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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Influence of other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Sound changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beowulf" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beowulf"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span><i>Beowulf</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beowulf-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Lord's_Prayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Lord's_Prayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>The Lord's Prayer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Lord's_Prayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charter_of_Cnut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charter_of_Cnut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Charter of Cnut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charter_of_Cnut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dictionaries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Modern legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old English</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 99 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-99" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">99 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ou_Engels" title="Ou Engels – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ou Engels" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B3%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8A%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%8A%E1%8B%9D%E1%8A%9B" title="ጥንታዊ እንግሊዝኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጥንታዊ እንግሊዝኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BD_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पुरानऽ अंगरेजी भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="पुरानऽ अंगरेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86nglisc_spr%C3%A6c" title="Ænglisc spræc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ænglisc spræc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D3%99%D1%8B%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B7_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Ажәытә англыз бызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Ажәытә англыз бызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اللغة الإنجليزية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الإنجليزية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_angl%C3%A9s_antigo" title="Idioma anglés antigo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma anglés antigo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_antiguu" title="Inglés antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inglés antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6hn%C9%99_ingilis_dili" title="Köhnə ingilis dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Köhnə ingilis dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="প্রাচীন ইংরেজি ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন ইংরেজি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98_Eng-g%C3%AD" title="Kó͘ Eng-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘ Eng-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнаанглійская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытнаанглійская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Стараангельская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Стараангельская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староанглийски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Староанглийски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglsaxische_Sproch" title="Anglsaxische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Anglsaxische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hensaozneg" title="Hensaozneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hensaozneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%A8s_antic" title="Anglès antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anglès antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroangli%C4%8Dtina" title="Staroangličtina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Staroangličtina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Saesneg" title="Hen Saesneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hen Saesneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelsaksisk_(sprog)" title="Angelsaksisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Angelsaksisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altenglisch" title="Altenglisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altenglisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanainglise_keel" title="Vanainglise keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vanainglise keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία αγγλική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία αγγλική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_anglosaj%C3%B3n" title="Idioma anglosajón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma anglosajón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosaksa_lingvo" title="Anglosaksa lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anglosaksa lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_ingelesa" title="Antzinako ingelesa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako ingelesa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان انگلیسی باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان انگلیسی باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_English" title="Purana English – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Purana English" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornenskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Fornenskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Fornenskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieil_anglais" title="Vieil anglais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieil anglais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldingelsk" title="Aldingelsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldingelsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_antigo" title="Inglés antigo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Inglés antigo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A4%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کؤنه اينگيليسي زوان – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="کؤنه اينگيليسي زوان" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%98%81%EC%96%B4" title="고대 영어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 영어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Հին անգլերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին անգլերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="ऐंग्लो-सैक्सन भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऐंग्लो-सैक्सन भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroengleski_jezik" title="Staroengleski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Staroengleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosaxona_linguo" title="Anglosaxona linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Anglosaxona linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daan_nga_Ingles" title="Daan nga Ingles – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Daan nga Ingles" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggris_Kuno" title="Bahasa Inggris Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Inggris Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglese_antique" title="Anglese antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Anglese antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Рагон англисаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Рагон англисаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornenska" title="Fornenska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornenska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_inglese_antica" title="Lingua inglese antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua inglese antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="אנגלית עתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנגלית עתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris_Kuna" title="Basa Inggris Kuna – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Inggris Kuna" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ძველი ინგლისური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი ინგლისური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Көне ағылшын тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Көне ағылшын тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiingereza_cha_Kale" title="Kiingereza cha Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiingereza cha Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ англичан кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ англичан кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Anglo-saksona" title="Lingua Anglo-saksona – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua Anglo-saksona" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%BB%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%B2" title="ພາສາອັງກິດເກົ່າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາອັງກິດເກົ່າ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Anglo-Saxonica" title="Lingua Anglo-Saxonica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Anglo-Saxonica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senang%C4%BCu_valoda" title="Senangļu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senangļu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senoji_angl%C5%B3_kalba" title="Senoji anglų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senoji anglų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aajdingels" title="Aajdingels – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aajdingels" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engles_antica" title="Engles antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Engles antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93angol_nyelv" title="Óangol nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Óangol nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староанглиски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Староанглиски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_Ingarihi_Tawhito" title="Reo Ingarihi Tawhito – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Ingarihi Tawhito" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggeris_Kuno" title="Bahasa Inggeris Kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Inggeris Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%AA%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯑꯔꯤꯕ ꯏꯪꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯔꯤꯕ ꯏꯪꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudengels" title="Oudengels – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudengels" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E" title="古英語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古英語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ualingels" title="Ualingels – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ualingels" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelengelsk" title="Gammelengelsk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelengelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammalengelsk" title="Gammalengelsk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gammalengelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuur_aunglleis" title="Vuur aunglleis – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Vuur aunglleis" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8lh_angl%C3%A9s" title="Vièlh anglés – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vièlh anglés" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="پرانی انگریزی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پرانی انگریزی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelsassische_Sprake" title="Angelsassische Sprake – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Angelsassische Sprake" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_staroangielski" title="Język staroangielski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język staroangielski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%AAs_antigo" title="Inglês antigo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inglês antigo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_englez%C4%83_veche" title="Limba engleză veche – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba engleză veche" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91awpa_Inlis_simi" title="Ñawpa Inlis simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñawpa Inlis simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнеанглийский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнеанглийский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE_%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮ ᱤᱝᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮ ᱤᱝᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Inglis" title="Auld Inglis – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auld Inglis" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_e_vjet%C3%ABr_angleze" title="Gjuha e vjetër angleze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha e vjetër angleze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old English" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%BB%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="پراڻي انگريزي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پراڻي انگريزي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosa%C5%A1tina" title="Anglosaština – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Anglosaština" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stara_angle%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Stara angleščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stara angleščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="ئینگلیزیی کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئینگلیزیی کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староенглески језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Староенглески језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroengleski_jezik" title="Staroengleski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Staroengleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / 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data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Борынгы инглиз теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы инглиз теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="ภาษาอังกฤษเก่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอังกฤษเก่า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_language&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon language">Anglo-Saxon language</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Earliest historical form of English language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Old_English_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Old English (disambiguation)">Old English (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old English</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Englisċ</i></span><br /><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Ænglisċ</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf.Kenning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beowulf.Kenning.jpg/200px-Beowulf.Kenning.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beowulf.Kenning.jpg/300px-Beowulf.Kenning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beowulf.Kenning.jpg/400px-Beowulf.Kenning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1523" data-file-height="299" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">A detail of the first page of the <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i> manuscript, showing the words "<span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ofer hron rade</i></span>", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kenning</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ang-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Old_English" title="Help:IPA/Old English">[ˈeŋɡliʃ]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> (except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Mostly developed into <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a> by the 12th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old English</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runic</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Old English Latin alphabet</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=19">ang</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ang" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ang">ang</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-6" title="ISO 639-6">ISO 639-6</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>ango</code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/olde1238">olde1238</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/150px-Beowulf_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/225px-Beowulf_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/300px-Beowulf_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="76" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Old_English" title="Category:Old English">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old English</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_dialect_(Old_English)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentish dialect (Old English)">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Use</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Orthography">Orthography</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runic alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_language#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Development of Old English</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Influences</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English" title="Brittonicisms in English">Brittonic</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Legacy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Old_English_topics" title="Template:Old English topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Old_English_topics" title="Template talk:Old English topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Old_English_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Old English topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Old English</b> (<span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Englisċ</i></span> or <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Ænglisc</i></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ang-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Old_English" title="Help:IPA/Old English">[ˈeŋɡliʃ]</a></span>), or <b>Anglo-Saxon</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the earliest recorded form of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and southern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. It developed from the languages brought to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlers</a> in the mid-5th century, and the first <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literary works</a> date from the mid-7th century. After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">type of French</a>) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> in England and <a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a> in Scotland. </p><p>Old English developed from a set of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian">Anglo-Frisian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic">Ingvaeonic</a> dialects originally spoken by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a> traditionally known as the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language_decline_in_England" title="Celtic language decline in England">replaced</a> the languages of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>: <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic language">Celtic language</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, brought to Britain by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest</a>. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a>. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the dominant forms of Middle and <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> would develop mainly from Mercian,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> influence due to <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Scandinavian rule</a> and settlement beginning in the 9th century. </p><p>Old English is one of the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a>, and its closest relatives are <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within <a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old English grammar</a> nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> endings and forms, and <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> is much freer.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">runic system</a>, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">version of the Latin alphabet</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Englisċ</i>, from which the word <i>English</i> is derived, means 'pertaining to the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Angles were one of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribe">Germanic tribes</a> who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as <i>Englisċ</i>. </p><p>This name probably either derives from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> <i lang="gem-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/anguz#Proto-Germanic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/anguz">*anguz</a></i>, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or else it may derive from a related word <i lang="gem-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ang%C3%B4#Proto-Germanic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/angô">*angô</a></i> which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a <a href="/wiki/Fishhook" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishhook">fishhook</a>, or else because they were fishermen (anglers).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/220px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/330px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/440px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2551" /></a><figcaption>(Pre-)Old English and other West Germanic languages around 580 CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG/220px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG/330px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG/440px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="909" /></a><figcaption>The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Old_West_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old West Norse">Old West Norse</a></b></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9933; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Old_East_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Norse">Old East Norse</a></b></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff00ff; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></b></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;"> </span> <b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old English</a></b></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff00; color:black;"> </span> Continental West Germanic languages (<a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>).</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000ff; color:white;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/East_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="East Germanic">East Germanic</a>)</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a> in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman invasion</a>. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old English is a <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="West Germanic language">West Germanic language</a>, and developed out of <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">Ingvaeonic</a> (also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a> which became the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, which for several centuries belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">kingdom of Northumbria</a>. Other parts of the island continued to use <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Gaelic</a> – and perhaps some <a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a> – in most of Scotland, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language#Middle_Cornish" title="Cornish language">Medieval Cornish</a> all over <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and in adjacent parts of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumbric_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumbric language">Cumbric</a> perhaps to the 12th century in parts of <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and possibly also on the English side of the <a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">Anglo-Welsh border</a>); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> was spoken and <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danish law</a> applied. </p><p>Old English literacy developed after <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation</a> in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a> is <i><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a></i>, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a limited corpus of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">runic inscriptions</a> from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the <a href="/wiki/Franks_Casket" title="Franks Casket">Franks Casket</a>) date to the early 8th century. The <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Old English Latin alphabet</a> was introduced around the 8th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg/190px-Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg/285px-Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg/380px-Statue_d%27Alfred_le_Grand_%C3%A0_Winchester.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> statue in <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a> (Early West Saxon). Alfred <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great#Advocacy_of_education_in_English" title="Alfred the Great">advocated education in English</a> alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a>'s treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Care" title="Pastoral Care">Pastoral Care</a></i>, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwold_of_Winchester" title="Æthelwold of Winchester">Æthelwold of Winchester</a>, and was followed by such writers as the prolific <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Eynsham" title="Ælfric of Eynsham">Ælfric of Eynsham</a> ("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language. </p><p>The history of Old English can be subdivided into: </p> <ul><li>Prehistoric Old English (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 450</span> to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a <a href="/wiki/Reconstructed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstructed language">reconstructed language</a> as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">epigraphic evidence</a>). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Early Old English (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span> to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon" title="Cædmon">Cædmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cynewulf" title="Cynewulf">Cynewulf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aldhelm" title="Aldhelm">Aldhelm</a>.</li> <li>Late Old English (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 900</span> to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Middle English">Early Middle English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Old English period is followed by <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> (1150 to 1500), <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> (1500 to 1650) and finally <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> (after 1650), and in Scotland <a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a> (before 1450), <a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1450</span> to 1700) and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Scots" title="Modern Scots">Modern Scots</a> (after 1700). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_English_Dialects.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Old_English_Dialects.png/220px-Old_English_Dialects.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Old_English_Dialects.png/330px-Old_English_Dialects.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Old_English_Dialects.png/440px-Old_English_Dialects.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The dialects of Old English <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 CE</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Just as <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">written standard</a> based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent <a href="/wiki/English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="English dialects">Modern English dialects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The four main dialectal forms of Old English were <a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as <i>Anglian</i>. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">Thames</a> and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>West Saxon</i> actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named <i>Alfredian Saxon</i> and <i>Æthelwoldian Saxon,</i> respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related. </p><p>Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the <a href="/wiki/River_Tyne" title="River Tyne">Tyne</a>, and most of <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, were <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasion_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasion of Britain">overrun by the Vikings</a> during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a>, were then integrated into Wessex under <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period. </p><p>The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see <a href="#History">History</a>, above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iy/</span> tended to become monophthongised to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> in EWS, but to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span> in LWS.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> developed from the Northumbrian dialect.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the <a href="/wiki/West_Country_dialects#History_and_origins" class="mw-redirect" title="West Country dialects">dialect of Somerset</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Dialects" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English § Dialects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_of_other_languages">Influence of other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Influence of other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg/220px-Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg/330px-Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg/440px-Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe</i></span> ('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south <a href="/wiki/Porticus" title="Porticus">porticus</a> in the 10th<span class="nowrap"> </span>century <a href="/wiki/Breamore#St_Mary's_church" title="Breamore">St Mary's parish church, Breamore</a>, Hampshire</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_influence_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic influence in English">Celtic influence in English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_influence_in_English" title="Latin influence in English">Latin influence in English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_influence_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian influence in English">Scandinavian influence in English</a></div> <p>The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native <a href="/wiki/British_Celtic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="British Celtic languages">British Celtic languages</a> which it <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language-death_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic language-death in England">largely displaced</a>. The number of Celtic <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may have had on developments in English <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> in the post–Old English period, such as the regular <a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">progressive</a> construction and <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic word order</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the eventual development of the <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic</a> auxiliary verb <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i></a>. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized <a href="/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English" title="Brittonicisms in English">Brittonicisms</a> do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, which was the scholarly and diplomatic <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of England">converted to Christianity</a> and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was introduced and adapted for the <a href="#Orthography">writing of Old English</a>, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>) words into English occurred after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, and thus in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> rather than the Old English period. </p><p>Another source of loanwords was <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> from the late 9th<span class="nowrap"> </span>century, and during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a> and other Danish kings in the early 11th<span class="nowrap"> </span>century. Many <a href="/wiki/Toponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponym">place names</a> in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a>, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shay2008_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shay2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a> along the continuum to a more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic word order</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eagerness of <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simeon Potter notes: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language – <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_modal_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verbs">modals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">comparatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">pronominal adverbs</a> (like <i>hence</i> and <i>together</i>), <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunctions</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">prepositions</a> – show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other;<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English phonology</a></div> <p>The inventory of <a href="/wiki/Early_West_Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Early West Saxon">Early West Saxon</a> surface <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> is as follows. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-<br />alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a></span>) <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral approximant">l̥</a></span>) <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/%CA%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="ʍ">ʍ</a>) <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">r̥</a></span>) <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> is an <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> occurring after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and when <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a> (doubled).</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> is an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> occurring before [k] and [ɡ].</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v,<span class="wrap"> </span>ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>z]</span> are voiced allophones of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f,<span class="wrap"> </span>θ,<span class="wrap"> </span>s/</span> respectively, occurring between <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced consonants</a> when the preceding sound was stressed.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h,<span class="wrap"> </span>ç]</span> are allophones of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span> occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> is an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> occurring after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> or when doubled.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At some point before the Middle English period, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> also became the pronunciation word-initially.</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Sonorant#Voiceless" title="Sonorant">voiceless sonorants</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʍ,<span class="wrap"> </span>l̥,<span class="wrap"> </span>n̥,<span class="wrap"> </span>r̥]</span> occur after [h]<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the sequences <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xw,<span class="wrap"> </span>xl,<span class="wrap"> </span>xn,<span class="wrap"> </span>xr/</span>.</li></ul> <p>The above system is largely similar to <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Consonants" title="English phonology">that of Modern English</a>, except that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ç,<span class="wrap"> </span>x,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ,<span class="wrap"> </span>l̥,<span class="wrap"> </span>n̥,<span class="wrap"> </span>r̥]</span> (and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʍ]</span> for <a href="/wiki/English_wh" class="mw-redirect" title="English wh">most speakers</a>) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒ/</span>) have become independent phonemes, as has <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Vowels – monophthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>unrounded</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a></small> </th> <th><small>unrounded</small> </th> <th><small>rounded</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i<span class="wrap"> </span>iː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y<span class="wrap"> </span>yː</span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u<span class="wrap"> </span>uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e<span class="wrap"> </span>eː</span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o<span class="wrap"> </span>oː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æ<span class="wrap"> </span>æː</span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɑː</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɒ</span>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">open back rounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɒ]</span> was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩. </p><p>The Anglian dialects also had the <a href="/wiki/Mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Mid front rounded vowel">mid front rounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ø(ː)/</span>, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from <a href="/wiki/I-umlaut" class="mw-redirect" title="I-umlaut">i-umlaut</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o(ː)/</span>. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e(ː)/</span> before the first written prose. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>First<br />element </th> <th>Short<br />(<a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">monomoraic</a>) </th> <th>Long<br />(bimoraic) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Close </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iy̯</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iːy̯</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mid </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eo̯</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eːo̯</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Open </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æɑ̯</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æːɑ̯</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i(ː)o̯/</span>, which had merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e(ː)o̯/</span> in West Saxon. </p><p>For more on dialectal differences, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Dialects" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English (dialects)</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_changes">Sound changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English</a></div> <p>Some of the principal <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a> occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following: </p> <ul><li>Fronting of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑ(ː)]</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ(ː)]</span> except when <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasalised</a> or followed by a <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonant</a> ("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction.</li> <li>Monophthongisation of the diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ai]</span>, and modification of remaining diphthongs to the <a href="/wiki/Height-harmonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Height-harmonic">height-harmonic</a> type.</li> <li>Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").</li> <li>Palatalisation of velars <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ɡ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ɣ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[sk]</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[dʒ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[j],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ʃ]</span> in certain front-vowel environments.</li> <li>The process known as <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut#I-mutation_in_Old_English" title="Germanic umlaut">i-mutation</a> (which for example led to modern <i>mice</i> as the plural of <i>mouse</i>).</li> <li>Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.</li> <li>Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").</li> <li>Loss of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span> between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.</li> <li>Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.</li> <li>"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as <i>six</i> (compare German <i>sechs</i>).</li></ul> <p>For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history of English</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old English grammar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">decline</a> for five <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>; three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">genders</a>: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a>: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>. Only <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> and strong adjectives retain separate <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>. The evidence comes from Northumbrian <a href="/wiki/Runic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic alphabet">Runic</a> texts (e.g., <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227795492">.mw-parser-output .script-runic{font-family:"BabelStone Runic","FreeMono",Junicode,Code2000,Hnias,"Noto Sans Runic","San Francisco","New York"}</style><span title="runes" class="script-runic" lang="gem-Runr" style="">ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ</span> <i>on rodi</i> "on the Cross").<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak. <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronouns</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a> agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> occasionally distinguish <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual-number</a> forms. The <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)#Definite_article" title="Article (grammar)">definite article</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">sē</i></span> and its <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflections</a> serve as a <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)#Definite_article" title="Article (grammar)">definite article</a> ("the"), a <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative adjective">demonstrative adjective</a> ("that"), and <a href="/wiki/Pronoun#Demonstrative" title="Pronoun">demonstrative pronoun</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> are <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">þēs</i></span> ("this"), and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ġeon</i></span> ("that over there"). These words <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflect</a> for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> is also present. </p><p>Verbs <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugate</a> for three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">persons</a>: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a>: present, and past; three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood#indicative" title="Grammatical mood">indicative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Continuum_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Continuum-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> forms: bare and bound; and two <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a>: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subjects</a> in person and number. The <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a> are formed with compounds. <a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adpositions</a> are mostly before but are often after their object. If the <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence. </p><p>Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the <a href="/wiki/English_personal_pronouns" title="English personal pronouns">forms of a few pronouns</a> (such as <i>I/me/mine</i>, <i>she/her</i>, <a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)"><i>who/whom/whose</i></a>) and in the <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">possessive</a> ending <i>-'s</i>, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending <i>-es</i>. The modern <a href="/wiki/English_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="English plural">English plural</a> ending <i>-(e)s</i> derives from the Old English <i>-as</i>, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ƿīf</i></span>, a neuter noun referring to a female person. </p><p>In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms" title="Uses of English verb forms">compound tenses of Modern English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old English verbs include <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verbs</a>, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">weak verbs</a>, which use a suffix such as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">-de</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Continuum_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Continuum-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in <i>work</i> and <i>worked</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old English <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> is similar to <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">that of modern English</a>. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>. </p> <ul><li>Default word order is <a href="/wiki/Verb-second" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb-second">verb-second</a> in <a href="/wiki/Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">main clauses</a>, and verb-final in <a href="/wiki/Subordinate_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate clause">subordinate clauses</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>No <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i>-support</a> in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by <a href="/wiki/Inversion_(linguistics)" title="Inversion (linguistics)">inverting</a> <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a>, and negatives by placing <i>ne</i> before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.</li> <li>Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (<a href="/wiki/Negative_concord" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative concord">negative concord</a>).</li> <li>Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a <i>wh-</i>type conjunction, but rather a <i>th-</i>type <a href="/wiki/Correlative_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlative conjunction">correlative conjunction</a> such as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">þā</i></span>, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">þā X, þā Y</i></span> in place of "when X, Y"). The <i>wh-</i>words are used only as <a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">interrogatives</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite pronouns">indefinite pronouns</a>.</li> <li>Similarly, <i>wh-</i> forms were not used as <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronouns</a>. Instead, the indeclinable word <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">þe</i></span> is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">se</i></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="alphabet"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon runes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Old English Latin alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglosaxonrunes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anglosaxonrunes.svg/250px-Anglosaxonrunes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anglosaxonrunes.svg/375px-Anglosaxonrunes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anglosaxonrunes.svg/500px-Anglosaxonrunes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Runic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic alphabet">runic alphabet</a> used to write Old English before the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Old English was first written in <a href="/wiki/Runic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic alphabet">runes</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">futhorc</a>—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character <a href="/wiki/Elder_futhark" class="mw-redirect" title="Elder futhark">elder futhark</a>, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) <a href="/wiki/Half-uncial" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-uncial">half-uncial</a> script of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Irish Christian</a> missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular script</a>, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a> (also known as <i>Caroline</i>) replaced the insular. </p><p>The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span>, and there was no <span class="nowrap">⟨v⟩</span> as distinct from <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span>; moreover native Old English spellings did not use <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨q⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span>. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more: <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">æ</a>⟩</span> (<span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">æsc</i></span>, modern <i>ash</i>) and <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> (<span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ðæt</i></span>, now called <a href="/wiki/Eth_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eth (letter)">eth</a> or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span> and <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ƿ⟩</span>, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a>, representing a single sound. Also used was the <a href="/wiki/Tironian_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Tironian note">Tironian note</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨⁊⟩</span> (a character similar to the digit 7) for the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">conjunction</a> <i>and</i>. A common <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">scribal abbreviation</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Thorn_with_stroke" title="Thorn with stroke">thorn with a stroke</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ꝥ⟩</span>, which was used for the pronoun <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">þæt</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/That" title="That">that</a>). <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">Macrons</a> over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following <span class="nowrap">⟨m⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> instead of <a href="/wiki/Insular_G" title="Insular G">insular G</a>, <span class="nowrap">⟨s⟩</span> instead of <a href="/wiki/Insular_S" title="Insular S">insular S</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long_S" class="mw-redirect" title="Long S">long S</a>, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨f⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span>. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> by placing dots above the palatals: <span class="nowrap">⟨ċ⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ġ⟩</span>. The letter wynn <span class="nowrap">⟨ƿ⟩</span> is usually replaced with <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span>, but <span class="nowrap">⟨æ⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span> are normally retained (except when <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> is replaced by <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>). </p><p>In contrast with <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Modern English orthography</a>, Old English spelling was reasonably <a href="/wiki/Regular_spelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Regular spelling">regular</a>, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. There were not usually any <a href="/wiki/Silent_letter" title="Silent letter">silent letters</a>—in the word <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">cniht</i></span>, for example, both the <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> were pronounced (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/knixt<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>kniçt/</span>) unlike the <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> in the modern <i>knight</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/naɪt/</span>). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the <a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a> section above. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>OE</th> <th>Variants in modern editions</th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> transcription</th> <th>Description and notes </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">a </th> <th>a </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span> </td> <td>Spelling variations like <span class="nowrap">⟨land⟩</span> ~ <span class="nowrap">⟨lond⟩</span> ("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɒ]</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> when it occurred in stressed syllables. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ā </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ā⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">æ </th> <th>æ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">Formerly the <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ae⟩</span> was used; <span class="nowrap">⟨æ⟩</span> became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ǣ⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ǣ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æː/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ę </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æː/</span> </td> <td>In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of <span class="nowrap">⟨æ⟩</span> that was missing the upper hook of the <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span> part was used; it is not clear whether this represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span>. The symbol <span class="nowrap">⟨ę⟩</span> is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of <span class="nowrap">⟨æ⟩</span>. Compare <a href="/wiki/E_caudata" title="E caudata">e caudata</a>, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%C4%98" title="Ę">ę</a>⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">b </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> (an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>) </td> <td>Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">scēabas</i></span> in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">scēafas</i></span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">c </th> <th>c </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">The <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> pronunciation is sometimes written with a <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> by modern editors: most commonly <span class="nowrap">⟨ċ⟩</span>, sometimes <span class="nowrap">⟨č⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ç⟩</span>. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>; word-finally after <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> it is always <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>. Otherwise, a knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">history</a> of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> before <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front vowels</a> (other than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[y]</span>) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> elsewhere. (For details, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatalization" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization</a>.) See also the digraphs <span class="nowrap">⟨cg⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨sc⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ċ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">cg </th> <th>cg </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡɡ]</span> (between vowels; rare), <br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> (after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>) </td> <td rowspan="2">Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a>, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ddʒ]</span> (which can be phonemically analyzed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jj/</span>). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡɡ]</span> (which can be phonemically analyzed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣɣ/</span>) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">frocga</i></span> 'frog') is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternative spellings of either geminate included <span class="nowrap">⟨gg⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨gc⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨cgg⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ccg⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨gcg⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written <span class="nowrap">⟨ċġ⟩</span> to distinguish it from velar <span class="nowrap">⟨cg⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>After <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> was realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> was realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span>. The spellings <span class="nowrap">⟨ncg⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ngc⟩</span> and even <span class="nowrap">⟨ncgg⟩</span> were occasionally used instead of the usual <span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The addition of <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> to <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> in spellings such as <span class="nowrap">⟨cynincg⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨cyningc⟩</span> for <span class="nowrap">⟨cyning⟩</span> may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just <span class="nowrap">⟨nc⟩</span> such as <span class="nowrap">⟨cyninc⟩</span> are also found.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written <span class="nowrap">⟨nċġ⟩</span> (or <span class="nowrap">⟨nġċ⟩</span>) by modern editors.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ċġ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ddʒ]</span> (between vowels), <br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> (after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">d </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> </td> <td>In the earliest texts it also represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> (see <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ð </th> <th>ð, þ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> </td> <td>Called <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ðæt</i></span> in Old English; now called <a href="/wiki/Eth_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eth (letter)">eth</a> or edh. Derived from the <a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">insular</a> form of <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> with the addition of a cross-bar. Both <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> could represent either allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, voiceless <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θ]</span> or voiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>, but some texts show a tendency to use <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span> at the start of words and <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> in the middle or at the end of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern editors replace <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> with <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span> as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">e </th> <th>e </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ē </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ē⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">ea </th> <th>ea </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æɑ̯/</span> </td> <td>Sometimes stands for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span> after <span class="nowrap">⟨ċ⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ġ⟩</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatal_diphthongization" title="Phonological history of Old English">palatal diphthongization</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ēa </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æːɑ̯/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ēa⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æːɑ̯/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æɑ̯/</span>. Sometimes stands for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> after <span class="nowrap">⟨ċ⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ġ⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">eo </th> <th>eo </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eo̯/</span> </td> <td>Sometimes stands for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> after <span class="nowrap">⟨ċ⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ġ⟩</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatal_diphthongization" title="Phonological history of Old English">palatal diphthongization</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ēo </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eːo̯/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ēo⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eːo̯/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eo̯/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">f </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> </td> <td>See also <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">g </th> <th>g </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its <a href="/wiki/Insular_G" title="Insular G">insular form</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ᵹ⟩</span> (see also: <a href="/wiki/Yogh" title="Yogh">yogh</a>). The <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> pronunciations are sometimes written <span class="nowrap">⟨ġ⟩</span> in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span>. Word-finally after <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span>, it is always palatal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span>. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> before and after <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front vowels</a> (other than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[y]</span>) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> elsewhere. (For details, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatalization" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization</a>.) </td></tr> <tr> <th>ġ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span>, which occurs after <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">h </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span>, including its allophones <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h,<span class="wrap"> </span>ç]</span> </td> <td>The combinations <span class="nowrap">⟨hl⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨hr⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨hn⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨hw⟩</span> may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">i </th> <th>i </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, rarely <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span></td> <td>Although the spelling <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> is used for the palatal consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> from the earliest Old English texts, the letter <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> is also found as a minority spelling of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use <span class="nowrap">⟨ri⟩</span> rather than <span class="nowrap">⟨rg⟩</span> to spell the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rj/</span> sequence found in verbs like <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/herian" class="extiw" title="wikt:herian"><i>herian</i></a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/swerian" class="extiw" title="wikt:swerian"><i>swerian</i></a>, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used <span class="nowrap">⟨rg⟩</span> in the spelling of these words.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ī </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ī⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">ie </th> <th>ie </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iy̯/</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>īe </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːy̯/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨īe⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːy̯/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iy̯/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">io </th> <th>io </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/io̯/</span> </td> <td>By the time of the first written prose, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i(ː)o̯/</span> had merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e(ː)o̯/</span> in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e(ː)o̯/</span> was often written <span class="nowrap">⟨io⟩</span> instead of <span class="nowrap">⟨eo⟩</span>, but by Late West Saxon only the <span class="nowrap">⟨eo⟩</span> spelling remained common. </td></tr> <tr> <th>īo </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːo̯/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨īo⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːo̯/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/io̯/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">k </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> </td> <td>Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">l </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> </td> <td>Probably <a href="/wiki/Dark_l" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark l">velarised</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɫ]</span> (as in Modern English) when in <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a> position. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">m </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">n </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> </td> <td>The allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> occurred before a velar plosive (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span>). </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">o </th> <th>o </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> </td> <td>See also <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ō </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ō⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">œ </th> <th>œ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ø/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨œ̄⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/øː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ø/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>œ̄ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/øː/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">p </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">qu </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kw/</span> </td> <td>A rare spelling of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kw/</span>, which was usually written as <span class="nowrap">⟨cƿ⟩</span> (<span class="nowrap">⟨cw⟩</span> in modern editions). </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">r </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> </td> <td>The exact nature of Old English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> is not known; it may have been an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar approximant">alveolar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ]</span> as in most modern English, an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">alveolar flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span>, or an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar trill">alveolar trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">s </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">sc </th> <th>sc </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sk/</span> (rare)<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td rowspan="2">At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">sċ</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>. <p>Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃː/</span>, as in <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">fisċere</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/</span> ('fisherman') and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">wȳsċan</i></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn</span> 'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sk/</span>, as in <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">āscian</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/</span> ('to ask'). The pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sk/</span> occurs when <span class="nowrap">⟨sc⟩</span> had been followed by a back vowel (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>) at the time of palatalization,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as illustrated by the contrast between <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">fisċ</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fiʃ/</span> ('fish') and its plural <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">fiscas</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈfis.kɑs/</span>. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatalization" title="Phonological history of Old English">palatalization</a>). </p><p>In word-final position, the pronunciation of <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">sċ</i></span> was either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span> or possibly <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃː/</span> when the preceding vowel was short.<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th>sċ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃː/</span> (between vowels),<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span> (elsewhere) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">t </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">th </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> </td> <td>Represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> in the earliest texts (see <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">þ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> </td> <td>Called <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a> and derived from <a href="/wiki/Thurisaz" title="Thurisaz">the rune of the same name</a>. In the earliest texts <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span> and thorn <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred</a>'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">u </th> <th>u </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, also sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> (see <span class="nowrap">⟨ƿ⟩</span>)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ū </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span></td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ū⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>uu </th> <th rowspan="2">w </th> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> with the letter <span class="nowrap">⟨ƿ⟩</span>, called <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> was represented by <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨uu⟩</span>. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span>, to prevent confusion with <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ƿ </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">x </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">y </th> <th>y </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ȳ </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/yː/</span> </td> <td>Modern editions use <span class="nowrap">⟨ȳ⟩</span> to distinguish long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/yː/</span> from short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">z </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> </td> <td>A rare spelling for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span>; e.g. <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">betst</i></span> ("best") is occasionally spelt <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">bezt</i></span>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Doubled consonants are <a href="/wiki/Consonant_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant length">geminated</a>; the geminate fricatives <span class="nowrap">⟨ff⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ss⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ðð⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨þþ⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨ðþ⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨þð⟩</span> are always voiceless <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ff]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ss]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θθ]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/220px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/330px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/440px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a><figcaption>The first page of the <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> manuscript with its opening<br /><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...</i></span><br />"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a></div> <p>The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's <i>Anglo-Saxon Reader</i>, Dr. James Hulbert writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.</p></blockquote> <p>Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a>; the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i>, a record of early English history; the <a href="/wiki/Franks_Casket" title="Franks Casket">Franks Casket</a>, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a>, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon" title="Cædmon">Cædmon</a>. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beowulf"><i>Beowulf</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Beowulf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>, a poem of some 3,000 lines.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This passage describes how <a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hrothgar</a>'s legendary ancestor <a href="/wiki/Scyld" class="mw-redirect" title="Scyld">Scyld</a> was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem. </p><p>The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how <i>what</i> is used by the poet where a word like <i>lo</i> or <i>behold</i> would be expected. This usage is similar to <i>what-ho!</i>, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention. </p><p>English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>G</b>ār-Dena</i></span> and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>ġ</b>eār-dagum</i></span>. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>æ</b>þelingas</i></span> and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>e</b>llen</i></span>. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded. </p> <table cellspacing="10"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <td style="width:35%">Original </td> <td style="width:65%">Representation with <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language#A_posteriori_language" title="Constructed language">constructed</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>1</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Hƿæt! ƿē <b>G</b>ār-Dena in <b>ġ</b>eār-dagum,</i></span> </td> <td>What! We of Gare-Danes<b> (lit. Spear-Danes)</b> in yore-days, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>þ</b>ēod-cyninga, <b>þ</b>rym ġefrūnon,</i></span> </td> <td>of thede<b> (nation/people)</b>-kings, did thrum<b> (glory)</b> frain<b> (learn about by asking)</b>, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">hū ðā <b>æ</b>þelingas <b>e</b>llen fremedon.</i></span> </td> <td>how those athelings<b> (noblemen)</b> did ellen <b>(fortitude/courage/zeal)</b> freme<b> (promote)</b>. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Oft <b>Sc</b>yld <b>Sc</b>ēfing <b>sc</b>eaþena þrēatum,</i></span> </td> <td>Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats<b> (troops)</b>, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>5</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>m</b>onegum <b>m</b>ǣġþum, <b>m</b>eodosetla oftēah,</i></span> </td> <td>of many maegths<b> (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)</b>, of mead-settees atee <b>(deprive)</b>, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>e</b>gsode <b>eo</b>rlas. Syððan <b>ǣ</b>rest ƿearð</i></span> </td> <td>[and] ugg<b> (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")</b> earls. Sith <b>(since, as of when)</b> erst<b> (first)</b> [he] worthed<b> (became)</b> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>f</b>ēasceaft <b>f</b>unden, hē þæs <b>f</b>rōfre ġebād,</i></span> </td> <td>[in] fewship<b> (destitute)</b> found, he of this frover<b> (comfort)</b> abode, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>ƿ</b>ēox under <b>ƿ</b>olcnum, <b>ƿ</b>eorðmyndum þāh,</i></span> </td> <td>[and] waxed under welkin<b> (firmament/clouds)</b>, [and amid] worthmint<b> (honour/worship)</b> theed<b> (throve/prospered)</b> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>o</b>ðþæt him <b>ǣ</b>ġhƿylc þāra <b>y</b>mbsittendra</i></span> </td> <td>oth that<b> (until that)</b> him each of those umsitters<b> (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)</b> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>10</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ofer <b>h</b>ronrāde <b>h</b>ȳran scolde,</i></span> </td> <td>over whale-road<b> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kenning</a></i> for "sea")</b> hear should, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td></td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>g</b>omban <b>g</b>yldan. Þæt ƿæs <b>g</b>ōd cyning!</i></span> </td> <td>[and] yeme <b>(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")</b> yield. That was [a] good king! </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery. </p><p>Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men! </p><p> After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Lord's_Prayer"><span id="The_Lord.27s_Prayer"></span>The Lord's Prayer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Lord's Prayer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="39" data-mwtitle="Faederureaudio2.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Faederureaudio2.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Faederureaudio2.ogg/Faederureaudio2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Faederureaudio2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFaederureaudio2.ogg&lang=ang&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ang" label="Ænglisc ‪(ang)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFaederureaudio2.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span><figcaption>A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>This text of the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect. </p> <table cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Line</th> <th>Original</th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Word-for-word_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-for-word translation">Word-for-word translation</a> into <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[1]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈfæ.der<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈuː.re<span class="wrap"> </span>θuː<span class="wrap"> </span>θe<span class="wrap"> </span>æɑ̯rt<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈheo̯.vo.num]</span> </td> <td>Father Ours, thou which art in heavens, </td> <td>Our Father, who art in heaven, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[2]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[siːy̯<span class="wrap"> </span>θiːn<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈnɒ.mɑ<span class="wrap"> </span>jeˈhɑːɫ.ɣod]</span> </td> <td>Be thine name hallowed. </td> <td>Hallowed be thy name. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[3]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Tōbecume þīn rīċe,</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˌtoː.beˈku.me<span class="wrap"> </span>θiːn<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈriː.t͡ʃe]</span> </td> <td>To be come [is] thine kingdom, </td> <td>Thy kingdom come, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[4]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jeˈweo̯rˠ.ðe<span class="wrap"> </span>θiːn<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈwil.lɑ<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈeo̯rˠ.ðan<span class="wrap"> </span>swɑː<span class="wrap"> </span>swɑː<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈheo̯.vo.num]</span> </td> <td>Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens. </td> <td>Thy will be done on earth as in heaven. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[5]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈuːrˠ.ne<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈdæj.ʍɑmˌliː.kɑn<span class="wrap"> </span>hl̥ɑːf<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈse.le<span class="wrap"> </span>uːs<span class="wrap"> </span>toːˈdæj]</span> </td> <td>Our daily loaf sell us today, </td> <td>Give us this day our daily bread, </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[6]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɒnd<span class="wrap"> </span>forˠˈjiy̯f<span class="wrap"> </span>uːs<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈuː.re<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɣyl.tɑs<span class="wrap"> </span>swɑː<span class="wrap"> </span>swɑː<span class="wrap"> </span>weː<span class="wrap"> </span>forˠˈjiy̯.vɑθ<span class="wrap"> </span>uː.rum<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɣyl.ten.dum]</span> </td> <td>And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters. </td> <td>And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[7]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɒnd<span class="wrap"> </span>ne<span class="wrap"> </span>jeˈlæːd<span class="wrap"> </span>θuː<span class="wrap"> </span>uːs<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈkost.nuŋ.ɡe<span class="wrap"> </span>ɑk<span class="wrap"> </span>ɑːˈliːy̯s<span class="wrap"> </span>uːs<span class="wrap"> </span>of<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈy.ve.le]</span> </td> <td>And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil. </td> <td>And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>[8]</td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Sōðlīċe.</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsoːðˌliː.t͡ʃe]</span> </td> <td>Amen. </td> <td>Amen. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charter_of_Cnut">Charter of Cnut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Charter of Cnut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is a proclamation from King <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut the Great</a> to his <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earl</a> <a href="/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall" title="Thorkell the Tall">Thorkell the Tall</a> and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the <a href="/wiki/Pilcrow" title="Pilcrow">pilcrows</a> represent the original division. </p> <table cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap;"> <tbody><tr> <th width="50%">Original </th> <th width="50%">Representation with constructed cognates </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>¶ <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.</i></span> </td> <td>¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'<b>(people's)'</b>-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his <i><b>people</b></i>ship, <i><b>greater</b></i> <b>(having a 1200 <a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">shilling</a> <a href="/wiki/Weregild" title="Weregild">weregild</a>)</b> and <i><b>lesser</b></i> <b>(200 shilling weregild)</b>, hooded<b>(ordained to priesthood)</b> and lewd<b>(lay)</b>, in England friendly. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.</i></span> </td> <td>And I kithe<b>(make known/couth to)</b> you, that I will be [a] hold<b>(civilised)</b> lord and unswiking<b>(uncheating)</b> to God's rights<b>(laws)</b> and to [the] rights<b>(laws)</b> worldly. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>¶ <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde.</i></span> </td> <td>¶ I nam<b>(took)</b> me to mind the writs and the word that the <a href="/wiki/Lyfing_(Archbishop_of_Canterbury)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyfing (Archbishop of Canterbury)">Archbishop Lyfing</a> me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere<b>(everywhere)</b> God's love<b>(praise)</b> uprear<b>(promote)</b>, and unright<b>(outlaw)</b> lies, and full frith<b>(peace)</b> work<b>(bring about)</b> by the might that me God would<b>(wished)</b> [to] sell'<b>(give)</b>. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>¶ <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.</i></span> </td> <td>¶ Now, ne went<b>(withdrew/changed)</b> I not my shot<b>(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)</b> the while that you stood<b>(endured)</b> unfrith<b>(turmoil)</b> on-hand: now I, mid<b>(with)</b> God's <i><b>support</b></i>, that [unfrith] totwemed<b>(separated/dispelled)</b> mid<b>(with)</b> my shot<b>(financial contribution)</b>. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.</i></span> </td> <td>Tho<b>(then)</b> [a] man kithed<b>(made known/couth to)</b> me that us more harm <i><b>had</b></i> found<b>(come upon)</b> than us well liked<b>(equalled)</b>: and tho<b>(then)</b> fore<b>(travelled)</b> I, meself, mid<b>(with)</b> those men that mid<b>(with)</b> me fore<b>(travelled)</b>, into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of<b>(from)</b>: and that[harm] have [I], mid<b>(with)</b> God's <i><b>support</b></i>, afore<b>(previously)</b> forefangen<b>(forestalled)</b> that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith<b>(breach of peace)</b> ne come the while that ye me rightly hold<b>(behold as king)</b> and my life beeth. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England. </p><p>And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law. </p><p>I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me. </p><p>I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away. </p><p> At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Dictionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest history of Old English <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a> lies in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a> period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)" title="Gloss (annotation)">glosses</a> on <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> texts. At first these were often <a href="/wiki/Marginalia" title="Marginalia">marginal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interlinear_gloss" title="Interlinear gloss">interlinear</a> glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89pinal-Erfurt_glossary" title="Épinal-Erfurt glossary">Épinal-Erfurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leiden_Glossary" title="Leiden Glossary">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Glossary" title="Corpus Glossary">Corpus</a> Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionaries</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Glossaries" title="Cleopatra Glossaries">Cleopatra Glossaries</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Harley_Glossary" title="Harley Glossary">Harley Glossary</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brussels_Glossary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brussels Glossary (page does not exist)">Brussels Glossary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> glossaries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Durham_Plant-Name_Glossary" title="Durham Plant-Name Glossary">Durham Plant-Name Glossary</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Laud_Herbal_Glossary" title="Laud Herbal Glossary">Laud Herbal Glossary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was <a href="/wiki/William_Somner" title="William Somner">William Somner</a>'s <i>Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next substantial Old English dictionary was <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bosworth" title="Joseph Bosworth">Joseph Bosworth</a>'s <i>Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</i> of 1838. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angus_Cameron_(academic)" title="Angus Cameron (academic)">Cameron, Angus</a>, et al. (ed.) (1983–). <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Old_English" title="Dictionary of Old English">Dictionary of Old English</a></i>. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doe.utoronto.ca">https://www.doe.utoronto.ca</a>. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bosworth" title="Joseph Bosworth">Bosworth, Joseph</a> and <a href="/wiki/T._Northcote_Toller" class="mw-redirect" title="T. Northcote Toller">T. Northcote Toller</a>. (1898). <i><a href="/wiki/An_Anglo-Saxon_Dictionary" title="An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary">An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</a></i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the <i>Dictionary of Old English</i>. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/">http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/</a>. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with: <ul><li>T. Northcote Toller. (1921). <i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Alistair Campbell (1972). <i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_Hall,_J._R." class="mw-redirect" title="Clark Hall, J. R.">Clark Hall, J. R.</a> (1969). <i>A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</i>. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/oe_clarkhall_about.html">here</a>.</li> <li>Roberts, Jane and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Kay" title="Christian Kay">Christian Kay</a>, with Lynne Grundy, <i>A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes</i>, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oldenglishthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/">online</a>. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of <i><a href="/wiki/Roget%27s_Thesaurus" title="Roget's Thesaurus">Roget's Thesaurus</a></i>.</li></ul> <p>Though focused on later periods, the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_Dictionary" title="Middle English Dictionary">Middle English Dictionary</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Older_Scottish_Tongue" title="Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue">Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Thesaurus_of_English" title="Historical Thesaurus of English">Historical Thesaurus of English</a></i> all also include material relevant to Old English. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_legacy">Modern legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Modern legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Campbell_(academic)" title="Alistair Campbell (academic)">Alistair Campbell</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ransom_Riggs" title="Ransom Riggs">Ransom Riggs</a> uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism_in_English" title="Linguistic purism in English">linguistic purism in English</a> often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones. </p><p>A number of websites devoted to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Paganism">Modern Paganism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_reenactment" title="Historical reenactment">historical reenactment</a> offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an <a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%93afodtramet" class="extiw" title="ang:Hēafodtramet">Old English version of Wikipedia</a>. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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title="History of the Scots language">History of the Scots language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">I-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_generic_forms_in_place_names_in_the_United_Kingdom_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland">List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_and_Latinate_equivalents_in_English" title="List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English">List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">By the 16th century the term <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.<br /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2003" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (2003). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53033-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53033-4"><bdi>0-521-53033-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-53033-4&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaugh1951" class="citation book cs1">Baugh, Albert (1951). <i>A History of the English Language</i>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pages=60-83%2C+110-130+%28Scandinavian+influence%29&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Baugh&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aeon.co/essays/why-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent">"Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | Aeon Essays"</a>. <i>Aeon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aeon&rft.atitle=Why+is+the+English+spelling+system+so+weird+and+inconsistent%3F+%7C+Aeon+Essays&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faeon.co%2Fessays%2Fwhy-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fennell, Barbara 1998. <i>A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. <i>Origins and development of the English language</i>. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009. <i>The English language. A historical introduction</i>. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. <i>The Oxford History of English.</i> Oxford: University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. <i>A history of the English language</i>. Cambridge: University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 <i>A history of the English language</i>. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg (1992), p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStumpf1970" class="citation book cs1">Stumpf, John (1970). <i>An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature</i>. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7. <q>We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive Old English.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+English+Literature%3B+Anglo-Saxon+and+Middle+English+Literature&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Forum+House+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Stumpf&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuster-MárquezCalvo_García_de_Leonardo2011" class="citation book cs1">Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC"><i>A Practical Introduction to the History of English</i></a>. [València]: Universitat de València. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788437083216" title="Special:BookSources/9788437083216"><bdi>9788437083216</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+the+History+of+English&rft.place=%5BVal%C3%A8ncia%5D&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Universitat+de+Val%C3%A8ncia&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9788437083216&rft.aulast=Fuster-M%C3%A1rquez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Calvo+Garc%C3%ADa+de+Leonardo%2C+Juan+Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQQLBqKjxuvAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Campbell, <i>Old English Grammar</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Campbell_(academic)" title="Alistair Campbell (academic)">Campbell, Alistair</a> (1959). <i>Old English Grammar</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-811943-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-811943-7"><bdi>0-19-811943-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+Grammar&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=0-19-811943-7&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see <a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology#Diphthongs" title="Old English phonology">Old English diphthongs</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somersetshiredi00bayngoog">The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)</a> Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327012738/http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf">"Rotary-munich.de"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rotary-munich.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotary-munich.de%2F2005-2006%2Ftheo-vennemann.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in <i>Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter</i>, De Gruyter (2018)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch" class="citation web cs1">Koch, Anthony S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kroch/papers/function-grammar-do.pdf">"Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Function+and+Grammar+in+the+History+of+English%3A+Periphrastic+Do&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Anthony+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.upenn.edu%2F~kroch%2Fpapers%2Ffunction-grammar-do.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCulicover" class="citation web cs1">Culicover, Peter W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/culicover.1/Publications/do.pdf">"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Constructions+and+the+History+of+English+Do-Support&rft.aulast=Culicover&rft.aufirst=Peter+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asc.ohio-state.edu%2Fculicover.1%2FPublications%2Fdo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsness1997" class="citation journal cs1">Elsness, Johann (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012413/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf">"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ICAME Journal</i>. <b>18</b>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13441465">13441465</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ICAME+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+progression+of+the+progressive+in+early+Modern+English&rft.volume=18&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13441465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Elsness&rft.aufirst=Johann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F455f%2F5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexiadou2008" class="citation cs2">Alexiadou, Artemis (2008), <i>Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nominal+vs.+Verbal+-ing+Constructions+and+the+Development+of+the+English+Progressive&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Alexiadou&rft.aufirst=Artemis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in <i>Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English</i>, Edinburgh University Press (2016)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoeksema" class="citation web cs1">Hoeksema, Jack. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.let.rug.nl/~koster/DenBesten/Hoeksema.pdf">"Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Verbal+movement+in+Dutch+present-participle+clauses&rft.aulast=Hoeksema&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.let.rug.nl%2F~koster%2FDenBesten%2FHoeksema.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shay2008-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shay2008_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2008" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Shay (30 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1vj0-f_U1SQC&pg=PA86"><i>The history of English: a linguistic introduction</i></a>. Wardja Press. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-16817-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-615-16817-3"><bdi>978-0-615-16817-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrum1987" class="citation book cs1">McCrum, Robert (1987). <i>The Story of English</i>. 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Dutch Lichliter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=121028+Charlene+Lohmeier+%22Evolution+of+the+English+Language%22&rft.atitle=121028+Charlene+Lohmeier+%22Evolution+of+the+English+Language%22+%E2%80%93+23%3A40+%E2%80%93+25%3A00%3B+30%3A20+%E2%80%93+30%3A45%3B+45%3A00+%E2%80%93+46%3A00&rft.date=2012-10-28&rft.aulast=Lohmeier&rft.aufirst=Charlene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DadngAZ2iuRc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell (1959), p.21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_&_Taylor_2014,_p._4_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg (1992), p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydell1999" class="citation book cs1">Boydell (1999). <i>An Introduction to English Runes</i>. p. 230.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+English+Runes&rft.pages=230&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Boydell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Continuum-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Continuum_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Continuum_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.credoreference.com/entry/britlit/old_english">"<i>Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature</i>"</a>. Continuum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Continuum+Encyclopedia+of+British+Literature&rft.pub=Continuum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.credoreference.com%2Fentry%2Fbritlit%2Fold_english&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellRobinson2002" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2002). <i>A Guide to Old English</i>. 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Millward, Mary Hayes, <i>A Biography of the English Language</i>, Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Pollington, <i>First Steps in Old English</i>, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Minkova (2014), p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wełna (1986), p. 755.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2012), p. 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg (1992), p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fulk (2014), p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlom1915" class="citation journal cs1">Flom, George T. 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Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTichyRocek" class="citation web cs1">Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bosworthtoller.com/">"Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online"</a>. <i>bosworthtoller.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bosworthtoller.com&rft.atitle=Bosworth-Toller%27s+Anglo-Saxon+Dictionary+online&rft.aulast=Tichy&rft.aufirst=Ondrej&rft.au=Rocek%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbosworthtoller.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <dl><dt>Sources</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitelock1955" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Whitelock" title="Dorothy Whitelock">Whitelock, Dorothy</a>, ed. (1955). <i>English Historical Documents</i>. Vol. I: c. 500–1042. London: <a href="/wiki/Eyre_%26_Spottiswoode" title="Eyre & Spottiswoode">Eyre & Spottiswoode</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Historical+Documents&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Eyre+%26+Spottiswoode&rft.date=1955&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2003" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Peter S (2003). <i>Introduction to Old English</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-23454-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-23454-3"><bdi>0-631-23454-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Old+English&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-631-23454-3&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Peter+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). <i>A History of the English Language</i> (4th ed.). London: Routledge.</li> <li>Blake, Norman (1992). <i>The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Campbell_(academic)" title="Alistair Campbell (academic)">Campbell, A.</a> (1959). <i>Old English Grammar</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarle2005" class="citation book cs1">Earle, John (2005). <i>A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon</i>. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-889758-69-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-889758-69-8"><bdi>1-889758-69-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Book+for+the+Beginner+in+Anglo-Saxon&rft.place=Bristol%2C+PA&rft.pub=Evolution+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-889758-69-8&rft.aulast=Earle&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span> (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Euler" title="Wolfram Euler">Euler, Wolfram</a> (2013). <i>Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion</i> (West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8">978-3-9812110-7-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulk2014" class="citation book cs1">Fulk, R. D. (2014). <i>An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings</i>. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0866985147" title="Special:BookSources/978-0866985147"><bdi>978-0866985147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introductory+grammar+of+Old+English+with+an+anthology+of+readings&rft.place=Tempe%2C+Arizona&rft.pub=ACMRS+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0866985147&rft.aulast=Fulk&rft.aufirst=R.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). <i>The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) <i>A History of the English Language</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1909–1949) <i>A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles</i>. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard</li> <li>Lass, Roger (1987) <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shape_of_English:_structure_and_history" class="mw-redirect" title="The Shape of English: structure and history">The Shape of English: structure and history</a></i>. London: J. M. Dent & Sons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLass1994" class="citation book cs1">Lass, Roger (1994). <i>Old English: A historical linguistic companion</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43087-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43087-9"><bdi>0-521-43087-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English%3A+A+historical+linguistic+companion&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-521-43087-9&rft.aulast=Lass&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagennis2011" class="citation book cs1">Magennis, Hugh (2011). <i>The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Introduction+to+Anglo-Saxon+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Magennis&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1996" class="citation book cs1">Millward, Celia (1996). <i>A Biography of the English Language</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harcourt_Trade_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harcourt Trade Publishers">Harcourt Brace</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-501645-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-501645-8"><bdi>0-15-501645-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biography+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-15-501645-8&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=Celia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellRobinson2001" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2001). <i>A Guide to Old English</i> (6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22636-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22636-2"><bdi>0-631-22636-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Old+English&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-631-22636-2&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Fred+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957). <i>An Old English Grammar</i> (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Ringe, Donald R</a> and Taylor, Ann (2014). <i>The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199207848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199207848">978-0199207848</a>. Oxford.</li> <li>Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) <i>A History of English</i>. London: Methuen.</li></ul> <dl><dt>External history</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orrin_W._Robinson_(philologist)" title="Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)">Robinson, Orrin W.</a> (1992). <i>Old English and Its Closest Relatives</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2221-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2221-8"><bdi>0-8047-2221-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+and+Its+Closest+Relatives&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8047-2221-8&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Orrin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). <i>An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary</i>. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.</li> <li>Stenton, FM (1971). <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Orthography/Palaeography</dt></dl> <ul><li>Bourcier, Georges. (1978). <i>L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle</i>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Warren_Victor_Elliott" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Warren Victor Elliott">Elliott, Ralph WV</a> (1959). <i>Runes: An introduction</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press.</li> <li>Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). <i>Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung</i>. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Ker" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil Ker">Ker, NR</a> (1957). <i>A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Ker, NR (1957: 1990). <i>A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon</i>; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i>; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-811251-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-811251-3">0-19-811251-3</a></li> <li>Page, RI (1973). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SgpriZdKin0C">An Introduction to English Runes</a></i>. London: Methuen.</li> <li>Scragg, Donald G (1974). <i>A History of English Spelling</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press.</li> <li>Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence". <i>The Oxford Handbook of the History of English,</i> Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.</li> <li>Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph <span class="nowrap">⟨cg⟩</span> Again". <i>Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics</i> (pp. 753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Phonology</dt></dl> <ul><li>Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). <i>Phonological structure and the history of English</i>. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.</li> <li>Brunner, Karl. (1965). <i>Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)</i> (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Campbell, A. (1959). <i>Old English Grammar</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani" title="Fausto Cercignani">Cercignani, Fausto</a> (1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". <i>Journal of English and Germanic Philology</i>, 82 (3): 313–323.</li> <li>Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). <i>Angelsaksisch Handboek</i>; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.</li> <li>Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). <i>English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse</i>. New York: Harper & Row.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockett1959" class="citation journal cs1">Hockett, Charles F (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English". <i>Language</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 575–597. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F410597">10.2307/410597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/410597">410597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+stressed+syllabics+of+Old+English&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=575-597&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F410597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F410597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hockett&rft.aufirst=Charles+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg2011" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Richard M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781444341355?cookieSet=1"><i>A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology</i></a>. Malden, MA: Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444341355">10.1002/9781444341355</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444339338" title="Special:BookSources/9781444339338"><bdi>9781444339338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+grammar+of+Old+English.+Volume+1%2C+Phonology&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Oxford%3A+Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444341355&rft.isbn=9781444339338&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781444341355%3FcookieSet%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhn, Sherman M (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English". <i>Language</i>. <b>37</b> (4): 522–538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411354">10.2307/411354</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411354">411354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=On+the+Syllabic+Phonemes+of+Old+English&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=522-538&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411354&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411354%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Sherman+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) <i>Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt</i> (pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li>Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). <i>Old English Phonology</i>. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). <i>Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache</i>. Stuttgart: <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Tauchnitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernhard Tauchnitz">Bernhard Tauchnitz</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaling1971" class="citation journal cs1">Maling, J (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English". <i>Linguistic Inquiry</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 379–400. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4177642">4177642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Sentence+stress+in+Old+English&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=379-400&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4177642%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Maling&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullyHogg1990" class="citation journal cs1">McCully, CB; Hogg, Richard M (1990). "An account of Old English stress". <i>Journal of Linguistics</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 315–339. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022226700014699">10.1017/S0022226700014699</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144915239">144915239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=An+account+of+Old+English+stress&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=315-339&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022226700014699&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144915239%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McCully&rft.aufirst=CB&rft.au=Hogg%2C+Richard+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Minkova, Donka (2014). <i>A Historical Phonology of English.</i> Edinburgh University Press.</li> <li>Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In: <a href="/wiki/Frans_Van_Coetsem" title="Frans Van Coetsem">F van Coetsem</a> & HL Kufner (Eds.), <i>Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic</i> (pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Sievers, Eduard (1893). <i>Altgermanische Metrik</i>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). <i>Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language</i>. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Morphology</dt></dl> <ul><li>Brunner, Karl. (1965). <i>Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)</i> (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Campbell, A. (1959). <i>Old English grammar</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). <i>Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language</i>. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Syntax</dt></dl> <ul><li>Brunner, Karl. (1962). <i>Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung</i> (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). <i>Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English</i>. Dordrecht: Foris.</li> <li>MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). <i>Old English Syntax: a handbook</i>. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.</li> <li>Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). <i>Old English Syntax</i> (Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published) <ul><li>Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence</li> <li>Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order</li></ul></li> <li>Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) <i>A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax" </i>. Oxford: Blackwell</li> <li>Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) <i>Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin</i>, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique.</li> <li>Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). <i>A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure</i>. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.</li> <li>Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). <i>An Historical Syntax of the English Language</i> (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Lexicons</dt></dl> <ul><li>Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). <i><a href="/wiki/An_Anglo-Saxon_Dictionary" title="An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary">An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</a></i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)</li> <li>Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). <i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Campbell, A. (1972). <i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_Hall,_J._R." class="mw-redirect" title="Clark Hall, J. R.">Clark Hall, J. R.</a>; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). <i>A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</i> (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Old_English" title="Dictionary of Old English">Dictionary of Old English</a></i>. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://copac.ac.uk/search?rn=11&au=angus+cameron&ti=old+english+dictionary&sort-order=ti%2C%2Ddate">World Wide Web</a>.)</li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_English&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="ang:"> Old English edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old English, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_English_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old English language"><i><b>Old English language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bright%27s_Anglo-Saxon_Reader/An_Outline_of_Anglo-Saxon_Grammar" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader/An Outline of Anglo-Saxon Grammar">Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader/An Outline of Anglo-Saxon Grammar</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_English_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old English language">Old English language</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <dl><dt>Dictionaries</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bosworthtoller.com/">Bosworth and Toller, <i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050702002228/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/oeme_dictionaries.htm">Old English – Modern English dictionary</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 2 July 2005)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222235404/http://victorcauchi.fortunecity.com/EuCmp/o/oldeng.htm">Old English Glossary</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 22 February 2012)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doe.utoronto.ca/pages/index.html">Dictionary of Old English</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Lessons</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/engol">Old English Online</a> by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150907011523/https://wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html">The Electronic Introduction to Old English</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 7 September 2015)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090503194009/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm"><i>Old English Made Easy</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 3 May 2009)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42365#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42365#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42365#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4112501-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85005084">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anglais (langue) -- 450-1100 (vieil anglais)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934769b">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anglais (langue) -- 450-1100 (vieil anglais)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934769b">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560256">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="stará angličtina"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126045&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000048626&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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