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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques_used_in_Forward_Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques_used_in_Forward_Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Techniques used in Forward Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques_used_in_Forward_Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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href="#Insertional_mutagenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Insertional mutagenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insertional_mutagenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_mutagenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_mutagenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Post mutagenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_mutagenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Human diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_forward_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_forward_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classical forward genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_forward_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div class="cdx-message cdx-message--block cdx-message--warning mw-revision"><span class="cdx-message__icon"></span><div class="cdx-message__content"><div id="mw-revision-info-current"><p><b>This is the <a href="/wiki/Help:Page_history" title="Help:Page history">current revision</a> of this page, as edited by <span id="mw-revision-name"><a href="/wiki/User:BD2412" class="mw-userlink" title="User:BD2412" data-mw-revid="1248369405"><bdi>BD2412</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:BD2412">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/BD2412">contribs</a>)</span></span> at <span id="mw-revision-date">03:57, 29 September 2024</span><span id="mw-revision-summary"> <span class="comment">(Clean up spacing errors around commas., replaced: York,N → York, N)</span></span>. The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this version.</b></p><div id="revision-info-current-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 03:57, 29 September 2024 by <a href="/wiki/User:BD2412" class="mw-userlink" title="User:BD2412" data-mw-revid="1248369405"><bdi>BD2412</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:BD2412">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/BD2412">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(Clean up spacing errors around commas., replaced: York,N → York, N)</span></div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&diff=prev&oldid=1248369405" title="Forward genetics">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&direction=prev&oldid=1248369405" title="Forward genetics">← Previous revision</a> | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Molecular genetics approach</div> <p><b>Forward genetics</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> approach of determining the genetic basis responsible for a phenotype. Forward genetics provides an unbiased approach because it relies heavily on identifying the genes or genetic factors that cause a particular phenotype or trait of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was initially done by using naturally occurring mutations or inducing mutants with radiation, chemicals, or <a href="/wiki/Insertional_mutagenesis" title="Insertional mutagenesis">insertional mutagenesis</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Transposable_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposable elements">transposable elements</a>). Subsequent breeding takes place, mutant individuals are isolated, and then the gene is <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">mapped</a>. Forward genetics can be thought of as a counter to <a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">reverse genetics</a>, which determines the function of a gene by analyzing the phenotypic effects of altered DNA sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-wfg_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wfg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutant phenotypes are often observed long before having any idea which gene is responsible, which can lead to genes being named after their mutant phenotype (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a> <i>rosy</i> gene which is named after the eye colour in mutants).<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_used_in_Forward_Genetics">Techniques used in Forward Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Techniques used in Forward Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forward genetics provides researchers with the ability to identify genetic changes caused by mutations that are responsible for individual phenotypes in organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three major steps involved with the process of forward genetics which includes: making random mutations, selecting the phenotype or trait of interest, and identifying the gene and its function.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forward genetics involves the use of several mutagenesis processes to induce DNA mutations at random which may include: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_mutagenesis">Chemical mutagenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chemical mutagenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical mutagenesis is an easy tool that is used to generate a broad spectrum of mutant alleles. Chemicals like ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) cause random <a href="/wiki/Point_mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Point mutations">point mutations</a> particularly in G/C to A/T transitions due to guanine alkylation.<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These point mutations are typically loss-of-function or null alleles because they generate stop codons in the DNA sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of mutagens can be useful because they are easily applied to any organism but they were traditionally very difficult to <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">map</a>, although the advent of next-generation sequencing has made this process considerably easier. </p><p>Another chemical such as ENU, also known as N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea works similarly to EMS. ENU also induces random point mutations where all codons are equally liable to change. These point mutations modify gene function by inducing different alleles, including gain or loss of function mutations in protein-coding or noncoding regions in the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemchemicals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Chemchemicals.png/487px-Chemchemicals.png" decoding="async" width="487" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Chemchemicals.png 1.5x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="154" /></a><figcaption>The figure shows the chemical compounds ethyl methansulfonate (shown on the left) and N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (shown on the right).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_mutagenesis">Radiation mutagenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiation mutagenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other methods such as using radiation to cause large deletions and <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_rearrangement" title="Chromosomal rearrangement">chromosomal rearrangements</a> can be used to generate mutants as well.<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ionizing radiation can be used to induce genome-wide mutations as well as chromosomal duplications, inversions, and translocations. </p><p>Similarly, short wave UV light works in the same way as ionizing radiation which can also induce mutations generating chromosomal rearrangements. When DNA absorbs short wave UV light, dimerizing and oxidative mutations can occur which can cause severe damage to the DNA sequence of an organism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insertional_mutagenesis">Insertional mutagenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Insertional mutagenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mutations can also be generated by <a href="/wiki/Insertional_mutagenesis" title="Insertional mutagenesis">insertional mutagenesis</a>. Most often, insertional mutagenesis involves the use of transposons, which introduces dramatic changes in the genome of an organism. Transposon movements can create random mutations in the DNA sequence by changing its position within a genome, therefore modifying gene function, and altering the organism’s genetic information. For example, <a href="/wiki/Transposable_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposable elements">transposable elements</a> containing a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_marker" title="Genetic marker">marker</a> are mobilized into the genome at random. These transposons are often modified to transpose only once, and once inserted into the genome a selectable marker can be used to identify the mutagenized individuals. Since a known fragment of DNA was inserted this can make mapping and cloning the gene much easier.<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gfgtg_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gfgtg-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post_mutagenesis">Post mutagenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Post mutagenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once mutagenized and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_screening" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic screening">screened</a>, typically a <a href="/wiki/Complementation_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementation test">complementation test</a> is done to ensure that mutant <a href="/wiki/Phenotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenotypes">phenotypes</a> arise from the same genes if the mutations are recessive.<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fgt_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fgt-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the progeny after a cross between two recessive mutants have a wild-type phenotype, then it can be inferred that the phenotype is determined by more than one gene. Typically, the allele exhibiting the strongest phenotype is further analyzed. A genetic map can then be created using <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">linkage</a> and genetic markers, and then the gene of interest can be cloned and sequenced. If many alleles of the same genes are found, the screen is said to be saturated and it is likely that all of the genes involved producing the phenotype were found.<sup id="cite_ref-fgt_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fgt-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forward_genetics_steps.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Forward_genetics_steps.png/659px-Forward_genetics_steps.png" decoding="async" width="659" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Forward_genetics_steps.png 1.5x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="177" /></a><figcaption>Flowchart of basic steps involved in forward genetics approach.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_diseases">Human diseases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Human diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human diseases and disorders can be the result of mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Stearns_2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stearns_2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forward genetics methods are employed in studying heritable diseases to determine the genes that are accountable.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_2018_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2018-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With single-gene or mendelian disorders a <a href="/wiki/Missense_mutation" title="Missense mutation">missense mutation</a> can be significant; <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single nucleotide polymorphisms</a> (SNPs) can be analyzed to identify gene mutations that are associated with the disorder phenotype. Before 1980 very few human genes had been identified as disease loci until advances in DNA technology gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Positional_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Positional cloning">positional cloning</a> and reverse genetics. In the 1980s and 1990s, positional cloning consisted of genetic mapping, physical mapping, and discerning the gene mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discovering disease loci using old forward genetic techniques was a very long and difficult process and much of the work went into mapping and cloning the gene through <a href="/wiki/Association_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Association studies">association studies</a> and chromosome walking.<sup id="cite_ref-parsch_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parsch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hmg_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hmg-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being laborious and costly, forward genetics provides a way to obtain objective information regarding a mutation's connection to a disease.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another advantage of forward genetics is that it requires no prior knowledge about the gene being studied.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_2018_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2018-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">Cystic fibrosis</a> however demonstrates how the process of forward genetics can elucidate a human genetic disorder. Genetic-linkage studies were able to map the disease loci in cystic fibrosis to chromosome 7 by using protein markers. Afterward, <a href="/wiki/Primer_walking" title="Primer walking">chromosome walking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_jumping" title="Chromosome jumping">jumping</a> techniques were used to identify the gene and sequence it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forward genetics can work for single-gene-single phenotype situations but in more complicated diseases like cancer, reverse genetics is often used instead.<sup id="cite_ref-hmg_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hmg-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is usually because complex diseases tend to have multiple genes, mutations, or other factors that cause or may influence it.<sup id="cite_ref-Stearns_2008_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stearns_2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forward and <a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">reverse genetics</a> operate with opposite approaches, but both are useful for genetics research.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_2018_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2018-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can be coupled together to see if similar results are found.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_2018_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2018-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_forward_genetics">Classical forward genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Classical forward genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a> approach, a researcher would locate (map) the gene on its chromosome by <a href="/wiki/Crossbreeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossbreeding">crossbreeding</a> with individuals that carry other unusual traits and collecting statistics on how frequently the two traits are inherited together. Classical geneticists would have used phenotypic traits to map the new mutant alleles. Eventually the hope is that such screens would reach a large enough scale that most or all newly generated mutations would represent a second hit of a locus, essentially saturating the genome with mutations. This type of saturation mutagenesis within classical experiments was used to define sets of genes that were a bare minimum for the appearance of specific phenotypes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such initial screens were either incomplete as they were missing redundant loci and epigenetic effects, and such screens were difficult to undertake for certain phenotypes that lack directly measurable phenotypes. Additionally, a classical genetics approach takes significantly longer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gregor Mendel experimented with pea plant phenotypes and published his conclusions about genes and inheritance in 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_2018_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2018-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the early 1900s <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> was mutating <i>Drosophila</i> using radium and attempting to find heritable mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alfred Sturtevant later began mapping genes of <i>Drosophila</i> with mutations they had been following.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s forward genetics methods were utilized to better understand <i>Drosophila</i> genes significant to development from embryo to adult fly.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1995 the Nobel Prize went to Christiane Nüsslein, Edward Lewis, and Eris Wieschaus for their work in developmental genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human genome was mapped and the sequence was published in <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">2003</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to identify genes that contribute to Mendelian disorders has improved since 1990 as a result of advances in genetics and technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Stearns_2008_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stearns_2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forward_genetics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMorescoLiBeutler2013" class="citation journal cs1">Moresco EM, Li X, Beutler B (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644711">"Going forward with genetics: recent technological advances and forward genetics in mice"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Pathology</i>. <b>182</b> (5): 1462–1473. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajpath.2013.02.002">10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.02.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644711">3644711</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23608223">23608223</a>.</cite><span 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