/American Institute at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Racism_topics" title="Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Racism_topics" title="Template talk:Racism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Racism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aversive_racism" title="Aversive racism">Aversive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_racism" title="Covert racism">Covert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_on_the_Internet" title="Racism on the Internet">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_racism" title="Gendered racism">Gendered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_racism" title="Internalized racism">Internalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_racism" title="Patent racism">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_racism" title="Laissez-faire racism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_racism" title="Linguistic racism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocolonial_racism" title="Neocolonial racism">Neocolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_racism" title="Romantic racism">Romantic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_racism" title="Societal racism">Societal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_racism" title="Symbolic racism">Symbolic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Discrimination based on nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hierarchy" title="Racial hierarchy">Racial hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_apartheid" title="Global apartheid">Global apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Africa" title="Racism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Racism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Asia" title="Racism in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_Korea" title="Racism in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Korea" title="Racism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Thailand" title="Racism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Vietnam" title="Racism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Racism in the Arab world">Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Libya" title="Racism in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Sudan" title="Racism in Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Europe" title="Racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Denmark" title="Racism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Poland" title="Racism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Portugal" title="Racism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Spain" title="Racism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Ukraine" title="Racism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Iran" title="Racism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_discrimination_in_Turkey" title="Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Brazil" title="Racism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Racism by target</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Japanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea">Japanese Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Black sentiment">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanic & Latino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Jewish_communities" title="Racism in Jewish communities">In Jewish communities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Muslim_communities" title="Racism in Muslim communities">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_wine_industry" title="Racism in the wine industry">Wine industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Racial supremacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Ableism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Casteism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_plastic_surgery" title="Ethnic plastic surgery">Ethnic plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_back_to_where_you_came_from" title="Go back to where you came from">Go back to where you came from</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herrenvolk_democracy" title="Herrenvolk democracy">Herrenvolk democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Hispanic_and_Latino_American_communities" title="Racism in Hispanic and Latino American communities">Hispanics/Latinos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism" title="Psychometrics of racism">Psychometrics of racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sexuality" title="Race and sexuality">Race and sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_card" title="Race card">Race card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Racial figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport" title="Racism in sport">Racism in sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport_in_Australia" title="Racism in sport in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race and ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism" title="Category:Racism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Racism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Racism">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_racism-related_articles" title="Index of racism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_racism&oldid=1257386394">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_racism&oldid=1257386394</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_racism" 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