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id="toc-Europe,_Northern_and_East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe,_Northern_and_East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Europe, Northern and East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe,_Northern_and_East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sahul_(Australia-New_Guinea)_and_the_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sahul_(Australia-New_Guinea)_and_the_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Sahul (Australia-New Guinea) and the Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sahul_(Australia-New_Guinea)_and_the_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 History of research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Hunting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second-order_predation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-order_predation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Second-order predation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-order_predation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competition_for_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competition_for_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Competition for water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competition_for_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landscape_alteration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landscape_alteration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Landscape alteration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landscape_alteration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraterrestrial_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraterrestrial_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Extraterrestrial impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraterrestrial_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomagnetic_field_weakening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomagnetic_field_weakening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Geomagnetic field weakening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geomagnetic_field_weakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_later_extinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_later_extinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Relationship to later extinctions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_later_extinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hyperdisease_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperdisease_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Hyperdisease hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperdisease_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second-order_predation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-order_predation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Second-order predation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-order_predation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Other links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Late Pleistocene extinctions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" > 20 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwart%C3%AAre_Uitwissing" title="Kwartêre Uitwissing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kwartêre Uitwissing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="انقراض الرباعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انقراض الرباعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Кватернерно изчезване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кватернерно изчезване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3_del_Quaternari" title="Extinció del Quaternari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Extinció del Quaternari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vym%C3%ADr%C3%A1n%C3%AD_v_pleistoc%C3%A9nu" title="Vymírání v pleistocénu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vymírání v pleistocénu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quart%C3%A4re_Aussterbewelle" title="Quartäre Aussterbewelle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Quartäre Aussterbewelle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evento_de_extinci%C3%B3n_del_Cuaternario" title="Evento de extinción del Cuaternario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evento de extinción del Cuaternario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="رویداد انقراض کواترنری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رویداد انقراض کواترنری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_du_Quaternaire" title="Extinction du Quaternaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Extinction du Quaternaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristiwa_kepunahan_pada_periode_Kuarter" title="Peristiwa kepunahan pada periode Kuarter – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peristiwa kepunahan pada periode Kuarter" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exstinctio_Quaternaria_tarda" title="Exstinctio Quaternaria tarda – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Exstinctio Quaternaria tarda" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E7%B4%80%E3%81%AE%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%8F%E7%B5%B6%E6%BB%85" title="第四紀の大量絶滅 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="第四紀の大量絶滅" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%87" title="د کواترنری انقراض پېښه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کواترنری انقراض پېښه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinc%C8%9Bia_cuaternar%C4%83" title="Extincția cuaternară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Extincția cuaternară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Вымирание в четвертичном периоде – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вымирание в четвертичном периоде" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistoseenin_lopun_joukkotuho" title="Pleistoseenin lopun joukkotuho – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pleistoseenin lopun joukkotuho" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuvaterner_yok_olu%C5%9Fu" title="Kuvaterner yok oluşu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kuvaterner yok oluşu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Четвертинне вимирання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Четвертинне вимирання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%B1_ki%E1%BB%87n_tuy%E1%BB%87t_ch%E1%BB%A7ng_k%E1%BB%B7_%C4%90%E1%BB%87_T%E1%BB%A9" title="Sự kiện tuyệt chủng kỷ Đệ Tứ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sự kiện tuyệt chủng kỷ Đệ Tứ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E7%B4%80%E6%BB%85%E7%B5%95%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="第四紀滅絕事件 – Chinese" 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(March 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expert_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs attention from an expert in Palaeontology. See the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Late_Pleistocene_extinctions#Remember_NPOV..." title="Talk:Late Pleistocene extinctions">talk page</a> for details. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Palaeontology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Palaeontology">WikiProject Palaeontology</a> may be able to help recruit an expert. (March 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/320px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/480px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/640px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="1263" /></a><figcaption>Late <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n" title="Mauricio Antón">Mauricio Antón</a>. Left to right: <a href="/wiki/Equus_ferus" class="mw-redirect" title="Equus ferus">wild horse</a>; <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">woolly mammoth</a>; <a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">reindeer</a>; <a href="/wiki/Panthera_spelaea" title="Panthera spelaea">cave lion</a>; <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">woolly rhinoceros</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg/320px-La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg/480px-La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg/640px-La_Brea_Tar_Pits.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Mural of the <a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Tar_Pits" title="La Brea Tar Pits">La Brea Tar Pits</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Knight" title="Charles R. Knight">Charles R. Knight</a>, including sabertooth cats (<a href="/wiki/Smilodon_fatalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Smilodon fatalis">Smilodon fatalis</a>, left) <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloths" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground sloths">ground sloths</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paramylodon_harlani" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramylodon harlani">Paramylodon harlani</a>, right) and <a href="/wiki/Columbian_mammoths" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian mammoths">Columbian mammoths</a> (Mammuthus columbi, background)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a> to the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> saw the extinction of the majority of the world's <a href="/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">megafauna</a> (typically defined as animal species having body masses over 44 kilograms (97 lb)),<a href="#cite_note-Pires-20242-1">[1]</a> which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity across the globe.<a href="#cite_note-EuropeanPerspective-2">[2]</a> The extinctions during the Late Pleistocene are differentiated from previous extinctions by its extreme size bias towards large animals (with small animals being largely unaffected), and widespread absence of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">ecological succession</a> to replace these extinct megafaunal species,<a href="#cite_note-LinkedToHumansNotClimateChange-3">[3]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">regime shift</a> of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence. The timing and severity of the extinctions varied by region and are thought to have been driven by varying combinations of human and climatic factors.<a href="#cite_note-LinkedToHumansNotClimateChange-3">[3]</a> Human impact on megafauna populations is thought to have been driven by hunting ("overkill"),<a href="#cite_note-SynchronousExtinction-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dembitzer-2022-5">[5]</a> as well as possibly environmental alteration.<a href="#cite_note-TropicalAustralia-6">[6]</a> The relative importance of human vs climatic factors in the extinctions has been the subject of long-running controversy.<a href="#cite_note-LinkedToHumansNotClimateChange-3">[3]</a> Major extinctions occurred in <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia-New Guinea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sahul" title="Sahul">Sahul</a>) beginning approximately 50,000 years ago and in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> about 13,000 years ago, coinciding in time with the <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">early human migrations</a> into these regions.<a href="#cite_note-StateOfTheDebate-7">[7]</a> Extinctions in northern Eurasia were staggered over tens of thousands of years between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-EuropeanPerspective-2">[2]</a> while extinctions in the Americas were virtually simultaneous, spanning only 3000 years at most.<a href="#cite_note-SynchronousExtinction-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArgentinePampasNewChronology-8">[8]</a> Overall, during the Late Pleistocene about 65% of all megafaunal species worldwide became extinct,<a href="#cite_note-ClimateChangeNotToBlame-9">[9]</a> rising to 72% in North America, 83% in South America and 88% in Australia,<a href="#cite_note-AssessingTheCauses-10">[10]</a> with all mammals over 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) becoming extinct in Australia and the Americas,<a href="#cite_note-Pires-20242-1">[1]</a> and around 80% globally.<a href="#cite_note-:2-11">[11]</a> Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia experienced more moderate extinctions than other regions.<a href="#cite_note-AssessingTheCauses-10">[10]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extinctions_by_biogeographic_realm">Extinctions by biogeographic realm</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Extinctions by biogeographic realm">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary">Summary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Summary">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Extinctions range of the continental large and medium-sized mammals from 40,000 to 4,000 years BP in different biogeographic realms<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realm</a> </th> <th colspan="3">Giants (over 1,000 kg) </th> <th colspan="3">Very large (400–1,000 kg) </th> <th colspan="3">Large (150–400 kg) </th> <th colspan="3">Moderately large (50–150 kg) </th> <th colspan="3">Medium (10–50 kg) </th> <th colspan="3">Total </th> <th rowspan="2">Regions included </th></tr> <tr> <th><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Start</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">Loss</th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">% </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropic</a> </th> <td>6</td> <td>−1</td> <td>16.6% </td> <td>4</td> <td>−1</td> <td>25% </td> <td>25</td> <td>−3</td> <td>12% </td> <td>32</td> <td>0</td> <td>0% </td> <td>69</td> <td>−2</td> <td>2.9% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">136</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-7</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">5.1% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Trans-Saharan Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalaya</a> </th> <td>5</td> <td>−2</td> <td>40% </td> <td>6</td> <td>−1</td> <td>16.7% </td> <td>10</td> <td>−1</td> <td>10% </td> <td>20</td> <td>−3</td> <td>15% </td> <td>56</td> <td>−1</td> <td>1.8% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">97</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-8</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">8.2% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a> </th> <td>8</td> <td>−8</td> <td>100% </td> <td>10</td> <td>−5</td> <td>50% </td> <td>14</td> <td>−5</td> <td>35.7% </td> <td>23</td> <td>−3</td> <td>15% </td> <td>41</td> <td>−1</td> <td>2.4% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">96</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-22</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">22.9% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a> </th> <td>5</td> <td>−5</td> <td>100% </td> <td>10</td> <td>−8</td> <td>80% </td> <td>26</td> <td>−22</td> <td>84.6% </td> <td>20</td> <td>−13</td> <td>65% </td> <td>25</td> <td>−9</td> <td>36% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">86</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-57</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">66% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropic</a> </th> <td>9</td> <td>−9</td> <td>100% </td> <td>12</td> <td>−12</td> <td>100% </td> <td>17</td> <td>−14</td> <td>82% </td> <td>20</td> <td>−11</td> <td>55% </td> <td>35</td> <td>−5</td> <td>14.3% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">93</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-51</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">54% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Florida" title="South Florida">South Florida</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasia</a> </th> <td>4</td> <td>−4</td> <td>100% </td> <td>5</td> <td>−5</td> <td>100% </td> <td>6</td> <td>−6</td> <td>100% </td> <td>16</td> <td>−13</td> <td>81.2% </td> <td>25</td> <td>−10</td> <td>40% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">56</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-38</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">67% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and neighbouring islands. </td></tr> <tr style="background: #F2CEE0;"> <th>Global </th> <td>33</td> <td>−26</td> <td>78.8% </td> <td>46</td> <td>−31</td> <td>67.4% </td> <td>86</td> <td>−47</td> <td>54.7% </td> <td>113</td> <td>−41</td> <td>36.3% </td> <td>215</td> <td>−23</td> <td>10.1% </td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">493</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">-168</td> <td style="background: #F2CEE0;">34% </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction">Introduction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Introduction">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_proportion_of_extinct_large_mammal_species_(more_than_or_equal_to_10_kg)_in_each_TDWG_country_during_the_last_132_000_years,_only_counting_extinctions_earlier_than_1000_years_BP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_proportion_of_extinct_large_mammal_species_%28more_than_or_equal_to_10_kg%29_in_each_TDWG_country_during_the_last_132_000_years%2C_only_counting_extinctions_earlier_than_1000_years_BP.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_proportion_of_extinct_large_mammal_species_%28more_than_or_equal_to_10_kg%29_in_each_TDWG_country_during_the_last_132_000_years%2C_only_counting_extinctions_earlier_than_1000_years_BP.jpg/660px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/The_proportion_of_extinct_large_mammal_species_%28more_than_or_equal_to_10_kg%29_in_each_TDWG_country_during_the_last_132_000_years%2C_only_counting_extinctions_earlier_than_1000_years_BP.jpg/880px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1207" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>The proportion of extinct large mammal species (more than or equal to 10 kg (22 lb)) in each country during the last 132,000 years, only counting extinctions earlier than 1000 years BP</figcaption></figure> The Late Pleistocene saw the extinction of many mammals weighing more than 40 kilograms (88 lb), including around 80% of mammals over 1 tonne. The proportion of megafauna extinctions is progressively larger the further the human migratory distance from Africa, with the highest extinction rates in Australia, and North and South America.<a href="#cite_note-:2-11">[11]</a> The increased extent of extinction mirrors the migration pattern of modern humans: the further away from Africa, the more recently humans inhabited the area, the less time those environments (including its megafauna) had to become accustomed to humans (and vice versa). There are two main hypotheses to explain this extinction: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">Climate change</a> associated with the advance and retreat of major <a href="/wiki/Ice_caps" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice caps">ice caps</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a> causing reduction in favorable habitat.</li> <li>Human hunting causing attrition of megafauna populations, commonly known as "overkill".<a href="#cite_note-Updating_Martin_20082-13">[13]</a></li></ul> There are some inconsistencies between the current available data and the prehistoric overkill hypothesis. For instance, there are ambiguities around the timing of <a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australian megafauna</a> extinctions.<a href="#cite_note-Updating_Martin_20082-13">[13]</a> Evidence supporting the prehistoric overkill hypothesis includes the persistence of megafauna on some islands for millennia past the disappearance of their continental cousins. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Megalocnus" title="Megalocnus">ground sloths</a> survived on the <a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Antilles</a> long after North and South American ground sloths were extinct, woolly mammoths died out on remote <a href="/wiki/Wrangel_Island" title="Wrangel Island">Wrangel Island</a> 6,000 years after their extinction on the mainland, while <a href="/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_cow" title="Steller's sea cow">Steller's sea cows</a> persisted off the isolated and uninhabited <a href="/wiki/Commander_Islands" title="Commander Islands">Commander Islands</a> for thousands of years after they had vanished from the continental shores of the north Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The later disappearance of these island species correlates with the later colonization of these islands by humans. Still, there are some arguments that species responded differently to environmental changes, and no one factor by itself explains the large variety of extinctions. The causes may involve the interplay of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">competition between species</a>, unstable <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">population dynamics</a>, and hunting as well as competition by humans.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The original debates as to whether human arrival times or climate change constituted the primary cause of megafaunal extinctions necessarily were based on paleontological evidence coupled with geological dating techniques. Recently, genetic analyses of surviving megafaunal populations have contributed new evidence, leading to the conclusion: "The inability of climate to predict the observed population decline of megafauna, especially during the past 75,000 years, implies that human impact became the main driver of megafauna dynamics around this date."<a href="#cite_note-pmid37996436-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> Although Africa was one of the least affected regions, the region still suffered extinctions, particularly around the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition. These extinctions were likely predominantly climatically driven by changes to grassland habitats.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ungulate" title="Ungulate">Ungulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">Even-Toed Ungulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suidae" title="Suidae">Suidae</a> (swine) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metridiochoerus" title="Metridiochoerus">Metridiochoerus</a> (ssp.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolpochoerus" title="Kolpochoerus">Kolpochoerus</a> (ssp.)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a> (bovines, antelope) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syncerus_antiquus" title="Syncerus antiquus">Giant buffalo</a> (Syncerus antiquus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalotragus" title="Megalotragus">Megalotragus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusingoryx" title="Rusingoryx">Rusingoryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidorcas_australis" title="Antidorcas australis">Southern springbok</a> (Antidorcas australis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidorcas_bondi" title="Antidorcas bondi">Bond's springbok</a> (Antidorcas bondi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damaliscus_hypsodon" title="Damaliscus hypsodon">Damaliscus hypsodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damaliscus_niro" title="Damaliscus niro">Damaliscus niro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazella_atlantica" title="Gazella atlantica">Atlantic gazelle</a> (Gazella atlantica)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazella_tingitana" title="Gazella tingitana">Gazella tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caprinae" title="Caprinae">Caprinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makapania" title="Makapania">Makapania</a>?</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervidae">Cervidae</a> (deer) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaceroides_algericus" title="Megaceroides algericus">Megaceroides algericus</a> (North Africa)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd-toed ungulate">Odd-toed Ungulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">Rhinoceros</a> (Rhinocerotidae). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephanorhinus_hemitoechus" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephanorhinus hemitoechus">Narrow-nosed rhinoceros</a> (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus, North Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceratotherium_mauritanicum" title="Ceratotherium mauritanicum">Ceratotherium mauritanicum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wild <a href="/wiki/Equus_(genus)" title="Equus (genus)">Equus</a> spp. <ul><li>Caballine horses <ul><li>Equus algericus (North Africa)</li></ul></li> <li>Subgenus <a href="/wiki/Asinus" title="Asinus">Asinus</a> (asses) <ul><li>Equus melkiensis (North Africa)</li></ul></li> <li>Zebras <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equus_capensis" title="Equus capensis">Giant zebra</a> (Equus capensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equus_mauritanicus" title="Equus mauritanicus">Saharan zebra</a> (Equus mauritanicus)<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proboscidea" title="Proboscidea">Proboscidea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elephantidae" title="Elephantidae">Elephantidae</a> (elephants) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_iolensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoloxodon iolensis">Palaeoloxodon iolensis</a>? (other authors suggest that this taxon went extinct at the end of the Middle Pleistocene)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodentia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodentia">Rodentia</a> <ul><li>Paraethomys filfilae?</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia_and_Southeast_Asia">South Asia and Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: South Asia and Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MegatapirusDB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/MegatapirusDB.jpg/220px-MegatapirusDB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/MegatapirusDB.jpg/330px-MegatapirusDB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/MegatapirusDB.jpg/440px-MegatapirusDB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5952" data-file-height="3528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giant_tapir" title="Giant tapir">Giant tapir</a> (Tapirus augustus) restoration</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG/220px-ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG/330px-ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG/440px-ExtinctElephant-SiwalikHills.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption>Life-sized models of <a href="/wiki/Stegodon" title="Stegodon">Stegodon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg/170px-Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg/255px-Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg/340px-Palaeoloxodon_namadicus-bpk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_namadicus" title="Palaeoloxodon namadicus">Palaeoloxodon namadicus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xiahe_mandible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Xiahe_mandible.jpg/220px-Xiahe_mandible.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Xiahe_mandible.jpg/330px-Xiahe_mandible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Xiahe_mandible.jpg/440px-Xiahe_mandible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4044" data-file-height="2196" /></a><figcaption>Fossil jaw (<a href="/wiki/Xiahe_mandible" title="Xiahe mandible">Xiahe mandible</a>) of a <a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">denisovan</a></figcaption></figure>The timing of extinctions on the Indian subcontinent is uncertain due to a lack of reliable dating.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Similar issues have been reported for Chinese sites, though there is no evidence for any of the megafaunal taxa having survived into the Holocene in that region.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Extinctions in Southeast Asia and South China have been proposed to be the result of environmental shift from open to closed forested habitats.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ungulate" title="Ungulate">Ungulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">Even-Toed Ungulates</a> <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bos_palaesondaicus" title="Bos palaesondaicus">Bos palaesondaicus</a> (ancestor to the <a href="/wiki/Banteng" title="Banteng">banteng</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_cebuensis" title="Bubalus cebuensis">Cebu tamaraw</a> (Bubalus cebuensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_grovesi" title="Bubalus grovesi">Bubalus grovesi</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_mephistopheles" title="Bubalus mephistopheles">Short-horned water buffalo</a> (Bubalus mephistopheles)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_palaeokerabau" title="Bubalus palaeokerabau">Bubalus palaeokerabau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamidae" title="Hippopotamidae">Hippopotamidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaprotodon" title="Hexaprotodon">Hexaprotodon</a> (Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia)<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd-toed ungulate">Odd-toed Ungulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equus_(genus)" title="Equus (genus)">Equus</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equus_namadicus" title="Equus namadicus">Equus namadicus</a> (Indian subcontinent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_horse" title="Yunnan horse">Yunnan horse</a> (Equus yunanensis)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_tapir" title="Giant tapir">Giant tapir</a> (Tapirus augustus, Southeast Asia and Southern China)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taprus_sinensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taprus sinensis (page does not exist)">Taprus sinensis</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pholidota" class="mw-redirect" title="Pholidota">Pholidota</a> <ul><li>Giant Asian pangolin (<a href="/wiki/Manis_palaeojavanica" title="Manis palaeojavanica">Manis palaeojavanica</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caniformia" title="Caniformia">Caniformia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctoidea" title="Arctoidea">Arctoidea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">Bears</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ailuropoda_baconi" title="Ailuropoda baconi">Ailuropoda baconi</a> (ancestor to the <a href="/wiki/Giant_panda" title="Giant panda">giant panda</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrotheria" title="Afrotheria">Afrotheria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afroinsectiphilia" title="Afroinsectiphilia">Afroinsectiphilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orycteropodidae" title="Orycteropodidae">Orycteropodidae/Tubulidentata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aardvark" title="Aardvark">Aardvark</a> (Orycteropus afer; extirpated in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> circa 13,000 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paenungulata" title="Paenungulata">Paenungulata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tethytheria" title="Tethytheria">Tethytheria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proboscidea" title="Proboscidea">Proboscideans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stegodontidae" title="Stegodontidae">Stegodontidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stegodon" title="Stegodon">Stegodon</a> spp. (including Stegodon florensis on Flores, Stegodon orientalis in East and Southeast Asia, and Stegodon sp. in the Indian subcontinent)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantidae" title="Elephantidae">Elephantidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon" title="Palaeoloxodon">Palaeoloxodon</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_namadicus" title="Palaeoloxodon namadicus">Palaeoloxodon namadicus</a> (Indian subcontinent, possibly also Southeast Asia)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiriyanetta" title="Shiriyanetta">Japanese flightless duck</a> (Shiriyanetta hasegawai)<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoptilos_robustus" title="Leptoptilos robustus">Leptoptilos robustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">Ostriches</a> (Struthio) (Indian subcontinent)</li></ul></li> <li>Reptiles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">Crocodilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_munensis" title="Alligator munensis">Alligator munensis</a>?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testudines" class="mw-redirect" title="Testudines">Testudines</a> (turtles and tortoises) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Manouria_oyamai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manouria oyamai (page does not exist)">Manouria oyamai</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Primates <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">simian</a> (Simiiformes) spp. <ul><li>Pongo (<a href="/wiki/Orangutans" class="mw-redirect" title="Orangutans">orangutans</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pongo_weidenreichi" title="Pongo weidenreichi">Pongo weidenreichi</a> (South China)</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a> spp. (archaic humans) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus_soloensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo erectus soloensis">Homo erectus soloensis</a> (Java)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a> (Flores)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">Homo luzonensis</a> (Luzon, Philippines)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovans" class="mw-redirect" title="Denisovans">Denisovans</a> (Homo sp.)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe,_Northern_and_East_Asia">Europe, Northern and East Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Europe, Northern and East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saiga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Saiga.jpg/170px-Saiga.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Saiga.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saiga_antelope" title="Saiga antelope">Saiga antelope</a> (Saiga spp.) inhabited a range from <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> to <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> in the Late Pleistocene, diversifying into two species. S. borealis is now extinct and the <a href="/wiki/Near-threatened" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-threatened">near-threatened</a> <a href="/wiki/Saiga_antelope" title="Saiga antelope">S. tatarica</a> is now limited to the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">steppe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg/220px-Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg/330px-Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg/440px-Hippopotamus_amphibius_Whipsnade_Zoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3475" data-file-height="2180" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">Hippopotamus</a> (Hippopotamus amphibius) formerly inhabited Europe as far north as Great Britain at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, becoming extinct in Europe around 30,000 years ago</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg/220px-Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg/330px-Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg/440px-Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="957" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the five <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarpan" title="Tarpan">Pleistocene wild horse</a>. The coat colours and dimensions are based on genetic evidence and historic descriptions</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elasm062.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Elasm062.jpg/220px-Elasm062.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Elasm062.jpg/330px-Elasm062.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Elasm062.jpg/440px-Elasm062.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elasmotherium" title="Elasmotherium">Elasmotherium sibiricum</a> reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:16_PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/220px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/330px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/440px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>Cave paintings of the <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">woolly rhinoceros</a> (Coelodonta antiquitatis) in <a href="/wiki/Chauvet-Pont-d%27Arc_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave">Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lions_painting,_Chauvet_Cave_(museum_replica).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg/220px-Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg/330px-Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg/440px-Lions_painting%2C_Chauvet_Cave_%28museum_replica%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2015" data-file-height="1721" /></a><figcaption>The 'Gallery of Lions', representations of the <a href="/wiki/Panthera_leo_spelaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthera leo spelaea">Eurasian cave lion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chauvet_Cave" title="Chauvet Cave">Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG/220px-ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG/330px-ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG/440px-ZOO_Olomouc07_Panthera_pardus_orientalis.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a> (Panthera pardus) inhabited the entire expanse of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> below the <a href="/wiki/54th_parallel_north" title="54th parallel north">54th parallel north</a>, from modern day <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> in the west, to <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> in the south, and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sundaland" title="Sundaland">Sundaland</a> in the east during the Late Pleistocene</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Ursus_spelaeus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cave_bear" title="Cave bear">Cave bear</a> (Ursus spelaeus) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg/220px-Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg/330px-Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg/440px-Heinrichsh%C3%B6hle_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cave_hyena" title="Cave hyena">Cave hyena</a> (Crocuta crocuta spelaea) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mamut_lanudo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Mamut_lanudo.jpg/220px-Mamut_lanudo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Mamut_lanudo.jpg/330px-Mamut_lanudo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Mamut_lanudo.jpg/440px-Mamut_lanudo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">woolly mammoth</a> became extinct around <a href="/wiki/10th_millennium_BC" title="10th millennium BC">10,000 BCE</a> – except for diminutive relict populations on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul_Island_(Alaska)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Paul Island (Alaska)">St. Paul Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wrangel_Island" title="Wrangel Island">Wrangel Island</a>, which humans did not colonise until 3,600 BCE and <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">2,000 BCE</a> respectively</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg/220px-Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg/330px-Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg/440px-Reproducci%C3%B3n_de_Palaeoloxodon_antiquus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4076" data-file-height="2717" /></a><figcaption>Model of the European <a href="/wiki/Straight-tusked_elephant" title="Straight-tusked elephant">straight-tusked elephant</a> (Paleoloxodon antiquus)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic realm</a> spans the entirety of the <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European continent</a> and stretches into <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">northern Asia</a>, through the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">central Asia</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">northern China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a>. Extinctions were more severe in Northern Eurasia than in Africa or South and Southeast Asia. These extinctions were staggered over tens of thousands of years, spanning from around 50,000 years <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">Before Present</a> (BP) to around 10,000 years BP, with temperate adapted species like the <a href="/wiki/Straight-tusked_elephant" title="Straight-tusked elephant">straight-tusked elephant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Narrow-nosed_rhinoceros" title="Narrow-nosed rhinoceros">narrow-nosed rhinoceros</a> generally going extinct earlier than cold adapted species like the <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">woolly mammoth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">woolly rhinoceros</a>. Climate change has been considered a probable major factor in the extinctions, possibly in combination with human hunting.<a href="#cite_note-EuropeanPerspective-2">[2]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_animals_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extinct animals of Europe">List of extinct animals of Europe</a></div> <ul><li>Ungulates <ul><li>Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_bison" title="Steppe bison">Steppe bison</a> (Bison priscus)</li> <li>Baikal yak (Bos baikalensis)<a href="#cite_note-Hoffecker2-27">[27]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_murrensis" title="Bubalus murrensis">European water buffalo</a> (Bubalus murrensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahr" title="Tahr">European tahr</a> (Hemitragus cedrensis)<a href="#cite_note-Tautavel-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Creegut-Bonnoure-2009-29">[29]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praeovibos_priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeovibos priscus">Giant muskox</a> (Praeovibos priscus)<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Northern <a href="/wiki/Saiga_antelope" title="Saiga antelope">saiga antelope</a> (Saiga borealis)<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Twisted-horned antelope (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirocerus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spirocerus (page does not exist)">Spirocerus</a> kiakhtensis)<a href="#cite_note-HumanEcologyOfBeringia-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-MammothFaunaEcologicalStructure-33">[33]</a></li> <li>Goat-horned antelope (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parabubalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parabubalis (page does not exist)">Parabubalis</a> capricornis)<a href="#cite_note-HumanEcologyOfBeringia-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-MammothFaunaEcologicalStructure-33">[33]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubalus_wansijocki" title="Bubalus wansijocki">Bubalus wansijocki</a> (extinct buffalo native to North China)</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> (Cervidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_deer" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant deer">Giant deer</a>/Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candiacervus" title="Candiacervus">Cretan deer</a> (Candiacervus spp.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haploidoceros" title="Haploidoceros">Haploidoceros</a> mediterraneus<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinomegaceros" title="Sinomegaceros">Sinomegaceros</a> spp. (including Sinomegaceros yabei in Japan, and Sinomegaceros ordosianus and possibly Sinomegaceros pachyosteus in China).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervus_astylodon" title="Cervus astylodon">Dwarf Ryuku deer</a> (Cervus astylodon)</li></ul></li> <li>All native <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus_(genus)" title="Hippopotamus (genus)">Hippopotamus</a> spp.<a href="#cite_note-Elias-37">[37]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus_amphibius" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippopotamus amphibius">Hippopotamus amphibius</a> (European range, still extant in Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus_melitensis" title="Hippopotamus melitensis">Maltese dwarf hippopotamus</a> (Hippopotamus melitensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_dwarf_hippopotamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus">Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus</a> (Hippopotamus minor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus_pentlandi" title="Hippopotamus pentlandi">Sicilian dwarf hippopotamus</a> (Hippopotamus pentlandi)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camelus_knoblochi" title="Camelus knoblochi">Camelus knoblochi</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">Camelus</a> spp.</li></ul></li> <li>Odd-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Equus_(genus)" title="Equus (genus)">Equus</a> spp. e.g. <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Wild_horse" title="Wild horse">wild horse</a> subspecies (e.g. Equus c. gallicus,<a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net2-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Equus c. latipes,<a href="#cite_note-MammothFaunaEcologicalStructure-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net2-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Equus c. uralensis<a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net2-39">[39]</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Equus_dalianensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Equus dalianensis (page does not exist)">Equus dalianensis</a> (wild horse species known from North China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wild_ass" title="European wild ass">European wild ass</a> (Equus hydruntinus) (survived in refugia in Anatolia until late Holocene)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equus_ovodovi" title="Equus ovodovi">Equus ovodovi</a> (survived in refugia in North China until late Holocene)</li></ul></li> <li>All native <a href="/wiki/Rhinocerotidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhinocerotidae">Rhinoceros</a> (Rhinocerotidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elasmotherium" title="Elasmotherium">Elasmotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">Woolly rhinoceros</a> (Coelodonta antiquitatis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanorhinus" title="Stephanorhinus">Stephanorhinus</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephanorhinus_kirchbergensis" title="Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis">Merck's rhinoceros</a> (Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrow-nosed_rhinoceros" title="Narrow-nosed rhinoceros">Narrow-nosed rhinoceros</a> (Stephanorhinus hemiotoechus)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Carnivora <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caniformia" title="Caniformia">Caniformia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canidae" title="Canidae">Canidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caninae" title="Caninae">Caninae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">Wolves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_wolf" title="Cave wolf">Cave wolf</a> (Canis lupus spelaeus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dire_wolf" title="Dire wolf">Dire wolf</a> (Aenocyon dirus)<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhole" title="Dhole">Dholes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_dhole" title="European dhole">European dhole</a> (Cuon alpinus europaeus)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_dhole" title="Sardinian dhole">Sardinian dhole</a> (Cynotherium sardous)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctoidea" title="Arctoidea">Arctoidea</a> <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Ursus_(mammal)" title="Ursus (mammal)">Ursus</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_brown_bear" title="Steppe brown bear">Steppe brown bear</a> (Ursus arctos "priscus")<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursus_ingressus" title="Ursus ingressus">Gamssulzen cave bear</a> (Ursus ingressus)<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursus_rossicus" title="Ursus rossicus">Pleistocene small cave bear</a> (Ursus rossicus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_bear" title="Cave bear">Cave bear</a> (Ursus spelaeus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursus_maritimus_tyrannus" title="Ursus maritimus tyrannus">Giant polar bear</a> (Ursus maritimus tyrannus)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musteloidea" title="Musteloidea">Musteloidea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustelidae" title="Mustelidae">Mustelidae</a> <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Lutrinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutrinae">otter</a> (Lutrinae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrnaonyx" title="Cyrnaonyx">Robust Pleistocene European otter</a> (Cyrnaonyx)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algarolutra" title="Algarolutra">Algarolutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalenhydris_barbaricina" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalenhydris barbaricina">Sardinian giant otter</a> (Megalenhydris barbaricina)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardolutra" title="Sardolutra">Sardinian dwarf otter</a> (Sardolutra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_otter" title="Cretan otter">Cretan otter</a> (Lutrogale cretensis)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feliformia" title="Feliformia">Feliformia</a> <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">Felidae</a> (cats) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homotherium_latidens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homotherium latidens">Homotherium latidens</a> (sometimes called the scimitar-toothed cat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_lynx" title="Cave lynx">Cave lynx</a> (Lynx pardinus spelaeus)<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issoire_lynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Issoire lynx">Issoire lynx</a> (Lynx issiodorensis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthera" title="Panthera">Panthera</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panthera_leo_spelaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthera leo spelaea">Cave lion</a> (Panthera spelaea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_ice_age_leopard" class="mw-redirect" title="European ice age leopard">European ice age leopard</a> (Panthera pardus spelaea)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaenidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaenidae">Hyaenidae</a> (hyenas) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_hyena" title="Cave hyena">Cave hyena</a> (Crocuta crocuta spelaea and Crocuta crocuta ultima)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%22Hyaena%22_prisca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title=""Hyaena" prisca (page does not exist)">"Hyaena" prisca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>All native <a href="/wiki/Elephantidae" title="Elephantidae">Elephant</a> (Elephantidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">Mammoths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">Woolly mammoth</a> (Mammuthus primigenius)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammuthus_lamarmorai" title="Mammuthus lamarmorai">Dwarf Sardinian mammoth</a> (Mammuthus lamarmorai)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight-tusked_elephant" title="Straight-tusked elephant">Straight-tusked elephant</a> (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_naumanni" title="Palaeoloxodon naumanni">Palaeoloxodon naumanni</a> (Japan, possibly also Korea and northern China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_huaihoensis" title="Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis">Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis</a> (China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_elephant" title="Dwarf elephant">Dwarf elephant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_creutzburgi" title="Palaeoloxodon creutzburgi">Palaeoloxodon creutzburgi</a> (Crete)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_dwarf_elephant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprus dwarf elephant">Cyprus dwarf elephant</a> (Palaeoloxodon cypriotes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoloxodon_mnaidriensis" title="Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis">Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis</a> (Sicily)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodents</a> <ul><li>Allocricetus bursae</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cricetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cricetus">Cricetus major</a> (alternatively Cricetus cricetus major)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicrostonyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicrostonyx">Dicrostonyx gulielmi</a> (ancestor to the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_lemming" title="Arctic lemming">Arctic lemming</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hystrix_refossa" title="Hystrix refossa">Giant Eurasian porcupine</a> (Hystrix refossa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leithia" title="Leithia">Leithia</a> spp. (Maltese and Sicilian giant dormouse)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmot" title="Marmot">Marmota paleocaucasica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtus" title="Microtus">Microtus grafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimomys" title="Mimomys">Mimomys</a> spp. <ul><li>M. pyrenaicus</li> <li>M. chandolensis</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliomys" title="Pliomys">Pliomys lenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermophilus" title="Spermophilus">Spermophilus citelloides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermophilus" title="Spermophilus">Spermophilus severskensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermophilus" title="Spermophilus">Spermophilus superciliosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogontherium" title="Trogontherium">Trogontherium cuvieri</a> (large beaver)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_hare" title="Mountain hare">Lepus tanaiticus</a> (alternatively Lepus timidus tanaiticus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pika" title="Pika">Pika</a> (Ochotona) spp. e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_pika" title="Giant pika">Giant pika</a> (Ochotona whartoni)</li></ul></li> <li>Tonomochota spp. <ul><li>T. khasanensis</li> <li>T. sikhotana</li> <li>T. major</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anser_djuktaiensis" title="Anser djuktaiensis">Yakutian goose</a> (Anser djuktaiensis)</li> <li>East Asian Ostrich (<a href="/wiki/Struthio_anderssoni" title="Struthio anderssoni">Struthio anderssoni</a>)</li> <li>Various European <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">crane</a> spp. (Genus <a href="/wiki/Grus_(genus)" title="Grus (genus)">Grus</a>) <ul><li>Grus primigenia</li> <li>Grus melitensis</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_owl" title="Cretan owl">Cretan owl</a> (Athene cretensis)</li></ul></li> <li>Primates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a> (Homo sp.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</a> (Homo (sapiens) neanderthalensis; survived until about 40,000 years ago on the Iberian peninsula)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Reptiles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solitudo" title="Solitudo">Solitudo</a> sicula; survived in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> until about 12,500 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lacerta_siculimelitensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lacerta siculimelitensis (page does not exist)">Lacerta siculimelitensis</a>; from <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_animals_extinct_in_the_Holocene" title="List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene">List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene</a></div>Extinctions in North America were concentrated at the end of the Late Pleistocene, around 13,800–11,400 years Before Present, which were coincident with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a> cooling period, as well as the emergence of the hunter-gatherer <a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a>. The relative importance of human and climactic factors in the North American extinctions has been the subject of significant controversy. Extinctions totalled around 35 genera.<a href="#cite_note-SynchronousExtinction-4">[4]</a> The radiocarbon record for North America south of the Alaska-Yukon region has been described as "inadequate" to construct a reliable chronology.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_(Pleistocene;_North_America)_1_(15257877377).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg/220px-Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg/330px-Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg/440px-Bison_latifrons_fossil_buffalo_%28Pleistocene%3B_North_America%29_1_%2815257877377%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bison_latifrons" title="Bison latifrons">Long-horned/Giant bison</a> (Bos latifrons), fossil bison skeleton (public display, <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati_Museum_Center_at_Union_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal">Cincinnati Museum of Natural History & Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg/220px-Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg/330px-Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg/440px-Preptoceras_sinclairi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="691" /></a><figcaption>Mounted skeleton of a <a href="/wiki/Shrub-ox" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrub-ox">shrub-ox</a> (Euceratherium collinum)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg/220px-Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg/330px-Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg/440px-Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2196" data-file-height="1354" /></a><figcaption>Life restoration of <a href="/wiki/Stag-moose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stag-moose">Cervalces scotti</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrameryx_shuleri.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tetrameryx_shuleri.png/220px-Tetrameryx_shuleri.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tetrameryx_shuleri.png/330px-Tetrameryx_shuleri.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tetrameryx_shuleri.png/440px-Tetrameryx_shuleri.png 2x" data-file-width="2117" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tetrameryx" title="Tetrameryx">Tetrameryx shuleri</a> restoration</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg/220px-Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg/330px-Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg/440px-Catagonus_wagneri_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2216" data-file-height="2024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Chacoan_peccary" title="Chacoan peccary">Chacoan peccary</a> (Catagonus wagneri), believed to be the closest surviving relative of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Platygonus" title="Platygonus">Platygonus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Camelops_hesternus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Camelops" title="Camelops">Western camel</a> (Camelops hesternus) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg/220px-Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg/330px-Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg/440px-Equus_ferus_lambei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1045" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>Life restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Equus_lambei" title="Equus lambei">Yukon horse</a> (Equus lambei)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixotoxodon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mixotoxodon.jpg/220px-Mixotoxodon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mixotoxodon.jpg/330px-Mixotoxodon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mixotoxodon.jpg/440px-Mixotoxodon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Mixotoxodon" title="Mixotoxodon">Mixotoxodon larenis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Toxodontid" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxodontid">toxodontid</a> <a href="/wiki/Notoungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Notoungulate">notoungulate</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Smilodon_fatalis_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Smilodon" title="Smilodon">Saber-toothed cat</a> (Smilodon fatalis) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homotherium_serum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Homotherium_serum.jpg/220px-Homotherium_serum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Homotherium_serum.jpg/330px-Homotherium_serum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Homotherium_serum.jpg/440px-Homotherium_serum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scimitar_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Scimitar cat">Scimitar cat</a> (Homotherium serum) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/American_lion" title="American lion">American lion</a> (Panthera atrox) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2010-kabini-dhole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/2010-kabini-dhole.jpg/220px-2010-kabini-dhole.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/2010-kabini-dhole.jpg/330px-2010-kabini-dhole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/2010-kabini-dhole.jpg/440px-2010-kabini-dhole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dhole" title="Dhole">dhole</a> (Cuon alpinus), now restricted to the southern portions of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, was present from <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Arctodus_simus_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Giant short-faced bear (<a href="/wiki/Arctodus" title="Arctodus">Arctodus simus</a>) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Mammut_americanum_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/American_mastodon" class="mw-redirect" title="American mastodon">American mastodon</a> (Mammut americanum) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/220px-Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/330px-Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/440px-Mammuthus_columbi_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Columbian_mammoth" title="Columbian mammoth">Columbian mammoth</a> (Mammuthus columbi) reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg/220px-Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg/330px-Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg/440px-Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Castoroides" title="Castoroides">Giant beaver</a> (Castoroides ohioensis) skeleton displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Field_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Field Museum of Natural History">Field Museum of Natural History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg/220px-Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg/330px-Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg/440px-Paralouatta_marianae_skull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Skull of <a href="/wiki/Paralouatta" title="Paralouatta">Paralouatta marianae</a>, one of the two Cuban members of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Xenotrichini" title="Xenotrichini">Antilles monkeys</a> (Xenotrichini)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg/220px-WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg/330px-WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg/440px-WLA_hmns_Giant_ground_sloth_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eremotherium" title="Eremotherium">Eremotherium laurillardi</a> skeleton displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science" title="Houston Museum of Natural Science">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nothrotheriops.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nothrotheriops.jpg/220px-Nothrotheriops.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nothrotheriops.jpg/330px-Nothrotheriops.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nothrotheriops.jpg/440px-Nothrotheriops.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Life restoration of <a href="/wiki/Nothrotheriops" title="Nothrotheriops">Nothrotheriops texanus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glyptotheriumm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Glyptotheriumm.jpg/220px-Glyptotheriumm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Glyptotheriumm.jpg/330px-Glyptotheriumm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Glyptotheriumm.jpg/440px-Glyptotheriumm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glyptotherium" title="Glyptotherium">Glyptotherium</a> reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg/220px-Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg/330px-Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg/440px-Gymnogyps_amplus_skeleton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Californian_turkey" title="Californian turkey">Californian turkey</a> (Meleagris californica) and <a href="/wiki/Gymnogyps_amplus" title="Gymnogyps amplus">megafaunal Californian condor</a> (Gymnogyps amplus) fossil displays at <a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Tar_Pits" title="La Brea Tar Pits">La Brea Tar Pits</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teratornis_fossil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Teratornis_fossil.jpg/220px-Teratornis_fossil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Teratornis_fossil.jpg/330px-Teratornis_fossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Teratornis_fossil.jpg/440px-Teratornis_fossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Teratornis_merriami" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratornis merriami">Teratornis merriami</a> skeleton from the <a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Tar_Pits" title="La Brea Tar Pits">La Brea Tar Pits</a> in flight pose</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg/170px-Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg/255px-Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg/340px-Ornimegalonyx_oteroi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Ornimegalonyx_oteroi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornimegalonyx oteroi">Cuban giant owl</a> (Ornimegalonyx oteroi), of <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, with the carcass of a large <a href="/wiki/Solenodon" title="Solenodon">solenodon</a></figcaption></figure> North American extinctions (noted as <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a> (H) or <a href="/wiki/Carnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivores">carnivores</a> (C)) included: <ul><li>Ungulates <ul><li>Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a> spp. <ul><li>Most forms of Pleistocene <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a> (only <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">Bison bison</a> in North America, and <a href="/wiki/European_bison" title="European bison">Bison bonasus</a> in Eurasia, survived) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bison_antiquus" title="Bison antiquus">Ancient bison</a> (Bison antiquus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bison_latifrons" title="Bison latifrons">Long-horned/Giant bison</a> (Bison latifrons) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_bison" title="Steppe bison">Steppe bison</a> (Bison priscus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bison_occidentalis" title="Bison occidentalis">Bison occidentalis</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Several members of <a href="/wiki/Caprinae" title="Caprinae">Caprinae</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Muskox" title="Muskox">muskox</a> survived) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praeovibos_priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeovibos priscus">Giant muskox</a> (Praeovibos priscus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub-ox" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrub-ox">Shrub-ox</a> (Euceratherium collinum) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan%27s_muskox" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan's muskox">Harlan's muskox</a> (Bootherium bombifrons) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soergelia_mayfieldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Soergelia mayfieldi">Soergel's ox</a> (Soergelia mayfieldi) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrington%27s_mountain_goat" title="Harrington's mountain goat">Harrington's mountain goat</a> (Oreamnos harringtoni; smaller and more southern distribution than its <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Goat" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain Goat">surviving relative</a>) (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Saiga">Saiga antelope</a> (Saiga tatarica; extirpated) (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Deer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stag-moose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stag-moose">Stag-moose</a> (Cervalces scotti) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_mountain_deer" title="American mountain deer">American mountain deer</a> (Odocoileus lucasi) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torontoceros" title="Torontoceros">Torontoceros hypnogeos</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Antilocapridae" title="Antilocapridae">Antilocapridae</a> genera (<a href="/wiki/Pronghorn" title="Pronghorn">pronghorns</a> survived) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capromeryx_minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Capromeryx minor">Capromeryx</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockoceros" title="Stockoceros">Stockoceros</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrameryx" title="Tetrameryx">Tetrameryx</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilocapra_pacifica" title="Antilocapra pacifica">Pacific pronghorn</a> (Antilocapra pacifica) (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Peccary" title="Peccary">peccary</a> (Tayassuidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platygonus_compressus" title="Platygonus compressus">Flat-headed peccary</a> (Platygonus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-nosed_peccary" title="Long-nosed peccary">Long-nosed peccary</a> (Mylohyus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collared_peccary" title="Collared peccary">Collared peccary</a> (Dicotyles tajacu; extirpated, range semi-recolonised) (H) (Muknalia minimus is a junior synonym)</li></ul></li> <li>Various members of <a href="/wiki/Camelidae" title="Camelidae">Camelidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camelops" title="Camelops">Western camel</a> (Camelops hesternus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemiauchenia" title="Hemiauchenia">Stilt legged llamas</a> (Hemiauchenia ssp.) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeolama" title="Palaeolama">Stout legged llamas</a> (Palaeolama ssp.) (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Odd-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>All native forms of <a href="/wiki/Equidae" title="Equidae">Equidae</a> <ul><li>Caballine true horses (Equus cf. ferus) from the Late Pleistocene of North America have historically been assigned to many different species, including <a href="/wiki/Equus_fraternus" title="Equus fraternus">Equus fraternus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equus_scotti" title="Equus scotti">Equus scotti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equus_lambei" title="Equus lambei">Equus lambei</a>, but the taxonomy of these horses is unclear, and many of these species may be synonymous with each other, perhaps only representing a single species.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haringtonhippus" title="Haringtonhippus">Stilt-legged horse</a> (Haringtonhippus francisci / Equus francisci; (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Tapirs (<a href="/wiki/Tapirus" title="Tapirus">Tapirus</a>; three species) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_tapir" class="mw-redirect" title="California tapir">California tapir</a> (Tapirus californicus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapirus_merriami" title="Tapirus merriami">Merriam's tapir</a> (Tapirus merriami) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapirus_veroensis" title="Tapirus veroensis">Vero tapir</a> (Tapirus veroensis) (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr>Order <a href="/wiki/Notoungulata" title="Notoungulata">Notoungulata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixotoxodon" title="Mixotoxodon">Mixotoxodon</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Carnivora <ul><li>Feliformia <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">Felidae</a> spp. <ul><li>Sabertooths (<abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Machairodontinae" title="Machairodontinae">Machairodontinae</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smilodon_fatalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Smilodon fatalis">Smilodon fatalis</a> (sabertooth cat) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homotherium_serum" class="mw-redirect" title="Homotherium serum">Homotherium serum</a> scimitar-toothed cat (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cheetah" class="mw-redirect" title="American cheetah">American cheetah</a> (Miracinonyx trumani; not true cheetah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cougar" title="Cougar">Cougar</a> (Puma concolor; megafaunal <a href="/wiki/Ecomorphology" title="Ecomorphology">ecomorph</a> extirpated from North America, South American populations recolonised former range) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguarundi" title="Jaguarundi">Jaguarundi</a> (Herpailurus yagouaroundi; extirpated, range semi-recolonised) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margay" title="Margay">Margay</a> (Leopardus weidii; extirpated) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocelot" title="Ocelot">Ocelot</a> (Leopardus pardalis; extirpated, range marginally recolonised) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">Jaguars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panthera_onca_augusta" title="Panthera onca augusta">Pleistocene North American jaguar</a> (Panthera onca augusta; range semi-recolonised by other subspecies) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_jaguar" class="mw-redirect" title="North American jaguar">North America Jaguar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthera_balamoides" title="Panthera balamoides">Panthera balamoides</a> (dubious, suggested to be a junior synonym of the short faced bear <a href="/wiki/Arctotherium" title="Arctotherium">Arctotherium</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">Lions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lion" title="American lion">American lion</a> (Panthera atrox) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthera_spelaea" title="Panthera spelaea">Cave lion</a> (Panthera spelaea; present only in Alaska and Yukon) (C)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Caniformia <ul><li>Canidae <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dire_wolf" title="Dire wolf">Dire wolf</a> (Aenocyon dirus) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_coyote" title="Pleistocene coyote">Pleistocene coyote</a> (Canis latrans orcutti) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megafaunal_wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Megafaunal wolf">Megafaunal wolf</a> e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beringian_wolf" title="Beringian wolf">Beringian wolf</a> (Canis lupus ssp.) (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhole" title="Dhole">Dhole</a> (Cuon alpinus; extirpated) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocyon_troglodytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocyon troglodytes">Protocyon troglodytes</a><a href="#cite_note-YucatanCarnivores-53">[53]</a> (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Arctoidea <ul><li>Musteloidea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mephitidae" title="Mephitidae">Mephitidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brachyprotoma_obtusata" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachyprotoma obtusata">Short-faced skunk</a> (Brachyprotoma obtusata)<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustelidae" title="Mustelidae">Mustelidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_polecat" title="Steppe polecat">Steppe polecat</a> (Mustela eversmanii; extirpated)<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> (C)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bear</a> (Ursidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_short-faced_bear" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant short-faced bear">Arctodus simus</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_cave_bear" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida cave bear">Florida spectacled bear</a> (Tremarctos floridanus) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctotherium" title="Arctotherium">South American short-faced bear</a> (Arctotherium wingei)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-YucatanCarnivores-53">[53]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursus_maritimus_tyrannus" title="Ursus maritimus tyrannus">Giant polar bear</a> (Ursus maritimus tyrannus; a possible inhabitant) (C)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Afrotheria <ul><li>Paenungulata <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tethytheria" title="Tethytheria">Tethytheria</a> <ul><li>All native spp. of <a href="/wiki/Proboscidea" title="Proboscidea">Proboscidea</a> <ul><li>Mastodons <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_mastodon" class="mw-redirect" title="American mastodon">American mastodon</a> (Mammut americanum) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammut_pacificus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammut pacificus">Pacific mastodon</a> (Mammut pacificus) (H) (validity uncertain)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomphotheriidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gomphotheriidae">Gomphotheriidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuvieronius" title="Cuvieronius">Cuvieronius</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">Mammoth</a> (Mammuthus) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_mammoth" title="Columbian mammoth">Columbian mammoth</a> (Mammuthus columbi) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pygmy_mammoth" title="Pygmy mammoth">Pygmy mammoth</a> (Mammuthus exilis) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">Woolly mammoth</a> (Mammuthus primigenius) (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirenia" title="Sirenia">Sirenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dugongidae" title="Dugongidae">Dugongidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_cow" title="Steller's sea cow">Steller's sea cow</a> (Hydrodamalis gigas; extirpated from North America, survived in Beringia into 18th century) (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Euarchontoglires <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">Bats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stock%27s_vampire_bat" title="Stock's vampire bat">Stock's vampire bat</a> (Desmodus stocki) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pristine_mustached_bat" title="Pristine mustached bat">Pristine mustached bat</a> (Pteronotus (Phyllodia) pristinus) (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Rodents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castoroides" title="Castoroides">Giant beaver</a> (Castoroides) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castoroides" title="Castoroides">Castoroides ohioensis</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castoroides" title="Castoroides">Castoroides leiseyorum</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Klein's porcupine (Erethizon kleini)<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peromyscus_nesodytes" title="Peromyscus nesodytes">Giant island deer mouse</a> (Peromyscus nesodytes) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neochoerus" title="Neochoerus">Neochoerus</a> spp. e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neochoerus_pinckneyi" title="Neochoerus pinckneyi">Pinckney's capybara</a> (Neochoerus pinckneyi) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neochoerus_aesopi" title="Neochoerus aesopi">Neochoerus aesopi</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotoma_findleyi" title="Neotoma findleyi">Neotoma findleyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotoma">Neotoma pygmaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaptomys_australis" title="Synaptomys australis">Synaptomys australis</a></li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Giant_hutia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant hutia">giant hutia</a> (Heptaxodontidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blunt-toothed_giant_hutia" title="Blunt-toothed giant hutia">Blunt-toothed giant hutia</a> (Amblyrhiza inundata; could grow as large as an <a href="/wiki/American_black_bear" title="American black bear">American black bear</a>) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate-toothed_giant_hutia" title="Plate-toothed giant hutia">Plate-toothed giant hutia</a> (Elasmodontomys obliquus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twisted-toothed_mouse" title="Twisted-toothed mouse">Twisted-toothed mouse</a> (Quemisia gravis) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osborn%27s_key_mouse" title="Osborn's key mouse">Osborn's key mouse</a> (Clidomys osborn's) (H)</li> <li>Xaymaca fulvopulvis (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Lagomorphs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztlanolagus" title="Aztlanolagus">Aztlan rabbit</a> (Aztlanolagus sp.) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_pika" title="Giant pika">Giant pika</a> (Ochotona whartoni) (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Eulipotyphla <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Notiosorex_dalquesti" title="Notiosorex dalquesti">Notiosorex dalquesti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notiosorex_harrisi" title="Notiosorex harrisi">Notiosorex harrisi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenarthra" title="Xenarthra">Xenarthra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilosa" title="Pilosa">Pilosa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_anteater" title="Giant anteater">Giant anteater</a> (Myrmecophaga tridactyla; extirpated, range partially recolonised)<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> (C)</li> <li>All remaining <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloth" title="Ground sloth">ground sloth</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eremotherium" title="Eremotherium">Eremotherium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Megatheriidae" title="Megatheriidae">megatheriid</a> giant ground sloth) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nothrotheriops" title="Nothrotheriops">Nothrotheriops</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nothrotheriidae" title="Nothrotheriidae">nothrotheriid</a> ground sloth) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalonychidae" title="Megalonychidae">Megalonychid</a> ground sloth spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalonyx" title="Megalonyx">Megalonyx</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nohochichak" title="Nohochichak">Nohochichak</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xibalbaonyx" title="Xibalbaonyx">Xibalbaonyx</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meizonyx" title="Meizonyx">Meizonyx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylodontidae" title="Mylodontidae">Mylodontid</a> ground sloth spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramylodon" title="Paramylodon">Paramylodon</a> (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulata" title="Cingulata">Cingulata</a> <ul><li>All members of <a href="/wiki/Glyptodontinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyptodontinae">Glyptodontinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glyptotherium" title="Glyptotherium">Glyptotherium</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasypus_bellus" title="Dasypus bellus">Beautiful armadillo</a> (Dasypus bellus)<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachyarmatherium" title="Pachyarmatherium">Pachyarmatherium</a></li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Pampatheriidae" title="Pampatheriidae">Pampatheriidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holmesina" title="Holmesina">Holmesina</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pampatherium" title="Pampatherium">Pampatherium</a> (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Birds <ul><li>Water Fowl <ul><li>Ducks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_flightless_duck" title="Bermuda flightless duck">Bermuda flightless duck</a> (Anas pachyscelus) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chendytes" title="Chendytes">Californian flightless sea duck</a> (Chendytes lawi) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiff-tailed_duck" title="Stiff-tailed duck">Mexican stiff-tailed duck</a> (Oxyura zapatima)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neochen_barbadiana" title="Neochen barbadiana">Neochen barbadiana</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_(bird)" title="Turkey (bird)">Turkey</a> (Meleagris) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Californian_turkey" title="Californian turkey">Californian turkey</a> (Meleagris californica) (H)</li> <li>Meleagris crassipes<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Gruiformes" title="Gruiformes">Gruiformes</a> spp. <ul><li>All <a href="/wiki/Nesotrochis" title="Nesotrochis">cave rail</a> (Nesotrochis) spp. e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antillean_cave_rail" title="Antillean cave rail">Antillean cave rail</a> (Nesotrochis debooyi) (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_rail" title="Barbados rail">Barbados rail</a> (<a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a>) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_flightless_crane" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban flightless crane">Cuban flightless crane</a> (Antigone cubensis) (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grus_pagei" title="Grus pagei">La Brea crane</a> (Grus pagei) (H)</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingo</a> (Phoenicopteridae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minute_flamingo" class="mw-redirect" title="Minute flamingo">Minute flamingo</a> (Phoenicopterus minutus)<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cope%27s_flamingo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cope's flamingo">Cope's flamingo</a> (Phoenicopterus copei)<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dow%27s_puffin" title="Dow's puffin">Dow's puffin</a> (Fratercula dowi) (C)</li> <li>Pleistocene Mexican <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">diver</a> spp. <ul><li>Plyolimbus baryosteus (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podiceps" title="Podiceps">Podiceps</a> spp. <ul><li>Podiceps parvus<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (C)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">Storks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciconia_maltha" title="Ciconia maltha">La Brea/Asphalt stork</a> (Ciconia maltha)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (C)</li> <li>Wetmore's stork (Mycteria wetmorei)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Pleistocene Mexican <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a> spp. (genus <a href="/wiki/Phalacrocorax" title="Phalacrocorax">Phalacrocorax</a>)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> <ul><li>Phalacrocorax goletensis (C)</li> <li>Phalacrocorax chapalensis (C)</li></ul></li> <li>All remaining <a href="/wiki/Teratornithidae" title="Teratornithidae">teratorn</a> (Teratornithidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aiolornis" title="Aiolornis">Aiolornis incredibilis</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathartornis" title="Cathartornis">Cathartornis gracilis</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscaravis" title="Oscaravis">Oscaravis olsoni</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratornis" title="Teratornis">Teratornis merriami</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratornis" title="Teratornis">Teratornis woodburnensis</a> (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/New_World_vultures" class="mw-redirect" title="New World vultures">New World vultures</a> (Cathartidae) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_vulture" title="Black vulture">Pleistocene black vulture</a> (Coragyps occidentalis ssp.) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnogyps_amplus" title="Gymnogyps amplus">Megafaunal Californian condor</a> (Gymnogyps amplus) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breagyps_clarki" class="mw-redirect" title="Breagyps clarki">Clark's condor</a> (Breagyps clarki) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnogyps_varonai" title="Gymnogyps varonai">Cuban condor</a> (Gymnogyps varonai) (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Accipitridae" title="Accipitridae">Accipitridae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neophrontops_americanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Neophrontops americanus">American neophrone vulture</a> (Neophrontops americanus)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodward%27s_eagle" title="Woodward's eagle">Woodward's eagle</a> (Amplibuteo woodwardi) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buteogallus_borrasi" title="Buteogallus borrasi">Cuban great hawk</a> (Buteogallus borrasi) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buteogallus_daggetti" title="Buteogallus daggetti">Daggett's eagle</a> (Buteogallus daggetti) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buteogallus_fragilis" title="Buteogallus fragilis">Fragile eagle</a> (Buteogallus fragilis) (C)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gigantohierax_suarezi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gigantohierax suarezi (page does not exist)">Cuban giant hawk</a> (Gigantohierax suarezi)<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogyps_errans" class="mw-redirect" title="Neogyps errans">Errant eagle</a> (Neogyps errans) (C)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spizaetus_grinnelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spizaetus grinnelli (page does not exist)">Grinnell's crested eagle</a> (Spizaetus grinnelli)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spizaetus_willetti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spizaetus willetti (page does not exist)">Willett's hawk-eagle</a> (Spizaetus willetti)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanohierax" title="Titanohierax">Caribbean titan hawk</a> (Titanohierax) (C)</li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owl</a> (Strigiformes) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphaltoglaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphaltoglaux">Brea miniature owl</a> (Asphaltoglaux) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucidium_kurochkini" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucidium kurochkini">Kurochkin's pygmy owl</a> (Glaucidium kurochkini) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oraristrix" title="Oraristrix">Brea owl</a> (Oraristix brea) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornimegalonyx" title="Ornimegalonyx">Cuban giant owl</a> (Ornimegalonyx) (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_flicker" title="Bermuda flicker">Bermuda flicker</a> (Colaptes oceanicus) (C)</li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Caracara_(subfamily)" title="Caracara (subfamily)">caracara</a> (Caracarinae) spp. <ul><li>Bahaman terrestrial caracara (<a href="/wiki/Caracara_(genus)" title="Caracara (genus)">Caracara</a> sp.) (C)</li> <li>Puerto Rican terrestrial caracara (<a href="/wiki/Caracara_(genus)" title="Caracara (genus)">Caracara</a> sp.) (C)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_caracara" title="Jamaican caracara">Jamaican caracara</a> (Carcara tellustris) (C)</li> <li>Cuban caracara (<a href="/wiki/Milvago" title="Milvago">Milvago</a> sp.) (C)</li> <li>Hispaniolan caracara (<a href="/wiki/Milvago" title="Milvago">Milvago</a> sp.) (C)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psittacopasserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Psittacopasserae">Psittacopasserae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">Psittaciformes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhynchopsitta_phillipsi" title="Rhynchopsitta phillipsi">Mexican thick-billed parrot</a> (Rhynchopsitta phillipsi)<a href="#cite_note-HumanOriginSitesWorldHeritageConvention-56">[56]</a> (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Giant_tortoise" title="Giant tortoise">giant tortoise</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hesperotestudo" title="Hesperotestudo">Hesperotestudo</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopherus" title="Gopherus">Gopherus</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gopherus_donlaloi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gopherus donlaloi (page does not exist)">Gopherus donlaloi</a> (H)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelonoidis" title="Chelonoidis">Chelonoidis</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chelonoidis_marcanoi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chelonoidis marcanoi (page does not exist)">Chelonoidis marcanoi</a> (H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelonoidis_alburyorum" title="Chelonoidis alburyorum">Chelonoidis alburyorum</a> (H)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> The survivors are in some ways as significant as the losses: <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a> (H), <a href="/wiki/Grey_wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Grey wolf">grey wolf</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Grizzly_bear" title="Grizzly bear">grizzly bear</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/American_black_bear" title="American black bear">American black bear</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Caribou" class="mw-redirect" title="Caribou">caribou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moose" title="Moose">moose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">wapiti (elk)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odocoileus" title="Odocoileus">Odocoileus</a> spp.) (H), <a href="/wiki/Pronghorn" title="Pronghorn">pronghorn</a> (H), <a href="/wiki/White-lipped_peccary" title="White-lipped peccary">white-lipped peccary</a> (H), <a href="/wiki/Muskox" title="Muskox">muskox</a> (H), <a href="/wiki/Bighorn_sheep" title="Bighorn sheep">bighorn sheep</a> (H), and <a href="/wiki/Mountain_goat" title="Mountain goat">mountain goat</a> (H); the list of survivors also include species which were extirpated during the Quaternary extinction event, but recolonised at least part of their ranges during the mid-Holocene from South American relict populations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cougar" title="Cougar">cougar</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Giant_anteater" title="Giant anteater">giant anteater</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Collared_peccary" title="Collared peccary">collared peccary</a> (H), <a href="/wiki/Ocelot" title="Ocelot">ocelot</a> (C) and <a href="/wiki/Jaguarundi" title="Jaguarundi">jaguarundi</a> (C). All save the pronghorns and giant anteaters were descended from Asian ancestors that had evolved with human predators.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Pronghorns are the second-fastest land mammal (after the <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a>), which may have helped them elude hunters. More difficult to explain in the context of overkill is the survival of bison, since these animals first appeared in North America less than 240,000 years ago and so were geographically removed from human predators for a sizeable period of time.<a href="#cite_note-Belletal.200422-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-ScottandCox200822-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sandersetal.200922-75">[75]</a> Because <a href="/wiki/Ancient_bison" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient bison">ancient bison</a> evolved into living bison,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> there was no continent-wide extinction of bison at the end of the Pleistocene (although the genus was regionally extirpated in many areas). The survival of bison into the Holocene and recent times is therefore inconsistent with the overkill scenario. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]By the end of the Pleistocene, when humans first entered North America, these large animals had been geographically separated from intensive human hunting for more than 200,000 years. Given this enormous span of geologic time, bison would almost certainly have been very nearly as naive as native North American large mammals.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-American culture associated with the <a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis people</a> (q.v.), who were thought to use <a href="/wiki/Atlatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlatl">spear throwers</a> to kill large animals. The chief criticism of the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" has been that the human population at the time was too small and/or not sufficiently widespread geographically to have been capable of such ecologically significant impacts. This criticism does not mean that <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a> explaining the extinction are automatically to be preferred by default, however, any more than weaknesses in climate change arguments can be taken as supporting overkill. Some form of a combination of both factors could be plausible, and overkill would be a lot easier to achieve large-scale extinction with an already stressed population due to climate change. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippidion_23.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hippidion_23.JPG/220px-Hippidion_23.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hippidion_23.JPG/330px-Hippidion_23.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hippidion_23.JPG/440px-Hippidion_23.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>Fossil of <a href="/wiki/Hippidion" title="Hippidion">Hippidion</a>, a genus of horse native to South America.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/220px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/330px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/440px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Macrauchenia" title="Macrauchenia">Macrauchenia</a>, a member of the extinct order <a href="/wiki/Litopterna" title="Litopterna">Litopterna</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg/220px-Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg/330px-Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg/440px-Em_-_Toxodon_platensis_-_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4556" data-file-height="3038" /></a><figcaption>Skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Toxodon" title="Toxodon">Toxodon</a>, a member of the extinct order <a href="/wiki/Notoungulata" title="Notoungulata">Notoungulata</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_American_Museum_journal_(c1900-(1918))_(Aenocyon_dirus).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg/220px-The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg/330px-The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg/440px-The_American_Museum_journal_%28c1900-%281918%29%29_%28Aenocyon_dirus%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Dire_wolf" title="Dire wolf">Dire wolf</a> (Aenocyon dirus) </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arctotherium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Arctotherium.jpg/220px-Arctotherium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Arctotherium.jpg/330px-Arctotherium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Arctotherium.jpg/440px-Arctotherium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1635" data-file-height="1361" /></a><figcaption>Life restoration of <a href="/wiki/Arctotherium" title="Arctotherium">Arctotherium</a> bonariense</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvieronius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cuvieronius.jpg/220px-Cuvieronius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cuvieronius.jpg/330px-Cuvieronius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cuvieronius.jpg/440px-Cuvieronius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="904" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Gomphothere" title="Gomphothere">gomphothere</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuvieronius" title="Cuvieronius">Cuvieronius</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG/220px-Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG/330px-Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG/440px-Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Skeleton of the giant <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloth" title="Ground sloth">ground sloth</a> <a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doedicurus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Doedicurus_BW.jpg/220px-Doedicurus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Doedicurus_BW.jpg/330px-Doedicurus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Doedicurus_BW.jpg/440px-Doedicurus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Glyptodont" title="Glyptodont">glyptodont</a> <a href="/wiki/Doedicurus" title="Doedicurus">Doedicurus</a> clavicaudatus, distributed in the <a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">temperate savannah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco" title="Gran Chaco">woodland</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg/220px-Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg/330px-Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg/440px-Panochthus_frenzelianus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Fossil reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Panochthus" title="Panochthus">Panochthus frenzelianus</a> with metal model</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smilodon_populator_fossil,_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg/220px-Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg/330px-Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg/440px-Smilodon_populator_fossil%2C_Tellus_Science_Museum_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Fossil of <a href="/wiki/Smilodon" title="Smilodon">Smilodon populator</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_South_American_animals_extinct_in_the_Holocene" title="List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene">List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene</a></div> South America suffered among the worst losses of the continents, with around 83% of its megafauna going extinct.<a href="#cite_note-AssessingTheCauses-10">[10]</a> These extinctions postdate the arrival of modern humans in South America around 15,000 years ago. Both human and climatic factors have been attributed as factors in the extinctions by various authors.<a href="#cite_note-LatePleistoceneSouthAmericanMegafaunalExtinctionsFishtail2-78">[78]</a> Although some megafauna has been historically suggested to have survived into the early Holocene based on radiocarbon dates this may be the result of dating errors due to contamination.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30854426-79">[79]</a> The extinctions are coincident with the end of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Cold_Reversal" title="Antarctic Cold Reversal">Antarctic Cold Reversal</a> (a cooling period earlier and less severe than the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas) and the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Fishtail_projectile_point" title="Fishtail projectile point">Fishtail projectile points</a>, which became widespread across South America. Fishtail projectile points are thought to have been used in big game hunting, though direct evidence of exploitation of extinct megafauna by humans is rare,<a href="#cite_note-LatePleistoceneSouthAmericanMegafaunalExtinctionsFishtail2-78">[78]</a> though megafauna exploitation has been documented at a number of sites.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30854426-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Fishtail points rapidly disappeared after the extinction of the megafauna, and were replaced by other styles more suited to hunting smaller prey.<a href="#cite_note-LatePleistoceneSouthAmericanMegafaunalExtinctionsFishtail2-78">[78]</a> Some authors have proposed the "Broken Zig-Zag" model, where human hunting and climate change causing a reduction in open habitats preferred by megafauna were synergistic factors in megafauna extinction in South America.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <ul><li>Ungulates <ul><li>Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Cervidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervidae">Cervidae</a> (deer) spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morenelaphus" title="Morenelaphus">Morenelaphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifer" title="Antifer">Antifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agalmaceros_blicki" class="mw-redirect" title="Agalmaceros blicki">Agalmaceros blicki</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> (potentially synonym of modern <a href="/wiki/White-tailed_deer" title="White-tailed deer">white-tailed deer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odocoileus" title="Odocoileus">Odocoileus</a> salinae<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turvey2-85">[85]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Camelidae" title="Camelidae">Camelidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eulamaops" title="Eulamaops">Eulamaops</a></li> <li>Stilt legged llama <a href="/wiki/Hemiauchenia" title="Hemiauchenia">Hemiauchenia</a></li> <li>Stout legged llama <a href="/wiki/Palaeolama" title="Palaeolama">Palaeolama</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Odd-Toed Hoofed Mammals <ul><li>Several species of tapirs (<a href="/wiki/Tapir" title="Tapir">Tapiridae</a>) <ul><li>Tapirus cristatellus</li></ul></li> <li>All Pleistocene wild horse genera (<a href="/wiki/Equidae" title="Equidae">Equidae</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equus_neogeus" title="Equus neogeus">Equus neogeus</a><a href="#cite_note-DispersalOfEquus-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-HumanEcologyOfBeringia-32">[32]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippidion" title="Hippidion">Hippidion</a><a href="#cite_note-DispersalOfEquus-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-HumanEcologyOfBeringia-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <ul><li>Hippidion devillei</li> <li>Hippidion principale</li> <li>Hippidion saldiasi</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>All remaining <a href="/wiki/Meridiungulata" class="mw-redirect" title="Meridiungulata">Meridiungulata</a> genera <ul><li>Order <a href="/wiki/Litopterna" title="Litopterna">Litopterna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macraucheniidae" title="Macraucheniidae">Macraucheniidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrauchenia" title="Macrauchenia">Macrauchenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macraucheniopsis" title="Macraucheniopsis">Macraucheniopsis</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenorhinotherium" title="Xenorhinotherium">Xenorhinotherium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proterotheriidae" title="Proterotheriidae">Proterotheriidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolicaphrium" title="Neolicaphrium">Neolicaphrium recens</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Order <a href="/wiki/Notoungulata" title="Notoungulata">Notoungulata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxodontidae" title="Toxodontidae">Toxodontidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piauhytherium" title="Piauhytherium">Piauhytherium</a> (Some authors regard this taxon as <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_synonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic synonym">synonym</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trigodonops&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trigodonops (page does not exist)">Trigodonops</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotoxodon" title="Mixotoxodon">Mixotoxodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxodon" title="Toxodon">Toxodon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trigodonops&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trigodonops (page does not exist)">Trigodonops</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Primates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platyrrhini" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyrrhini">Platyrrhini</a> (New World monkeys) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atelidae" title="Atelidae">Atelidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protopithecus" title="Protopithecus">Protopithecus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caipora_bambuiorum" title="Caipora bambuiorum">Caipora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartelles" title="Cartelles">Cartelles</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alouatta_mauroi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alouatta mauroi (page does not exist)">Alouatta mauroi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Carnivora <ul><li>Feliformia <ul><li>Several <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">Felidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saber-toothed_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Saber-toothed cat">Saber-toothed cat</a> (Smilodon) spp.<a href="#cite_note-Kurtén_1990_158–169-92">[92]</a> <ul><li>Smilodon fatalis (northwestern South America)</li> <li>Smilodon populator (eastern and southern South America)</li></ul></li> <li>Patagonian jaguar (<a href="/wiki/Panthera_onca_mesembrina" title="Panthera onca mesembrina">Panthera onca mesembrina</a>) (some authors have suggested that these remains actually belong to the <a href="/wiki/American_lion" title="American lion">American lion</a> instead<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Caniformia <ul><li>Canidae <ul><li>Dire wolf (<a href="/wiki/Dire_wolf" title="Dire wolf">Aenocyon dirus</a>)</li> <li>Nehring's wolf (<a href="/wiki/Canis_nehringi" title="Canis nehringi">Canis nehringi</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocyon" title="Protocyon">Protocyon</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li> <li>Pleistocene bush dog (<a href="/wiki/Speothos_pacivorus" title="Speothos pacivorus">Speothos pacivorus</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Ursidae (bears) <ul><li>South American short-faced bear (<a href="/wiki/Arctotherium" title="Arctotherium">Arctotherium</a> spp.) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arctotherium_bonairense&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arctotherium bonairense (page does not exist)">Arctotherium bonairense</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arctotherium_tarijense&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arctotherium tarijense (page does not exist)">Arctotherium tarijense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctotherium_wingei" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctotherium wingei">Arctotherium wingei</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Rodents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neochoerus" title="Neochoerus">Neochoerus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bats <ul><li>Giant vampire bat (<a href="/wiki/Desmodus_draculae" title="Desmodus draculae">Desmodus draculae</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Proboscidea (elephants and relatives) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gomphotheridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gomphotheridae">Gomphotheridae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuvieronius" title="Cuvieronius">Cuvieronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notiomastodon" title="Notiomastodon">Notiomastodon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Xenarthrans <ul><li>All remaining <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloth" title="Ground sloth">ground sloth</a> genera <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatheriidae" title="Megatheriidae">Megatheriidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eremotherium" title="Eremotherium">Eremotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nothrotheriidae" title="Nothrotheriidae">Nothrotheriidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nothropus" title="Nothropus">Nothropus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nothrotherium" title="Nothrotherium">Nothrotherium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalonychidae" title="Megalonychidae">Megalonychidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahytherium" title="Ahytherium">Ahytherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australonyx" title="Australonyx">Australonyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabolotherium" title="Diabolotherium">Diabolotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megistonyx" title="Megistonyx">Megistonyx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylodontidae" title="Mylodontidae">Mylodontidae</a> spp. (including <a href="/wiki/Scelidotheriinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Scelidotheriinae">Scelidotheriinae</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catonyx" title="Catonyx">Catonyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossotherium" title="Glossotherium">Glossotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lestodon" title="Lestodon">Lestodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylodon" title="Mylodon">Mylodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scelidotherium" title="Scelidotherium">Scelidotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scelidodon" title="Scelidodon">Scelidodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylodonopsis" title="Mylodonopsis">Mylodonopsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocnotherium" title="Ocnotherium">Ocnotherium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valgipes" title="Valgipes">Valgipes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>All remaining <a href="/wiki/Glyptodontinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyptodontinae">Glyptodontinae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doedicurus" title="Doedicurus">Doedicurus</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glyptodon" title="Glyptodon">Glyptodon/Chlamydotherium</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-2010-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heteroglyptodon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heteroglyptodon (page does not exist)">Heteroglyptodon</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplophorus" title="Hoplophorus">Hoplophorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomaphorus" title="Lomaphorus">Lomaphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neosclerocalyptus" title="Neosclerocalyptus">Neosclerocalyptus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuryurus" title="Neuryurus">Neuryurus</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-2010-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panochthus" title="Panochthus">Panochthus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parapanochthus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parapanochthus (page does not exist)">Parapanochthus</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-2010-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxhaplous" title="Plaxhaplous">Plaxhaplous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerocalyptus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerocalyptus">Sclerocalyptus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Dasypodidae" title="Dasypodidae">Dasypodidae</a> spp. <ul><li>Beautiful armadillo (<a href="/wiki/Dasypus_bellus" title="Dasypus bellus">Dasypus bellus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutatus" title="Eutatus">Eutatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachyarmatherium" title="Pachyarmatherium">Pachyarmatherium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propaopus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Propaopus (page does not exist)">Propaopus</a><a href="#cite_note-Elias-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turvey2-85">[85]</a></li></ul></li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Pampatheriidae" title="Pampatheriidae">Pampatheriidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holmesina" title="Holmesina">Holmesina</a> (et 'Chlamytherium occidentale')<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pampatherium" title="Pampatherium">Pampatherium</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26083486-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonnicinctus" title="Tonnicinctus">Tonnicinctus</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26083486-105">[105]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Birds <ul><li>Various <a href="/wiki/Caracarinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Caracarinae">Caracarinae</a> spp. <ul><li>Venezuelan caracara (<a href="/wiki/Caracara_major" title="Caracara major">Caracara major</a>)<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>Seymour's caracara (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Caracara_seymouri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caracara seymouri (page does not exist)">Caracara seymouri</a>)<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></li> <li>Peruvian caracara (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Milvago_brodkorbi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Milvago brodkorbi (page does not exist)">Milvago brodkorbi</a>)<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Cathartidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathartidae">Cathartidae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pampagyps_imperator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pampagyps imperator (page does not exist)">Pampagyps imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geronogyps_reliquus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geronogyps reliquus (page does not exist)">Geronogyps reliquus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingegyps" title="Wingegyps">Wingegyps</a> cartellei</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistovultur" title="Pleistovultur">Pleistovultur</a> nevesi</li></ul></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Tadorninae" title="Tadorninae">Tadorninae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neochen_debilis" title="Neochen debilis">Neochen debilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neochen_pugil" title="Neochen pugil">Neochen pugil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilopterus" title="Psilopterus">Psilopterus</a> (small terror bird remains dated to the Late Pleistocene,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> but these are disputed)<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Reptiles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">Crocs & Gators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caiman_venezuelensis" title="Caiman venezuelensis">Caiman venezuelensis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testudines" class="mw-redirect" title="Testudines">Testudines</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chelonoidis_lutzae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chelonoidis lutzae (page does not exist)">Chelonoidis lutzae</a> (Argentina)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltocephalus_maturin" title="Peltocephalus maturin">Peltocephalus maturin</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sahul_(Australia-New_Guinea)_and_the_Pacific">Sahul (Australia-New Guinea) and the Pacific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sahul (Australia-New Guinea) and the Pacific">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australia-New_Guinea_species_extinct_in_the_Holocene" title="List of Australia-New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene">List of Australia-New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_species_extinct_in_the_Holocene" title="List of New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene">List of New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_animals_extinct_in_the_Holocene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Oceanian animals extinct in the Holocene">List of Oceanian animals extinct in the Holocene</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg/220px-Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg/330px-Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg/440px-Diprotodon_sculpture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a hippopotamus-sized <a href="/wiki/Diprotodon" title="Diprotodon">Diprotodon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zygomaturus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Zygomaturus_BW.jpg/220px-Zygomaturus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Zygomaturus_BW.jpg/330px-Zygomaturus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Zygomaturus_BW.jpg/440px-Zygomaturus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Zygomaturus" title="Zygomaturus">Zygomaturus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg/220px-Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg/330px-Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg/440px-Zaglossus_hacketti_A6_digital.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the giant <a href="/wiki/Echidna" title="Echidna">echidna</a> <a href="/wiki/Murrayglossus" title="Murrayglossus">Murrayglossus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genyornis_newtoni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Genyornis_newtoni.jpg/220px-Genyornis_newtoni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Genyornis_newtoni.jpg/330px-Genyornis_newtoni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Genyornis_newtoni.jpg/440px-Genyornis_newtoni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="847" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Genyornis" title="Genyornis">Genyornis newtoni</a></figcaption></figure> A scarcity of reliably dated megafaunal bone deposits has made it difficult to construct timelines for megafaunal extinctions in certain areas, leading to a divide among researches about when and how megafaunal species went extinct.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> There are at least three hypotheses regarding the extinction of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australian megafauna</a>: <ol><li>that they went extinct with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> on the continent,</li> <li>that they went extinct due to natural climate change.</li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marsupial_lion_(Thylacoleo_carnifex).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png/220px-Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png/330px-Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png/440px-Marsupial_lion_%28Thylacoleo_carnifex%29.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Life restoration of <a href="/wiki/Thylacoleo_carnifex" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylacoleo carnifex">Thylacoleo carnifex</a> (also known as the marsupial lion)</figcaption></figure> This theory is based on evidence of megafauna surviving until 40,000 years ago, a full 30,000 years after homo sapiens first landed in Australia, and thus that the two groups coexisted for a long time. Evidence of these animals existing at that time come from fossil records and ocean sediment. To begin with, sediment core drilled in the Indian Ocean off the SW coast of Australia indicate the existence of a fungus called Sporormiella, which survived off the dung of plant-eating mammals. The abundance of these spores in the sediment prior to 45,000 years ago indicates that many large mammals existed in the southwest Australian landscape until that point. The sediment data also indicates that the megafauna population collapsed within a few thousand years, around the 45,000 years ago, suggesting a rapid extinction event.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In addition, fossils found at South Walker Creek, which is the youngest megafauna site in northern Australia, indicate that at least 16 species of megafauna survived there until 40,000 years ago. Furthermore, there is no firm evidence of homo sapiens living at South Walker Creek 40,000 years ago, therefore no human cause can be attributed to the extinction of these megafauna. However, there is evidence of major environmental deterioration of South Water Creek 40,000 years ago, which may have caused the extinct event. These changes include increased fire, reduction in grasslands, and the loss of fresh water.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The same environmental deterioration is seen across Australia at the time, further strengthening the climate change argument. Australia's climate at the time could best be described as an overall drying of the landscape due to lower precipitation, resulting in less fresh water availability and more drought conditions. Overall, this led to changes in vegetation, increased fires, overall reduction in grasslands, and a greater competition for already scarce fresh water.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> These environmental changes proved to be too much for the Australian megafauna to cope with, causing the extinction of 90% of megafauna species. <ol><li>The third hypothesis shared by some scientists is that human impacts and natural climate changes led to the extinction of Australian megafauna. About 75% of Australia is semi-arid or arid, so it makes sense that megafauna species used the same fresh water resources as humans. This competition could have led to more hunting of megafauna.<a href="#cite_note-ClimateHumanInteraction-118">[118]</a> Furthermore, Homo sapiens used fire agriculture[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] to burn impassable[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] land. This further diminished the already disappearing grassland which contained plants that were a key dietary component of herbivorous megafauna. While there is no scientific consensus on this, it is plausible that homo sapiens and natural climate change had a combined impact. Overall, there is a great deal of evidence for humans being the culprit, but by ruling out climate change completely as a cause of the Australian megafauna extinction we are not getting the whole picture. The climate change in Australia 45,000 years ago destabilized the ecosystem, making it particularly vulnerable to hunting and fire agriculture by humans; this is probably what led to the extinction of the Australian megafauna.</li></ol> Several studies provide evidence that climate change caused megafaunal extinction during the Pleistocene in Australia. One group of researchers analyzed fossilized teeth found at <a href="/wiki/Cuddie_Springs" title="Cuddie Springs">Cuddie Springs</a> in southeastern Australia. By analyzing <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen isotopes">oxygen isotopes</a>, they measured aridity, and by analyzing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon isotopes">carbon isotopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dental_microwear" title="Dental microwear">dental microwear</a> texture analysis, they assessed megafaunal diets and vegetation. During the middle Pleistocene, southeastern Australia was dominated by browsers, including fauna that consumed <a href="/wiki/C4_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="C4 plants">C4 plants</a>. By the late Pleistocene, the C4 plant dietary component had decreased considerably. This shift may have been caused by increasingly arid conditions, which may have caused dietary restrictions. Other isotopic analyses of eggshells and wombat teeth also point to a decline of C4 vegetation after 45 Ka. This decline in C4 vegetation is coincident with increasing aridity. Increasingly arid conditions in southeastern Australia during the late Pleistocene may have stressed megafauna, and contributed to their decline.<a href="#cite_note-australia-119">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png/220px-Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png/330px-Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png/440px-Procoptodon_goliah_NT.png 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Procoptodon" title="Procoptodon">Procoptodon</a> goliath reconstruction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg/220px-Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg/330px-Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg/440px-Xenorhynchopsis_tibialis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Xenorhynchopsis" title="Xenorhynchopsis">Xenorhynchopsis tibialis</a> (life reconstruction) was one of four species of flamingo present in Australia in the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>, all of which are now either extinct or extirpated</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/220px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/330px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/440px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Megalania" title="Megalania">Megalania</a> skeleton, <a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Museum" title="Melbourne Museum">Melbourne Museum</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Sahul</a> (a former continent composed of <a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Australia" title="Fauna of Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_New_Guinea" title="Fauna of New Guinea">New Guinea</a>), the sudden and extensive spate of extinctions occurred earlier than in the rest of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Lourandos2-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacPhee2-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tyndale-Biscoe2-123">[123]</a> Most evidence points to a 20,000 year period after human arrival circa 63,000 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-Marwick-124">[124]</a> but scientific argument continues as to the exact date range.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In the rest of the Pacific (other <a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a> islands such as New Caledonia, and <a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceania</a>) although in some respects far later, endemic fauna also usually perished quickly upon the arrival of humans in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">Marsupials</a> <ul><li>Various members of <a href="/wiki/Diprotodontidae" title="Diprotodontidae">Diprotodontidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diprotodon" title="Diprotodon">Diprotodon</a> (largest known marsupial)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulitherium" title="Hulitherium">Hulitherium</a> tomasetti</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maokopia" title="Maokopia">Maokopia</a> ronaldi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomaturus" title="Zygomaturus">Zygomaturus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palorchestes" title="Palorchestes">Palorchestes</a> ("marsupial <a href="/wiki/Tapir" title="Tapir">tapir</a>")</li> <li>Various members of <a href="/wiki/Wombat" title="Wombat">Vombatidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lasiorhinus_angustidens" title="Lasiorhinus angustidens">Lasiorhinus angustidens</a> (giant wombat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phascolonus" title="Phascolonus">Phascolonus</a> (giant wombat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramasayia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramasayia">Ramasayia</a> magna (giant wombat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vombatus_hacketti" title="Vombatus hacketti">Vombatus hacketti</a> (Hackett's wombat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warendja" title="Warendja">Warendja</a> wakefieldi (dwarf wombat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedophascolomys" title="Sedophascolomys">Sedophascolomys</a> (giant wombat)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_koala" title="Giant koala">Phascolarctos stirtoni</a> (giant koala)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsupial_lion" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupial lion">Marsupial lion</a> (Thylacoleo carnifex)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borungaboodie" title="Borungaboodie">Borungaboodie</a> (giant potoroo)</li> <li>Various members of <a href="/wiki/Macropodidae" title="Macropodidae">Macropodidae</a> (kangaroos, wallabies, etc.) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Procoptodon" title="Procoptodon">Procoptodon</a> (short-faced kangaroos) e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Procoptodon_goliah" class="mw-redirect" title="Procoptodon goliah">Procoptodon goliah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthenurus" title="Sthenurus">Sthenurus</a> (giant kangaroo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simosthenurus" title="Simosthenurus">Simosthenurus</a> (giant kangaroo)</li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Macropus" title="Macropus">Macropus</a> (giant <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo" title="Kangaroo">kangaroo</a>) spp. e.g. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macropus_ferragus" title="Macropus ferragus">Macropus ferragus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macropus_titan" title="Macropus titan">Macropus titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macropus_pearsoni" title="Macropus pearsoni">Macropus pearsoni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protemnodon" title="Protemnodon">Protemnodon</a> spp. (giant wallaby)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Troposodon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Troposodon (page does not exist)">Troposodon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wallaby" title="Wallaby">wallaby</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Lourandos2-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacPhee2-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-austhrutime-megafauna-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.anaspides.net-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Webb-2013-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Long-129">[129]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohra_(mammal)" title="Bohra (mammal)">Bohra</a> (giant <a href="/wiki/Tree_kangaroo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree kangaroo">tree kangaroo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propleopus" title="Propleopus">Propleopus oscillans</a> (omnivorous, giant <a href="/wiki/Musky_rat-kangaroo" title="Musky rat-kangaroo">musky rat-kangaroo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nombe" title="Nombe">Nombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruus" title="Congruus">Congruus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various forms of <a href="/wiki/Sarcophilus" title="Sarcophilus">Sarcophilus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_devil" title="Tasmanian devil">Tasmanian devil</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarcophilus_laniarius" title="Sarcophilus laniarius">Sarcophilus laniarius</a> (25% larger than modern species, unclear if it is actually a distinct species from living Tasmanian devil<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarcophilus_moornaensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarcophilus moornaensis (page does not exist)">Sarcophilus moornaensis</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">Monotremes</a>: egg-laying mammals. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echidna" title="Echidna">Echidna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murrayglossus_hacketti" class="mw-redirect" title="Murrayglossus hacketti">Murrayglossus hacketti</a> (giant echidna)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalibgwilia" title="Megalibgwilia">Megalibgwilia ramsayi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Birds <ul><li>Pygmy Cassowary (<a href="/wiki/Casuarius_lydekkeri" title="Casuarius lydekkeri">Casuarius lydekkeri</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genyornis" title="Genyornis">Genyornis</a> (a two-meter-tall (6.6 ft) <a href="/wiki/Dromornithidae" title="Dromornithidae">dromornithid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_malleefowl" title="Giant malleefowl">Giant malleefowl</a> (Progura gallinacea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptogyps" title="Cryptogyps">Cryptogyps lacertosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoaetus" title="Dynatoaetus">Dynatoaetus gaffae</a></li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Phoenicopteridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicopteridae">Phoenicopteridae</a> spp. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenorhynchopsis" title="Xenorhynchopsis">Xenorhynchopsis</a> spp. (Australian flamingo)<a href="#cite_note-Bayly-1993-131">[131]</a></li> <li>Xenorhynchopsis minor</li> <li>Xenorhynchopsis tibialis</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Reptiles <ul><li>Crocs & Gators<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg/220px-Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg/330px-Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg/440px-Quinkana_timara_skull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2991" data-file-height="1857" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Quinkana" title="Quinkana">Quinkana</a> was one of the last surviving land crocodiles</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikanogavialis" title="Ikanogavialis">Ikanogavialis</a> (the last fully marine crocodilian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludirex" title="Paludirex">Paludirex</a> (Australian freshwater <a href="/wiki/Mekosuchine" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekosuchine">mekosuchine</a> crocodiian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinkana" title="Quinkana">Quinkana</a> (Australian terrestrial mekosuchine crocodilian, <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predator</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volia" title="Volia">Volia</a> (a two-to-three meter long mekosuchine crocodylian, apex predator of Pleistocene Fiji)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekosuchus" title="Mekosuchus">Mekosuchus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mekosuchus_inexpectatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekosuchus inexpectatus">Mekosuchus inexpectatus</a> (New Caledonian land crocodile)</li> <li>Mekosuchus kalpokasi (Vanuatu land crocodile)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus">Varanus</a> sp. (Pleistocene and Holocene New Caledonia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalania" title="Megalania">Megalania</a> (Varanus pricus) (a giant predatory monitor lizard comparable or larger than the Komodo dragon)</li> <li>Snakes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wonambi" title="Wonambi">Wonambi</a> (a five-to-six-metre-long Australian constrictor <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Several spp. of <a href="/wiki/Meiolaniidae" title="Meiolaniidae">Meiolaniidae</a> (giant armoured turtles) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiolania" title="Meiolania">Meiolania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninjemys" title="Ninjemys">Ninjemys</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_research">History of research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History of research">edit</a>]</div> The megafaunal extinctions were already recognized as a distinct phenomenon by some scientists in the 19th century:<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-133">[133]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">It is impossible to reflect without the deepest astonishment, on the changed state of [South America]. Formerly it must have swarmed with great monsters, like the southern parts of Africa, but now we find only the tapir, guanaco, armadillo, capybara; mere pigmies compared to antecedents races... Since their loss, no very great physical changes can have taken place in the nature of the Country. What then has exterminated so many living creatures?<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, The Voyage of the Beagle (1834)</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It is clear, therefore, that we are now in an altogether exceptional period of the earth's history. We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared; and it is, no doubt, a much better world for us now they have gone. Yet it is surely a marvellous fact, and one that has hardly been sufficiently dwelt upon, this sudden dying out of so many large mammalia, not in one place only but over half the land surface of the globe. We cannot but believe that there must have been some physical cause for this great change; and it must have been a cause capable of acting almost simultaneously over large portions of the earth's surface, and one which, as far as the Tertiary period at least is concerned, was of an exceptional character.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, The geographical distribution of animals; with a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth's surface (1876)</cite></div></blockquote> Several decades later in his 1911 book The World of Life (published 2 years before his death), Wallace revisited the issue of the Pleistocene megafauna extinctions, concluding that the extinctons were at least in part the result of human agency in combination with other factors.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Discussion of the topic became more widespread during the 20th century, particularly following the proposal of the "overkill hypothesis" by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Schultz_Martin" title="Paul Schultz Martin">Paul Schultz Martin</a> during the 1960s. By the end of the 20th century, two "camps" of researchers had emerged on the topic, one supporting climate change, the other supporting human hunting as the primary cause of the extinctions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hunting">Hunting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hunting">edit</a>]</div> The hunting hypothesis suggests that humans hunted <a href="/wiki/Megaherbivore" title="Megaherbivore">megaherbivores</a> to extinction, which in turn caused the extinction of carnivores and scavengers which had preyed upon those animals.<a href="#cite_note-Martin1963-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin1967-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin1989-137">[137]</a> This hypothesis holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction. One variant, known as blitzkrieg, portrays this process as relatively quick. Some of the direct evidence for this includes: fossils of some megafauna found in conjunction with human remains, embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones, and European <a href="/wiki/Cave_paintings" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave paintings">cave paintings</a> that depict such hunting. <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeographical</a> evidence is also suggestive: the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity (the <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinos</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>) compared to other areas such as <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> without the earliest humans. The overkill hypothesis, a variant of the hunting hypothesis, was proposed in 1966 by Paul S. Martin,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Professor of Geosciences Emeritus at the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Laboratory" title="Desert Laboratory">Desert Laboratory</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona" title="University of Arizona">University of Arizona</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homo-Stammbaum,_Version_Stringer-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg/340px-Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg/510px-Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg/680px-Homo-Stammbaum%2C_Version_Stringer-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Despeciation" title="Despeciation">Despeciation</a> within the genus <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a>.</figcaption></figure> Circumstantially, the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight for this scenario.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-ClimateChangeNotToBlame-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-LinkedToHumansNotClimateChange-3">[3]</a> Radiocarbon dating has supported the plausibility of this correlation being reflective of causation.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations. The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 50,000 BP, well before the Last Glacial Maximum and before rises in temperature. The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling. In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America, South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality. The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burney-143">[143]</a> This phenomenon appears even within regions. The mammal extinction wave in Australia about 50,000 years ago coincides not with known climatic changes, but with the arrival of humans. In addition, large mammal species like the giant kangaroo <a href="/wiki/Protemnodon" title="Protemnodon">Protemnodon</a> appear to have succumbed sooner on the Australian mainland than on Tasmania, which was colonised by humans a few thousand years later.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> A study published in 2015 supported the hypothesis further by running several thousand scenarios that correlated the time windows in which each species is known to have become extinct with the arrival of humans on different continents or islands. This was compared against climate reconstructions for the last 90,000 years. The researchers found correlations of human spread and species extinction indicating that the <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human impact</a> was the main cause of the extinction, while climate change exacerbated the frequency of extinctions. The study, however, found an apparently low extinction rate in the fossil record of mainland Asia.<a href="#cite_note-uoe-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-eco-147">[147]</a> A 2020 study published in <a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a> found that human population size and/or specific human activities, not climate change, caused rapidly rising global mammal extinction rates during the past 126,000 years. Around 96% of all mammalian extinctions over this time period are attributable to human impacts. According to Tobias Andermann, lead author of the study, "these extinctions did not happen continuously and at constant pace. Instead, bursts of extinctions are detected across different continents at times when humans first reached them. More recently, the magnitude of human driven extinctions has picked up the pace again, this time on a global scale."<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-rapidrise-149">[149]</a> On a related note, the population declines of still extant megafauna during the Pleistocene have also been shown to correlate with human expansion rather than climate change.<a href="#cite_note-pmid37996436-16">[16]</a> The extinction's extreme bias towards larger animals further supports a relationship with human activity rather than climate change.<a href="#cite_note-HumanRangeExpansionNotClimateChange-150">[150]</a> There is evidence that the average size of mammalian fauna declined over the course of the Quaternary,<a href="#cite_note-BodySizeDowngrading-151">[151]</a> a phenomenon that was likely linked to disproportionate hunting of large animals by humans.<a href="#cite_note-Dembitzer-2022-5">[5]</a> Extinction through human hunting has been supported by archaeological finds of <a href="/wiki/Mammoths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammoths">mammoths</a> with projectile points embedded in their skeletons, by observations of modern naive animals allowing hunters to approach easily<a href="#cite_note-Eaters-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1984-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1997-154">[154]</a> and by computer models by Mosimann and Martin,<a href="#cite_note-Mosimann&Martin1975-155">[155]</a> and Whittington and Dyke,<a href="#cite_note-Whittington&Dyke984-156">[156]</a> and most recently by Alroy.<a href="#cite_note-Alroy2001-157">[157]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif/260px-Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif/390px-Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Extinctions_Africa_Austrailia_NAmerica_Madagascar.gif 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>The timing of extinctions follows the "March of Man"</figcaption></figure> A number of objections have been raised regarding the hunting hypothesis. Notable among them is the sparsity of evidence of human hunting of megafauna.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> There is no archeological evidence that in North America megafauna other than mammoths, mastodons, <a href="/wiki/Gomphothere" title="Gomphothere">gomphotheres</a> and bison were hunted, despite the fact that, for example, camels and horses are very frequently reported in fossil history.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Overkill proponents, however, say this is due to the fast extinction process in North America and the low probability of animals with signs of butchery to be preserved.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The majority of North American taxa have too sparse a fossil record to accurately assess the frequency of human hunting of them.<a href="#cite_note-AssessingTheCauses-10">[10]</a> A study by Surovell and Grund concluded "archaeological sites dating to the time of the coexistence of humans and extinct fauna are rare. Those that preserve bone are considerably more rare, and of those, only a very few show unambiguous evidence of human hunting of any type of prey whatsoever."<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eugene_S._Hunn" title="Eugene S. Hunn">Eugene S. Hunn</a> suggests that the birthrate in hunter-gatherer societies is generally too low, that too much effort is involved in the bringing down of a large animal by a hunting party, and that in order for hunter-gatherers to have brought about the extinction of megafauna simply by hunting them to death, an extraordinary amount of meat would have had to have been wasted.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Proponents of hunting as a cause of the extinctions argue that statistical modelling validates that relatively low-level hunting can have significant effect on megafauna populations due to their slow life cycles,<a href="#cite_note-:4-165">[165]</a> and that hunting can cause top-down forcing <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascade</a> events that destabilize ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second-order_predation">Second-order predation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Second-order predation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CombinedHypothesisPleistoceneExtinction.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/CombinedHypothesisPleistoceneExtinction.gif/170px-CombinedHypothesisPleistoceneExtinction.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="491" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/CombinedHypothesisPleistoceneExtinction.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>Combination Hypotheses: Climate Change, Overkill + Climate Change, Second-Order Predation + Climate Change</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SingleHypothesisPleistoceneExtinctions.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SingleHypothesisPleistoceneExtinctions.gif/170px-SingleHypothesisPleistoceneExtinctions.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/SingleHypothesisPleistoceneExtinctions.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Overkill Hypothesis and Second-Order Predation</figcaption></figure>The Second-Order Predation Hypothesis says that as humans entered the New World they continued their policy of killing predators, which had been successful in the Old World but because they were more efficient and because the fauna, both herbivores and carnivores, were more naive, they killed off enough carnivores to upset the <a href="/wiki/Ecological_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological equilibrium">ecological balance</a> of the continent, causing <a href="/wiki/Overpopulation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Overpopulation (biology)">overpopulation</a>, environmental exhaustion, and environmental collapse. The hypothesis accounts for changes in animal, plant, and human populations. The scenario is as follows: <ul><li>After the arrival of H. sapiens in the New World, existing predators must share the prey populations with this new predator. Because of this competition, populations of original, or first-order, predators cannot find enough food; they are in direct competition with humans.</li> <li>Second-order predation begins as humans begin to kill predators.</li> <li>Prey populations are no longer well controlled by predation. Killing of nonhuman predators by H. sapiens reduces their numbers to a point where these predators no longer regulate the size of the prey populations.</li> <li>Lack of regulation by first-order predators triggers boom-and-bust cycles in prey populations. Prey populations expand and consequently overgraze and over-browse the land. Soon the environment is no longer able to support them. As a result, many herbivores starve. Species that rely on the slowest recruiting food become extinct, followed by species that cannot extract the maximum benefit from every bit of their food.</li> <li>Boom-bust cycles in herbivore populations change the nature of the vegetative environment, with consequent climatic impacts on relative humidity and continentality. Through <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> and overbrowsing, mixed parkland becomes grassland, and climatic <a href="/wiki/Continentality" class="mw-redirect" title="Continentality">continentality</a> increases.</li></ul> The second-order predation hypothesis has been supported by a computer model, the Pleistocene extinction model (PEM), which, using the same assumptions and values for all variables (herbivore population, herbivore recruitment rates, food needed per human, herbivore hunting rates, etc.) other than those for hunting of predators. It compares the overkill hypothesis (predator hunting = 0) with second-order predation (predator hunting varied between 0.01 and 0.05 for different runs). The findings are that second-order predation is more consistent with extinction than is overkill<a href="#cite_note-WhitneySmith2004-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-WhitneySmith2009-168">[168]</a> (results graph at left). The Pleistocene extinction model is the only test of multiple hypotheses and is the only model to specifically test combination hypotheses by artificially introducing sufficient climate change to cause extinction. When overkill and climate change are combined they balance each other out. Climate change reduces the number of plants, overkill removes animals, therefore fewer plants are eaten. Second-order predation combined with climate change exacerbates the effect of climate change.<a href="#cite_note-WhitneySmith2006-169">[169]</a> (results graph at right). The second-order predation hypothesis is further supported by the observation above that there was a massive increase in bison populations.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> However, this hypothesis has been criticised on the grounds that the multispecies model produces a mass extinction through indirect competition between herbivore species: small species with high reproductive rates subsidize predation on large species with low reproductive rates.<a href="#cite_note-Alroy2001-157">[157]</a> All prey species are lumped in the Pleistocene extinction model. Also, the control of population sizes by predators is not fully supported by observations of modern ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The hypothesis further assumes decreases in vegetation due to climate change, but deglaciation doubled the habitable area of North America. Any vegetational changes that did occur failed to cause almost any extinctions of small vertebrates, and they are more narrowly distributed on average, which detractors cite as evidence against the hypothesis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competition_for_water">Competition for water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Competition for water">edit</a>]</div> In southeastern Australia, the scarcity of water during the interval in which humans arrived in Australia suggests that human competition with megafauna for precious water sources may have played a role in the extinction of the latter.<a href="#cite_note-ClimateHumanInteraction-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landscape_alteration">Landscape alteration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Landscape alteration">edit</a>]</div> One consequence of the colonisation by humans of lands previously uninhabited by them may have been the introduction of new fire regimes because of extensive fire use by humans.<a href="#cite_note-StateOfTheDebate-7">[7]</a> There is evidence that anthropogenic fire use had major impacts on the local environments in both Australia<a href="#cite_note-TropicalAustralia-6">[6]</a> and North America.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when scientists first realized that there had been glacial and <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">interglacial</a> ages, and that they were somehow associated with the prevalence or disappearance of certain animals, they surmised that the termination of the Pleistocene <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a> might be an explanation for the extinctions. The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between 15,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a> and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions. According to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_glaciation" title="Wisconsin glaciation">Wisconsin ice sheet</a> could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced <a href="/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface area to volume ratio">surface area-to-volume ratio</a>, would have fared worse than small mammals. A study covering the past 56,000 years indicates that rapid warming events with temperature changes of up to 16 °C (29 °F) had an important impact on the extinction of megafauna. Ancient DNA and radiocarbon data indicates that local genetic populations were replaced by others within the same species or by others within the same genus. Survival of populations was dependent on the existence of <a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugia</a> and long distance dispersals, which may have been disrupted by human hunters.<a href="#cite_note-cooper2015-173">[173]</a> Other scientists have proposed that increasingly extreme weather—hotter summers and colder winters—referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Continentality" class="mw-redirect" title="Continentality">continentality</a>", or related changes in rainfall caused the extinctions. It has been shown that vegetation changed from mixed <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodland</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aspen_parkland" title="Aspen parkland">parkland</a> to separate <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a> and woodland.<a href="#cite_note-Birks1973-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Birks_&_Birks1980-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davis1976-176">[176]</a> This may have affected the kinds of food available. Shorter growing seasons may have caused the extinction of large herbivores and the dwarfing of many others. In this case, as observed, bison and other large <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a> would have fared better than horses, elephants and other <a href="/wiki/Monogastric" title="Monogastric">monogastrics</a>, because ruminants are able to extract more nutrition from limited quantities of high-<a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">fiber</a> food and better able to deal with anti-herbivory toxins.<a href="#cite_note-Guthrie1988-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie1989-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoppe1978-179">[179]</a> So, in general, when vegetation becomes more specialized, herbivores with less diet flexibility may be less able to find the mix of vegetation they need to sustain life and reproduce, within a given area. Increased continentality resulted in reduced and less predictable rainfall limiting the availability of plants necessary for energy and nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-Bryson1970-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graham_and_Lundelius1988-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-King_and_Saunders1988-182">[182]</a> It has been suggested that this change in rainfall restricted the amount of time favorable for reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-Axelrod1967-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slaughter1967-184">[184]</a> This could disproportionately harm large animals, since they have longer, more inflexible mating periods, and so may have produced young at unfavorable seasons (i.e., when sufficient food, water, or shelter was unavailable because of shifts in the growing season). In contrast, small mammals, with their shorter <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a>, shorter <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cycle">reproductive cycles</a>, and shorter <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a> periods, could have adjusted to the increased unpredictability of the climate, both as individuals and as species which allowed them to synchronize their reproductive efforts with conditions favorable for offspring survival. If so, smaller mammals would have lost fewer offspring and would have been better able to repeat the reproductive effort when circumstances once more favored offspring survival.<a href="#cite_note-Kilti1988-185">[185]</a> A study looking at the environmental conditions across Europe, Siberia and the Americas from 25,000 to 10,000 YBP found that prolonged warming events leading to deglaciation and maximum rainfall occurred just prior to the transformation of the rangelands that supported megaherbivores into widespread wetlands that supported herbivore-resistant plants. The study proposes that moisture-driven environmental change led to the megafaunal extinctions and that Africa's trans-equatorial position allowed rangeland to continue to exist between the deserts and the central forests, therefore fewer megafauna species became extinct there.<a href="#cite_note-cooper2015-173">[173]</a> Evidence in Southeast Asia, in contrast to Europe, Australia, and the Americas, suggests that climate change and an increasing sea level were significant factors in the extinction of several herbivorous species. Alterations in vegetation growth and new access routes for early humans and mammals to previously isolated, localized ecosystems were detrimental to select groups of fauna.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Some evidence from Europe also suggests climatic changes were responsible for extinctions there, as the individuals extinctions tended to occur during times of environmental change and did not correlate particularly well with human migrations.<a href="#cite_note-EuropeanPerspective-2">[2]</a> In Australia, some studies have suggested that extinctions of megafauna began before the peopling of the continent, favouring climate change as the driver.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> In Beringia, megafauna may have gone extinct because of particularly intense paludification and because the land connection between Eurasia and North America flooded before the Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated far enough to reopen the corridor between Beringia and the remainder of North America.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Woolly mammoths became extirpated from Beringia because of climatic factors, although human activity also played a synergistic role in their decline.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> In North America, a Radiocarbon-dated Event-Count (REC) modelling study found that megafaunal declines in North America correlated with climatic changes instead of human population expansion.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> In the North American Great Lakes region, the population declines of mastodons and mammoths have been found to correlate with climatic fluctuations during the Younger Dryas rather than human activity.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In the Argentine Pampas, the flooding of vast swathes of the once much larger Pampas grasslands may have played a role in the extinctions of its megafaunal assemblages.<a href="#cite_note-ArgentinePampasNewChronology-8">[8]</a> Critics object that since there were <a href="/wiki/File:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png" title="File:Five Myr Climate Change.png">multiple</a> glacial <a href="/wiki/File:Atmospheric_CO2_with_glaciers_cycles.gif" title="File:Atmospheric CO2 with glaciers cycles.gif">advances and withdrawals</a> in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna, it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial maximum would there be such extinctions. Proponents of climate change as the extinction event's cause like <a href="/wiki/David_J._Meltzer" title="David J. Meltzer">David J. Meltzer</a> suggest that the last deglaciation may have been markedly different from previous ones.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Also, one study suggests that the Pleistocene megafaunal composition may have differed markedly from that of earlier interglacials, making the Pleistocene populations particularly vulnerable to changes in their environment.<a href="#cite_note-Scott2010-193">[193]</a> Studies propose that the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial that we have seen for the last 10,000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacials, yet most of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases.<a href="#cite_note-Andersen1973-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth1980-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradely1985-196">[196]</a> In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on <a href="/wiki/Wrangel_Island" title="Wrangel Island">Wrangel Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul_Island_(Alaska)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Paul Island (Alaska)">St. Paul Island</a> survived in human-free <a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugia</a> despite changes in climate.<a href="#cite_note-Vartanyan1995-197">[197]</a> This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Critics have also identified a number of problems with the continentality hypotheses. Megaherbivores have prospered at other times of continental climate. For example, megaherbivores thrived in Pleistocene <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, which had and has a more continental climate than Pleistocene or modern (post-Pleistocene, interglacial) North America.<a href="#cite_note-Flereov1967-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frenzel1968-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-McDonald1989-200">[200]</a> The animals that became extinct actually should have prospered during the shift from mixed woodland-parkland to prairie, because their primary food source, grass, was increasing rather than decreasing.<a href="#cite_note-Birks_and_West1973-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-McDonald1989-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-McDonald_1981-202">[202]</a> Although the vegetation did become more spatially specialized, the amount of prairie and grass available increased, which would have been good for horses and for mammoths, and yet they became extinct. This criticism ignores the increased abundance and broad geographic extent of Pleistocene bison at the end of the Pleistocene, which would have increased competition for these resources in a manner not seen in any earlier interglacials.<a href="#cite_note-Scott2010-193">[193]</a> Although horses became extinct in the New World, they were successfully reintroduced by the Spanish in the 16th century—into a modern post-Pleistocene, interglacial climate. Today there are <a href="/wiki/Feral" title="Feral">feral</a> horses still living in those same environments. They find a sufficient mix of food to avoid toxins, they extract enough nutrition from forage to reproduce effectively and the timing of their gestation is not an issue. Of course, this criticism ignores the obvious fact that present-day horses are not competing for resources with ground sloths, mammoths, mastodons, camels, llamas, and bison. Similarly, mammoths survived the Pleistocene Holocene transition on isolated, uninhabited islands in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> until 4,000 to 7,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Burney1993-203">[203]</a> as well as on Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic.<a href="#cite_note-Vartanyan1993-204">[204]</a> Additionally, large mammals should have been able to migrate, permanently or seasonally, if they found the temperature too extreme, the breeding season too short, or the rainfall too sparse or unpredictable.<a href="#cite_note-Pennycuick1979-205">[205]</a> Seasons vary geographically. By migrating away from the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, herbivores could have found areas with growing seasons more favorable for finding food and breeding successfully. Modern-day <a href="/wiki/African_elephant" title="African elephant">African elephants</a> migrate during periods of <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> to places where there is apt to be water.<a href="#cite_note-Wing_&_Buss1970-206">[206]</a> Large animals also store more fat in their bodies than do medium-sized animals and this should have allowed them to compensate for extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability.<a href="#cite_note-Owen-Smith1992-207">[207]</a> Some evidence weighs against climate change as a valid hypothesis as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was probably fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Some evidence obtained from analysis of the tusks of <a href="/wiki/American_mastodon" class="mw-redirect" title="American mastodon">mastodons</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Lakes region (North America)">American Great Lakes region</a> appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher-211">[211]</a> It may be observed that neither the overkill nor the climate change hypotheses can fully explain events: <a href="/wiki/Browser_(herbivore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser (herbivore)">browsers</a>, mixed feeders and non-ruminant grazer species suffered most, while relatively more <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a> grazers survived.<a href="#cite_note-Ruminants:_Anatomy,_Behavior_and_Diseases-212">[212]</a> However, a broader variation of the overkill hypothesis may predict this, because changes in vegetation wrought by either Second Order Predation (see below)<a href="#cite_note-WhitneySmith2006-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> fire preferentially selects against browse species.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Disease">edit</a>]</div> The hyperdisease hypothesis, as advanced by Ross D. E. MacFee and Preston A. Marx, attributes the extinction of large mammals during the late Pleistocene to indirect effects of the newly arrived <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">aboriginal humans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MacPhee&Marx1997-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacPhee&Marx1998-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> In more recent times, disease has driven many vulnerable species to extinction; the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Avian_malaria" title="Avian malaria">avian malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avipoxvirus" title="Avipoxvirus">avipoxvirus</a>, for example, has greatly decreased the populations of the <a href="/wiki/Endemic_birds_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic birds of Hawaii">endemic birds of Hawaii</a>, with some going extinct.<a href="#cite_note-LaPointe_2012-217">[217]</a> The hyperdisease hypothesis proposes that humans or animals traveling with them (e.g., chickens or domestic dogs) introduced one or more highly <a href="/wiki/Virulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Virulent">virulent</a> diseases into vulnerable populations of native mammals, eventually causing extinctions. The extinction was biased toward larger-sized species because smaller species have greater resilience because of their life history traits (e.g., shorter gestation time, greater population sizes, etc.). Humans are thought to be the cause because other earlier immigrations of mammals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.<a href="#cite_note-MacPhee&Marx1997-214">[214]</a> A similar suggestion is that pathogens were transmitted by the expanding <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> via the domesticated <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dogs</a> they brought with them.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> A related theory proposes that a highly contagious <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a> disease similar to <a href="/wiki/Chronic_wasting_disease" title="Chronic wasting disease">chronic wasting disease</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scrapie" title="Scrapie">scrapie</a> that was capable of infecting a large number of species was the culprit. Animals weakened by this "superprion" would also have easily become reservoirs of viral and bacterial diseases as they succumbed to neurological degeneration from the prion, causing a cascade of different diseases to spread among various mammal species. This theory could potentially explain the prevalence of heterozygosity at codon 129 of the prion protein gene in humans, which has been speculated to be the result of natural selection against homozygous genotypes that were more susceptible to prion disease and thus potentially a tell-tale of a major prion pandemic that affected humans of or younger than reproductive age far in the past and disproportionately killed before they could reproduce those with homozygous genotypes at codon 129.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> If a disease was indeed responsible for the end-Pleistocene extinctions, then there are several criteria it must satisfy (see Table 7.3 in MacPhee & Marx 1997). First, the <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> must have a stable <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">carrier</a> state in a reservoir species. That is, it must be able to sustain itself in the environment when there are no susceptible <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a> available to infect. Second, the pathogen must have a high infection rate, such that it is able to infect virtually all individuals of all ages and sexes encountered. Third, it must be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of c. 50–75%. Finally, it must have the ability to infect multiple host species without posing a serious threat to humans. Humans may be infected, but the disease must not be highly lethal or able to cause an <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As with other hypotheses, a number of counterarguments to the hyperdisease hypothesis have been put forth. Generally speaking, disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Even such a virulent disease as <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a> is unlikely to have caused extinction.<a href="#cite_note-Lyons_et_al2004-220">[220]</a> The disease would need to be implausibly selective while being simultaneously implausibly broad. Such a disease needs to be capable of killing off wolves such as Canis dirus or goats such as Oreamnos harringtoni while leaving other very similar species (Canis lupus and Oreamnos americanus, respectively) unaffected. It would need to be capable of killing off flightless birds while leaving closely related flighted species unaffected. Yet while remaining sufficiently selective to afflict only individual species within genera it must be capable of fatally infecting across such clades as birds, <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placental" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental">placentals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Testudines" class="mw-redirect" title="Testudines">testudines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crocodilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilian">crocodilians</a>. No disease with such a broad scope of fatal infectivity is known, much less one that remains simultaneously incapable of infecting numerous closely related species within those disparate clades. On the other hand, this objection does not account for the possibility of a variety of different diseases being introduced around the same era.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Numerous species including wolves, mammoths, camelids, and horses had emigrated continually between Asia and North America over the past 100,000 years. For the disease hypothesis to be applicable there it would require that the population remain immunologically naive despite this constant transmission of genetic and pathogenic material.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The dog-specific hypothesis in particular cannot account for several major extinction events, notably the Americas (for reasons already covered) and Australia. Dogs did not arrive in Australia until approximately 35,000 years after the first humans arrived there, and approximately 30,000 years after the Australian megafaunal extinction was complete.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extraterrestrial_impact">Extraterrestrial impact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Extraterrestrial impact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis" title="Younger Dryas impact hypothesis">Younger Dryas impact hypothesis</a></div> An extraterrestrial impact, which has occasionally been proposed as a cause of the Younger Dryas,<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> has been suggested by some authors as a potential cause of the extinction of North America's megafauna due to the temporal proximity between a proposed date for such an impact and the following megafaunal extinctions.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-SynchronousExtinction-4">[4]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis" title="Younger Dryas impact hypothesis">Younger Dryas impact hypothesis</a> lacks widespread support among scholars due to various inconsistencies in the hypothesis,<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> and has been comprehensively refuted.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geomagnetic_field_weakening">Geomagnetic field weakening</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Geomagnetic field weakening">edit</a>]</div> Around 41,500 years ago, the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> weakened in an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Laschamp_event" title="Laschamp event">Laschamp event</a>. This weakening may have caused increased flux of <a href="/wiki/UVB_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UVB radiation">UV-B radiation</a> and has been suggested by a few authors as a cause of megafaunal extinctions in the Late Quaternary.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The full effects of such events on the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> are poorly understood, however these explanations have been criticized as they do not account for the <a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">population bottlenecks</a> seen in many megafaunal species and nor is there evidence for extreme radio-isotopic changes during the event. Considering these factors, causation is unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects">edit</a>]</div> The extinction of the megafauna has been argued by some authors to be disappearance of the <a href="/wiki/Mammoth_steppe" title="Mammoth steppe">mammoth steppe</a> rather than the other way around. Alaska now has low nutrient soil unable to support bison, mammoths, and horses. R. Dale Guthrie has claimed this as a cause of the extinction of the megafauna there; however, he may be interpreting it backwards. The loss of large herbivores to break up the permafrost allows the cold soils that are unable to support large herbivores today. Today, in the arctic, where trucks have broken the permafrost grasses and diverse flora and fauna can be supported.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> In addition, Chapin (Chapin 1980) showed that simply adding fertilizer to the soil in Alaska could make grasses grow again like they did in the era of the mammoth steppe. Possibly, the extinction of the megafauna and the corresponding loss of dung is what led to low nutrient levels in modern-day soil and therefore is why the landscape can no longer support megafauna. However, more recent authors have viewed it as more likely that the collapse of the mammoth steppe was driven by climatic warming, which in turn impacted the megafauna, rather than the other way around.<a href="#cite_note-:0-231">[231]</a> Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death).<a href="#cite_note-Wolf2013-232">[232]</a> In South America's <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall_2013-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-DoughtyWolf2013-234">[234]</a> Given that <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits.<a href="#cite_note-DoughtyWolf2013-234">[234]</a> The extinction of the <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Grasslands" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasslands">grasslands</a> they had maintained through grazing habits to become <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a> forests.<a href="#cite_note-Doughty,_C._E._20102-235">[235]</a> The new forest and the resulting forest fires may have induced <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Doughty,_C._E._20102-235">[235]</a> Such disappearances might be the result of the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern human">modern humans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SpecialIssue-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Large populations of megaherbivores have the potential to contribute greatly to the atmospheric concentration of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, which is an important <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a> produce methane as a byproduct of <a href="/wiki/Foregut_fermentation" title="Foregut fermentation">foregut fermentation</a> in digestion, and release it through belching or flatulence. Today, around 20% of annual <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> come from livestock methane release. In the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, it has been estimated that <a href="/wiki/Sauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropod">sauropods</a> could have emitted 520 million tons of methane to the atmosphere annually,<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-238">[238]</a> contributing to the warmer climate of the time (up to 10 °C warmer than at present).<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-sauropod_methane-239">[239]</a> This large emission follows from the enormous estimated biomass of sauropods, and because methane production of individual herbivores is believed to be almost proportional to their mass.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-238">[238]</a> Recent studies have indicated that the extinction of megafaunal herbivores may have caused a reduction in <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a>. One study examined the methane emissions from the <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">bison</a> that occupied the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of North America before contact with European settlers. The study estimated that the removal of the bison caused a decrease of as much as 2.2 million tons per year.<a href="#cite_note-Kelliher-240">[240]</a> Another study examined the change in the methane concentration in the atmosphere at the end of the Pleistocene epoch after the extinction of megafauna in the Americas. After early humans migrated to the Americas about 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>, their hunting and other associated ecological impacts led to the extinction of many megafaunal species there. Calculations suggest that this extinction decreased methane production by about 9.6 million tons per year. This suggests that the absence of megafaunal methane emissions may have contributed to the abrupt climatic cooling at the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>. The decrease in atmospheric methane that occurred at that time, as recorded in <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a>, was 2–4 times more rapid than any other decrease in the last half million years, suggesting that an unusual mechanism was at work.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-241">[241]</a> The extermination of megafauna left many niches vacant, which has been cited as an explanation for the vulnerability and fragility of many ecosystems to destruction in the later Holocene extinction. The comparative lack of megafauna in modern ecosystems has reduced high-order interactions among surviving species, reducing ecological complexity.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> This depauperate, post-megafaunal ecological state has been associated with diminished <a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">ecological resilience</a> to stressors.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Many extant species of plants have adaptations that were advantageous in the presence of megafauna but are now useless in their absence.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> The demise of megafaunal <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineers</a> in the Arctic that maintained open grassland environments has been highly detrimental to shorebirds of the genus <a href="/wiki/Numenius_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Numenius (bird)">Numenius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_later_extinctions">Relationship to later extinctions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Relationship to later extinctions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_extinctions_in_the_Holocene" title="Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene">Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene</a></div> There is no general agreement on where the Quaternary extinction event ends, and the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a>, extinction begins, or if they should be considered separate events at all.<a href="#cite_note-Doughty,_C._E._2010-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-link.springer.com-247">[247]</a> Some authors have argued that the activities of earlier archaic humans have also resulted in extinctions, though the evidence for this is equivocal.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> This hypothesis is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonisation in <a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_animals_of_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extinct animals of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_African_animals_extinct_in_the_Holocene" title="List of African animals extinct in the Holocene">Madagascar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-SixthExtinctionUnnaturalHistory-249">[249]</a> in a similar way that any <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">large, adaptable predator moving into a new ecosystem would</a>. In many cases, it is suggested even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna, particularly on <a href="/wiki/Geographical_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical isolation">geographically isolated</a> islands.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2014-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crowley-2010-251">[251]</a> Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity">plants also suffered large losses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australian megafauna</a> – Large animals in Australia, past and present era</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a> – Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Quaternary_prehistoric_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Quaternary prehistoric birds">Late Quaternary prehistoric birds</a> – Extinct bird speciesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ice_Age_species_preserved_as_permafrost_mummies" title="List of Ice Age species preserved as permafrost mummies">List of Ice Age species preserved as permafrost mummies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">Megafauna</a> – Large animals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_rewilding" title="Pleistocene rewilding">Pleistocene rewilding</a> – Ecological practice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Toba catastrophe theory</a> – Volcanic supereruption 74,000 years ago in IndonesiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pires-20242-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pires-20242_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pires-20242_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPires2024" class="citation journal cs1">Pires MM (30 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-104845">"The Restructuring of Ecological Networks by the Pleistocene Extinction"</a>. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 52 (1): 133–158. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024AREPS..52..133P">2024AREPS..52..133P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-earth-040722-104845">10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-104845</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-6597">0084-6597</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:266133527">266133527</a>.</cite><span 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Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen. 258 (3): 353–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1127%2F0077-7749%2F2010%2F0116">10.1127/0077-7749/2010/0116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neues+Jahrbuch+f%C3%BCr+Geologie+und+Pal%C3%A4ontologie+-+Abhandlungen&rft.atitle=On+the+presence+of+Glyptotherium+in+the+Late+Pleistocene+of+Northeastern+Brazil%2C+and+the+status+of+%22Glyptodon%22+and+%22Chlamydotherium%22.+Paleobiogeographic+implications&rft.volume=258&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-363&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1127%2F0077-7749%2F2010%2F0116&rft.aulast=Oliveira&rft.aufirst=%C3%89dison+V.&rft.au=Porpino%2C+Kleberson+O.&rft.au=Barreto%2C+Alcina+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2005" class="citation book cs1">Martin PS (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twilightofmammot00paul">Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23141-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23141-2"><bdi>978-0-520-23141-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twilight+of+the+Mammoths%3A+Ice+Age+Extinctions+and+the+Rewilding+of+America&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23141-2&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Paul+Schultz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwilightofmammot00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=43582">"Fossilworks: Neuryurus"</a>. fossilworks.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220618023515/http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=43582">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fossilworks.org&rft.atitle=Fossilworks%3A+Neuryurus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpaleobiodb.org%2Fclassic%2FcheckTaxonInfo%3Ftaxon_no%3D43582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=188888">"Fossilworks: Parapanochthus"</a>. fossilworks.org. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02081-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02081-7"><bdi>978-0-521-02081-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphological+Change+in+Quaternary+Mammals+of+North+America&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005-10-06&rft.isbn=978-0-521-02081-7&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Martin%2C+Robert+Allen&rft.au=Barnosky%2C+Anthony+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DheAoqlZldWoC%26q%3Dchlamytherium%2Boccidentale%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurvey2009" class="citation book cs1">Turvey S (28 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4QIUDAAAQBAJ&q=chlamytherium+occidentale&pg=PA341">Holocene Extinctions</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953509-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953509-5"><bdi>978-0-19-953509-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocene+Extinctions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009-05-28&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953509-5&rft.aulast=Turvey&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4QIUDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchlamytherium%2Boccidentale%26pg%3DPA341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid26083486-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26083486_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26083486_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGóisRuizScillato-YanéSoibelzon2015" class="citation journal cs1">Góis F, Ruiz LR, Scillato-Yané GJ, Soibelzon E (17 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4470999">"A Peculiar New Pampatheriidae (Mammalia: Xenarthra: Cingulata) from the Pleistocene of Argentina and Comments on Pampatheriidae Diversity"</a>. PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0128296. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1028296G">2015PLoSO..1028296G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0128296">10.1371/journal.pone.0128296</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4470999">4470999</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26083486">26083486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+Peculiar+New+Pampatheriidae+%28Mammalia%3A+Xenarthra%3A+Cingulata%29+from+the+Pleistocene+of+Argentina+and+Comments+on+Pampatheriidae+Diversity&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e0128296&rft.date=2015-06-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4470999%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26083486&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0128296&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1028296G&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3is&rft.aufirst=Fl%C3%A1vio&rft.au=Ruiz%2C+Laureano+Ra%C3%BAl+Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.au=Scillato-Yan%C3%A9%2C+Gustavo+Juan&rft.au=Soibelzon%2C+Esteban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4470999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesRinderknechtMigottoBlanco2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jones W, Rinderknecht A, Migotto R, Blanco RE (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260104736">"Body Mass Estimations and Paleobiological Inferences on a New Species of Large Caracara (Aves, Falconidae) from the Late Pleistocene of Uruguay"</a>. Journal of Paleontology. 87 (1): 151–158. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JPal...87..151J">2013JPal...87..151J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1666%2F12-026R.1">10.1666/12-026R.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23353814">23353814</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83648963">83648963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Paleontology&rft.atitle=Body+Mass+Estimations+and+Paleobiological+Inferences+on+a+New+Species+of+Large+Caracara+%28Aves%2C+Falconidae%29+from+the+Late+Pleistocene+of+Uruguay&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=151-158&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F12-026R.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83648963%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23353814%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013JPal...87..151J&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Washington&rft.au=Rinderknecht%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Migotto%2C+Rafael&rft.au=Blanco%2C+R.+Ernesto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F260104736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuárezOlson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Suárez W, Olson SL (1 September 2014). 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Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 127 (2): 299–310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2988%2F0006-324X-127.2.299">10.2988/0006-324X-127.2.299</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-324X">0006-324X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130085421">130085421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Biological+Society+of+Washington&rft.atitle=A+new+fossil+species+of+small+crested+caracara+%28Aves%3A+Falconidae%3A+Caracara%29+from+the+Pacific+lowlands+of+western+South+America&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=299-310&rft.date=2014-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130085421%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0006-324X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2988%2F0006-324X-127.2.299&rft.aulast=Su%C3%A1rez&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Olson%2C+Storrs+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=289782">"Fossilworks: Milvago brodkorbi"</a>. fossilworks.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211212220515/http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=289782">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2021. 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PalZ. 92 (2): 365–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12542-017-0388-y">10.1007/s12542-017-0388-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-0220">0031-0220</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134344096">134344096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PalZ&rft.atitle=The+last+terror+birds+%28Aves%2C+Phorusrhacidae%29%3A+new+evidence+from+the+late+Pleistocene+of+Uruguay&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=365-372&rft.date=2017-12-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134344096%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0031-0220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12542-017-0388-y&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Washington&rft.au=Rinderknecht%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Alvarenga%2C+Herculano&rft.au=Montenegro%2C+Felipe&rft.au=Ubilla%2C+Mart%C3%ADn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlvarengaJonesRinderknecht2010" class="citation journal cs1">Alvarenga H, Jones W, Rinderknecht A (1 May 2010). 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Quaternary Science Reviews. 105: 126–135. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014QSRv..105..126P">2014QSRv..105..126P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2014.09.025">10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+high-precision+chronology+for+the+rapid+extinction+of+New+Zealand+moa+%28Aves%2C+Dinornithiformes%29&rft.volume=105&rft.pages=126-135&rft.date=2014-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2014.09.025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014QSRv..105..126P&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=George+L.+W.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Andrew+B.&rft.au=Wood%2C+Jamie+R.&rft.au=Wilmshurst%2C+Janet+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crowley-2010-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Crowley-2010_251-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowley2010" class="citation journal cs1">Crowley BE (1 September 2010). "A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna". Quaternary Science Reviews. Special Theme: Case Studies of Neodymium Isotopes in Paleoceanography. 29 (19–20): 2591–2603. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010QSRv...29.2591C">2010QSRv...29.2591C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2010.06.030">10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+refined+chronology+of+prehistoric+Madagascar+and+the+demise+of+the+megafauna&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=19%E2%80%9320&rft.pages=2591-2603&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2010.06.030&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010QSRv...29.2591C&rft.aulast=Crowley&rft.aufirst=Brooke+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation web cs1">Li S (20 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/20/has-plant-life-reached-its-limits/?_r=0">"Has Plant Life Reached Its Limits?"</a>. Green Blog. Retrieved 22 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Green+Blog&rft.atitle=Has+Plant+Life+Reached+Its+Limits%3F&rft.date=2012-09-20&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Sophia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgreen.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F09%2F20%2Fhas-plant-life-reached-its-limits%2F%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperdisease_hypothesis">Hyperdisease hypothesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Hyperdisease hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFeeMarx1998" class="citation web cs1">MacFee RD, Marx PA (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903232653/http://www.amnh.biz/science/biodiversity/extinction/Day1/bytes/MacPheePres.html">"Lightning Strikes Twice: Blitzkrieg, Hyperdisease, and Global Explanations of the Late Quaternary Catastrophic Extinctions"</a>. American Museum of Natural History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.biz/science/biodiversity/extinction/Day1/bytes/MacPheePres.html">the original</a> on 3 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lightning+Strikes+Twice%3A+Blitzkrieg%2C+Hyperdisease%2C+and+Global+Explanations+of+the+Late+Quaternary+Catastrophic+Extinctions&rft.pub=American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=MacFee&rft.aufirst=Ross+D.+E.&rft.au=Marx%2C+Preston+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.biz%2Fscience%2Fbiodiversity%2Fextinction%2FDay1%2Fbytes%2FMacPheePres.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.H._Brown" class="citation web cs1">J.H. Brown. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060527220000/http://biology.unm.edu/JHBrown/Published/WasAHyperdiseaseResponsible.x.pdf">"Was a hyperdisease responsible?"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biology.unm.edu/JHBrown/Published/WasAHyperdiseaseResponsible.x.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+a+hyperdisease+responsible%3F&rft.au=J.H.+Brown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiology.unm.edu%2FJHBrown%2FPublished%2FWasAHyperdiseaseResponsible.x.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second-order_predation_2">Second-order predation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Second-order predation">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElin_Whitney-Smith" class="citation web cs1">Elin Whitney-Smith. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201203172538/http://quaternary.net/">"Quaternary.Net"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quaternary.net/">the original</a> on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quaternary.Net&rft.au=Elin+Whitney-Smith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquaternary.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_links">Other links</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Pleistocene_extinctions&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226005001/http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/ice-age-bay-area2">"Ice Age Bay Area"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/ice-age-bay-area2">the original</a> on 26 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ice+Age+Bay+Area&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kqed.org%2Fquest%2Ftelevision%2Fice-age-bay-area2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/stoneage/mega-list.html">"The Extinct Late Pleistocene Mammals of North America"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=The+Extinct+Late+Pleistocene+Mammals+of+North+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fstoneage%2Fmega-list.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Tyson" class="citation web cs1">Peter Tyson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121221041349/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/end-big-beasts.html">"End of the Big Beasts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/beta/evolution/end-big-beasts.html">the original</a> on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=End+of+the+Big+Beasts&rft.au=Peter+Tyson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fbeta%2Fevolution%2Fend-big-beasts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Kathleen_LyonsFelisa_A._SmithJames_H._Brown2004" class="citation journal cs1">S. Kathleen Lyons, Felisa A. Smith, James H. Brown (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Lyons_et_al_2004_EER.pdf">"Of mice, mastodons and men: human-mediated extinctions on four continents"</a> (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology Research. 6: 339–358.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Ecology+Research&rft.atitle=Of+mice%2C+mastodons+and+men%3A+human-mediated+extinctions+on+four+continents&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=339-358&rft.date=2004&rft.au=S.+Kathleen+Lyons&rft.au=Felisa+A.+Smith&rft.au=James+H.+Brown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiology.unm.edu%2Ffasmith%2FWeb_Page_PDFs%2FLyons_et_al_2004_EER.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110812031103/http://www.tarpits.org/education/guide/index.html">"Return to the Ice Age: The La Brea Exploration Guide"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tarpits.org/education/guide/index.html">the original</a> on 12 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Return+to+the+Ice+Age%3A+The+La+Brea+Exploration+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tarpits.org%2Feducation%2Fguide%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Pleistocene+extinctions" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene Epoch</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 3px 3px 3px; border-color:rgb(249,249,127); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene Epoch</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 3px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(249,249,127); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Pleistocene" title="Early Pleistocene">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Pleistocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Pleistocene">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 3px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(249,249,127); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meghalayan" title="Meghalayan">Meghalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northgrippian" title="Northgrippian">Northgrippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandian" title="Greenlandian">Greenlandian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preboreal" title="Preboreal">Preboreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boreal_(age)" title="Boreal (age)">Boreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_(period)" title="Atlantic (period)">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subboreal" title="Subboreal">Subboreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatlantic" title="Subatlantic">Subatlantic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geological_history_of_Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template talk:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geological_history_of_Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era (present–66.0 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary (present–2.58 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene (present–11.7 ka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene (2.58–23.0 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene (23.0–66.0 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic Era (66.0–252 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous (66.0–145 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late (66.0–100 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early (100–145 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic (145–201 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late (145–164 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Jurassic" title="Middle Jurassic">Middle (164–174 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early (174–201 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic (201–252 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Triassic" title="Late Triassic">Late (201–237 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle (237–247 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Triassic" title="Early Triassic">Early (247–252 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era (252–539 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian (252–299 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Lopingian (252–260 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous (299–359 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian (323–359 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian (359–419 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late (359–383 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" title="Middle Devonian">Middle (383–393 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early (393–419 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian (419–444 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pridoli_Epoch" title="Pridoli Epoch">Pridoli (419–423 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Epoch" title="Ludlow Epoch">Ludlow (423–427 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Epoch" title="Wenlock Epoch">Wenlock (427–433 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llandovery_Epoch" title="Llandovery Epoch">Llandovery (433–444 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician (444–485 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late (444–458 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ordovician">Middle (458–470 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early (470–485 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian (485–539 Ma)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furongian" title="Furongian">Furongian (485–497 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaolingian" title="Miaolingian">Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_2" title="Cambrian Series 2">Series 2 (509–521 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terreneuvian" title="Terreneuvian">Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic Eon (539 Ma–2.5 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic (539 Ma–1 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonian" title="Tonian">Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Mesoproterozoic (1–1.6 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stenian" title="Stenian">Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectasian" title="Ectasian">Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calymmian" title="Calymmian">Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic (1.6–2.5 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statherian" title="Statherian">Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosirian" title="Orosirian">Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyacian" title="Rhyacian">Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderian" title="Siderian">Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean Eon (2.5–4 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" title="Mesoarchean">Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean Eon (4–4.6 Ga)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">ka</a> = kiloannum (thousand years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a> = megaannum (million years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ga</a> = gigaannum (billion years ago). See also: <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a>  • <a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a>  • <a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extinction" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Extinction" title="Template:Extinction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Extinction" title="Template talk:Extinction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Extinction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Extinction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extinction" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_extinction_rate" title="Background extinction rate">Background extinction rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" title="Extinct in the wild">Extinct in the wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_extinction" title="Functional extinction">Functional extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_taxon" title="Lazarus taxon">Lazarus taxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">Local extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoextinction" title="Pseudoextinction">Pseudoextinction</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Golden_toad" title="Golden toad"><img alt="The species Bufo periglenes (Golden Toad) was last reported in 1989" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/140px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/210px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/280px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2509" data-file-height="1986" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_vortex" title="Extinction vortex">Extinction vortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muller%27s_ratchet" title="Muller's ratchet">Muller's ratchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutational_meltdown" title="Mutational meltdown">Mutational meltdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overabundant_species" title="Overabundant species">Overabundant species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_enrichment" title="Paradox of enrichment">Paradox of enrichment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_of_Bullets" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of Bullets">Field of Bullets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_species" title="Hypothetical species">Hypothetical species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">Living fossil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">Ordovician–Silurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_extinctions_in_the_Holocene" title="Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene">Timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-Ediacaran_extinction" title="End-Ediacaran extinction">End-Ediacaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-Botomian_mass_extinction" title="End-Botomian mass extinction">End-Botomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresbachian" title="Dresbachian">Dresbachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian%E2%80%93Ordovician_extinction_event" title="Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event">Cambrian–Ordovician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireviken_event" title="Ireviken event">Ireviken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulde_event" title="Mulde event">Mulde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_event" title="Lau event">Lau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" title="Carboniferous rainforest collapse">Carboniferous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olson%27s_Extinction" title="Olson's Extinction">Olson's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emeishan_Traps" title="Emeishan Traps">End-Capitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnian_pluvial_episode" title="Carnian pluvial episode">Carnian Pluvial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toarcian_turnover" class="mw-redirect" title="Toarcian turnover">Toarcian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">End-Jurassic or Tithonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptian_extinction" title="Aptian extinction">Aptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenomanian-Turonian_boundary_event" title="Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event">Cenomanian-Turonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene%E2%80%93Oligocene_extinction_event" title="Eocene–Oligocene extinction event">Eocene–Oligocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Miocene_disruption" title="Middle Miocene disruption">Middle Miocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene#Supernovae" title="Pliocene">Pliocene–Pleistocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinct_species" title="Category:Extinct species">Extinct species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_extinct_species" title="Lists of extinct species">Lists of extinct species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:IUCN_Red_List_extinct_species" title="Category:IUCN Red List extinct species">IUCN Red List extinct species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Species_Survival_Commission" title="IUCN Species Survival Commission">IUCN Species Survival Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion" title="Extinction Rebellion">Extinction Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_symbol" title="Extinction symbol">Extinction symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History" title="The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History">The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Extinction" title="Category:Extinction">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" 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