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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Equipment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hardware</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distance_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distance_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Distance measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distance_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Angle_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angle_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Angle measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angle_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leveling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leveling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Leveling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leveling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determining_position" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determining_position"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Determining position</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determining_position-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reference_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Reference networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Datum_and_coordinate_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Datum_and_coordinate_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Datum and coordinate systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Datum_and_coordinate_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Errors_and_accuracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Errors_and_accuracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Errors and accuracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Errors_and_accuracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plane_vs._geodetic_surveying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plane_vs._geodetic_surveying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Plane vs. geodetic surveying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plane_vs._geodetic_surveying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_basis_of_the_instrument_used" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_basis_of_the_instrument_used"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>On the basis of the instrument used</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_basis_of_the_instrument_used-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Profession</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Profession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Profession subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Licensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Licensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Licensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Licensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surveying_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveying_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Surveying institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveying_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Building_surveying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_surveying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Building surveying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Building_surveying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cadastral_surveying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cadastral_surveying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Cadastral surveying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cadastral_surveying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantity_surveying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantity_surveying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Quantity surveying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantity_surveying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_surveyors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_surveyors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notable surveyors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_surveyors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_and_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_and_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Types and methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_and_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geospatial_survey_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geospatial_survey_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Geospatial survey organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geospatial_survey_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Surveying</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%85%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%B3" title="ቅየሳ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቅየሳ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85)" title="مساحة (علم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مساحة (علم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99rz_%C3%A7%C9%99km%C9%99" title="Mərz çəkmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mərz çəkmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA" title="ভূমি জরিপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূমি জরিপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="सर्वेक्षण – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सर्वेक्षण" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrimensura" title="Agrimensura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Agrimensura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zem%C4%9Bm%C4%9B%C5%99i%C4%8Dstv%C3%AD" title="Zeměměřičství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zeměměřičství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landm%C3%A5ling" title="Landmåling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Landmåling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermessung" title="Vermessung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vermessung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastrim%C3%B5%C3%B5distamine" title="Katastrimõõdistamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Katastrimõõdistamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrimensura" title="Agrimensura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Agrimensura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termezurado" title="Termezurado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Termezurado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lur-neurketa" title="Lur-neurketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lur-neurketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نقشه‌برداری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نقشه‌برداری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpentage" title="Arpentage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arpentage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suirbh%C3%A9ireacht" title="Suirbhéireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Suirbhéireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B8%A1%EB%9F%89" title="측량 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="측량" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9" title="Տեղագրական հանույթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղագրական հանույթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="सर्वेक्षण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सर्वेक्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodetsko_mjerenje" title="Geodetsko mjerenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geodetsko mjerenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_ukur_wilayah" title="Ilmu ukur wilayah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu ukur wilayah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrimensura" title="Agrimensura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Agrimensura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%93%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A2)" title="מדידה (מקצוע) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדידה (מקצוע)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%BF" title="ಮೋಜಣಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೋಜಣಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Геодетски премер – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геодетски премер" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87" title="സർവ്വേ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സർവ്വേ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_ukur" title="Ilmu ukur – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ilmu ukur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="မြေတိုင်းပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မြေတိုင်းပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmeetkunde" title="Landmeetkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Landmeetkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%AC%E9%87%8F" title="測量 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="測量" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landm%C3%A5ling" title="Landmåling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Landmåling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landm%C3%A5ling" title="Landmåling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Landmåling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%90" title="سروې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سروې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miernictwo" title="Miernictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Miernictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrimensura" title="Agrimensura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Agrimensura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Межевание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Межевание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canniaturi" title="Canniaturi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Canniaturi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BA" title="මිනින්දෝරු ශිල්පය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිනින්දෝරු ශිල්පය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Surveying" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%D9%88%D9%BE%DB%8E%D9%88%DB%8C" title="ڕووپێوی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕووپێوی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Геодетски премјер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геодетски премјер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodetsko_mjerenje" title="Geodetsko mjerenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geodetsko mjerenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maanmittaus" title="Maanmittaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maanmittaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantm%C3%A4teri" title="Lantmäteri – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lantmäteri" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrimensura" title="Agrimensura – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Agrimensura" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நில அளவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நில அளவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%82_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87" title="భూ సర్వే – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భూ సర్వే" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yer%C3%B6l%C3%A7%C3%BCm" title="Yerölçüm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yerölçüm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геодезична зйомка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геодезична зйомка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giometra" title="Giometra – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Giometra" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3o_s%C3%A1t_x%C3%A2y_d%E1%BB%B1ng" title="Khảo sát xây dựng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khảo sát xây dựng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%8B%E9%87%8F" title="测量 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="测量" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="ערדמעסטונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ערדמעסטונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%AC%E9%87%8F" title="測量 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="測量" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%AC%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%B8" title="測量學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="測量學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q816425#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Science of determining the positions of points and the distances and angles between them</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about measuring positions on Earth. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Survey_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Survey (disambiguation)">Survey (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surveyor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Surveyor (disambiguation)">Surveyor (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Surveying" title="Special:EditPage/Surveying">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Surveying%22">"Surveying"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Surveying%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Surveying%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Surveying%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Surveying%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Surveying%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <span class="anchor" id="Railway"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:-BLMcareers_(21678771368)_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A woman holding a notebook crouches next to a theodolite on a tripod. The instrument is set up on a bank in a forest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/-BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg/220px--BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/-BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg/330px--BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/-BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg/440px--BLMcareers_%2821678771368%29_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>A surveyor using a <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total station</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg/170px-A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg/255px-A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg/340px-A_student_using_a_Theodolite_in_field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2988" data-file-height="5312" /></a><figcaption>A student using a theodolite in field</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Surveying</b> or <b>land surveying</b> is the technique, profession, art, and science of determining the <a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">terrestrial</a> <a href="/wiki/Plane_(mathematics)" title="Plane (mathematics)">two-dimensional</a> or <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space#In_Euclidean_geometry" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional</a> positions of <a href="/wiki/Point_(geometry)" title="Point (geometry)">points</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_distance" title="Euclidean distance">distances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angles</a> between them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish maps and boundaries for <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a>, locations, such as the designated positions of structural components for construction or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A professional in land surveying is called a <b>land surveyor</b>. Surveyors work with elements of <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, engineering, <a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">metrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a>, and the law. They use equipment, such as <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total stations</a>, robotic total stations, <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">GNSS</a> receivers, <a href="/wiki/Retroreflector" title="Retroreflector">retroreflectors</a>, <a href="/wiki/3D_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="3D scanner">3D scanners</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">lidar</a> sensors, radios, <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">inclinometer</a>, handheld tablets, optical and digital <a href="/wiki/Level_(instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="Level (instrument)">levels</a>, subsurface locators, drones, <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">GIS</a>, and surveying software. </p><p>Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a>. It is used in the planning and execution of most forms of <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a>. It is also used in transportation, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in many other scientific disciplines. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Surveyors" title="International Federation of Surveyors">International Federation of Surveyors</a> defines the function of surveying as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities; </p> <ul><li>to determine, measure and represent land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields and trajectories;</li> <li>to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information,</li> <li>to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and any structures thereon; and,</li> <li>to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.</li></ul> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geodesy" title="History of geodesy">History of geodesy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_cadastre" class="mw-redirect" title="History of cadastre">History of cadastre</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map#History" title="Topographic map">Topographic map § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png/90px-Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png/135px-Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png/180px-Cc%26j-fig23--plumb_rule.png 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="1968" /></a><figcaption>A plumb rule from the book <i>Cassells' Carpentry and Joinery</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Surveying has occurred since humans built the first large structures. In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rope_stretcher" title="Rope stretcher">rope stretcher</a> would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the annual floods of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a>. The almost perfect squareness and north–south orientation of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>, built <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2700 BC</span>, affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying. The <i><a href="/wiki/Groma_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Groma surveying">groma</a></i> instrument may have originated in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (early 1st millennium BC).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prehistoric monument at <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2500 BC</span>) was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mathematician <a href="/wiki/Liu_Hui" title="Liu Hui">Liu Hui</a> described ways of measuring distant objects in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Haidao_Suanjing" title="Haidao Suanjing">Haidao Suanjing</a></i> or <i>The Sea Island Mathematical Manual</i>, published in 263 AD. </p><p>The Romans recognized land surveying as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman surveyors were known as <i><a href="/wiki/Gromatici" title="Gromatici">Gromatici</a></i>. </p><p>In medieval Europe, <a href="/wiki/Beating_the_bounds" title="Beating the bounds">beating the bounds</a> maintained the boundaries of a village or parish. This was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible. </p><p>In England, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086. It recorded the names of all the land owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land, and specific information of the area's content and inhabitants. It did not include maps showing exact locations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_of_Surveying,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Printed image of surveying equipment." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/220px-Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/330px-Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/440px-Table_of_Surveying%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1928" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption> Table of Surveying, 1728 <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclopaedia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Abel_Foullon" title="Abel Foullon">Abel Foullon</a> described a <a href="/wiki/Plane_table" title="Plane table">plane table</a> in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gunter%27s_chain" title="Gunter's chain">Gunter's chain</a> was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gunter" title="Edmund Gunter">Edmund Gunter</a>. It enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Digges_(scientist)" title="Leonard Digges (scientist)">Leonard Digges</a> described a <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a> that measured horizontal angles in his book <i>A geometric practice named Pantometria</i> (1571). Joshua Habermel (<a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Habermehl" title="Erasmus Habermehl">Erasmus Habermehl</a>) created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725.<sup id="cite_ref-turner_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Ramsden" title="Jesse Ramsden">Jesse Ramsden</a> introduced the first precision <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a> in 1787. It was an instrument for measuring <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angles</a> in the horizontal and vertical planes. He created his <a href="/wiki/Ramsden_theodolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsden theodolite">great theodolite</a> using an accurate <a href="/wiki/Dividing_engine" title="Dividing engine">dividing engine</a> of his own design. Ramsden's theodolite represented a great step forward in the instrument's accuracy. <a href="/wiki/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)" title="William Gascoigne (scientist)">William Gascoigne</a> invented an instrument that used a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> with an installed <a href="/wiki/Crosshair" class="mw-redirect" title="Crosshair">crosshair</a> as a target device, in 1640. <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> developed an optical meter for the measuring of distance in 1771; it measured the <a href="/wiki/Parallactic_angle" title="Parallactic angle">parallactic angle</a> from which the distance to a point could be deduced. </p><p>Dutch mathematician <a href="/wiki/Willebrord_Snellius" title="Willebrord Snellius">Willebrord Snellius</a> (a.k.a. Snel van Royen) introduced the modern systematic use of <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(surveying)" title="Triangulation (surveying)">triangulation</a>. In 1615 he surveyed the distance from <a href="/wiki/Alkmaar" title="Alkmaar">Alkmaar</a> to <a href="/wiki/Breda" title="Breda">Breda</a>, approximately 72 miles (116 km). He underestimated this distance by 3.5%. The survey was a chain of quadrangles containing 33 triangles in all. Snell showed how planar formulae could be corrected to allow for the <a href="/wiki/Curvature_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Curvature of the Earth">curvature of the Earth</a>. He also showed how to <a href="/wiki/Free_stationing" title="Free stationing">resect</a>, or calculate, the position of a point inside a triangle using the angles cast between the vertices at the unknown point. These could be measured more accurately than bearings of the vertices, which depended on a compass. His work established the idea of surveying a primary network of control points, and locating subsidiary points inside the primary network later. Between 1733 and 1740, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cassini" title="Jacques Cassini">Jacques Cassini</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar-Fran%C3%A7ois_Cassini_de_Thury" title="César-François Cassini de Thury">César</a> undertook the first triangulation of France. They included a re-surveying of the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_arc" title="Meridian arc">meridian arc</a>, leading to the publication in 1745 of the first map of France constructed on rigorous principles. By this time triangulation methods were well established for local map-making. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of triangulation network covering India." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg/220px-1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg/330px-1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg/440px-1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7308" data-file-height="7006" /></a><figcaption> A map of India showing the Great Trigonometrical Survey, produced in 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>It was only towards the end of the 18th century that detailed triangulation network surveys mapped whole countries. In 1784, a team from General <a href="/wiki/William_Roy" title="William Roy">William Roy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a> of Great Britain began the <a href="/wiki/Principal_Triangulation_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Triangulation of Britain">Principal Triangulation of Britain</a>. The first Ramsden theodolite was built for this survey. The survey was finally completed in 1853. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Trigonometric_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Trigonometric Survey">Great Trigonometric Survey</a> of India began in 1801. The Indian survey had an enormous scientific impact. It was responsible for one of the first accurate measurements of a section of an arc of longitude, and for measurements of the geodesic anomaly. It named and mapped <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a> and the other Himalayan peaks. Surveying became a professional occupation in high demand at the turn of the 19th century with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. The profession developed more accurate instruments to aid its work. Industrial infrastructure projects used surveyors to lay out <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, roads and rail. </p><p>In the US, the <a href="/wiki/Land_Ordinance_of_1785" title="Land Ordinance of 1785">Land Ordinance of 1785</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Public_Land_Survey_System" title="Public Land Survey System">Public Land Survey System</a>. It formed the basis for dividing the western territories into sections to allow the sale of land. The PLSS divided states into township grids which were further divided into sections and fractions of sections.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> Bonaparte founded <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>'s first <a href="/wiki/Cadastre" title="Cadastre">cadastre</a> in 1808. This gathered data on the number of parcels of land, their value, land usage, and names. This system soon spread around Europe. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank,_Arizona,_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range,_1,271_miles_from_Missouri_River._(Boston_Public_Library)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Camp_of_surverying_party_at_Russel%27s_Tank%2C_Arizona%2C_on_eastern_slope_of_Laja_Range%2C_1%2C271_miles_from_Missouri_River._%28Boston_Public_Library%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption>A railroad surveying party at Russel's Tank, <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Territory" title="Arizona Territory">Arizona</a>, in the 1860s</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Richard_Torrens" title="Robert Richard Torrens">Robert Torrens</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Torrens_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Torrens system">Torrens system</a> in South Australia in 1858. Torrens intended to simplify land transactions and provide reliable titles via a centralized register of land. The Torrens system was adopted in several other nations of the English-speaking world. Surveying became increasingly important with the arrival of railroads in the 1800s. Surveying was necessary so that railroads could plan technologically and financially viable routes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg/220px-William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg/330px-William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg/440px-William_Francis_Ganong_surveying_Chiefs_Mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Ganong" title="William Francis Ganong">William Francis Ganong</a> surveying in 1903</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the century, surveyors had improved the older chains and ropes, but they still faced the problem of accurate measurement of long distances. <a href="/wiki/Trevor_Wadley" title="Trevor Wadley">Trevor Lloyd Wadley</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Tellurometer" title="Tellurometer">Tellurometer</a> during the 1950s. It measures long distances using two microwave transmitter/receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the late 1950s <a href="/wiki/Geodimeter" title="Geodimeter">Geodimeter</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Electronic_distance_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic distance measurement">electronic distance measurement</a> (EDM) equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EDM units use a multi frequency phase shift of light waves to find a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These instruments eliminated the need for days or weeks of chain measurement by measuring between points kilometers apart in one go. </p><p>Advances in electronics allowed miniaturization of EDM. In the 1970s the first instruments combining angle and distance measurement appeared, becoming known as <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total stations</a>. Manufacturers added more equipment by degrees, bringing improvements in accuracy and speed of measurement. Major advances include tilt compensators, data recorders and on-board calculation programs. </p><p>The first satellite positioning system was the <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">TRANSIT system</a>. The first successful launch took place in 1960. The system's main purpose was to provide position information to <a href="/wiki/Polaris_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polaris missile">Polaris missile</a> submarines. Surveyors found they could use field receivers to determine the location of a point. Sparse satellite cover and large equipment made observations laborious and inaccurate. The main use was establishing benchmarks in remote locations. </p><p>The US Air Force launched the first prototype satellites of the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission, thus improving accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Later improvements to both satellites and receivers allowed for <a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Time Kinematic">Real Time Kinematic</a> (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys provide high-accuracy measurements by using a fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total station</a> and <a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Time Kinematic">RTK</a> <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> survey remain the primary methods in use. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a> and satellite imagery continue to improve and become cheaper, allowing more commonplace use. Prominent new technologies include three-dimensional (3D) scanning and <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">lidar</a>-based topographical surveys. <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">UAV</a> technology along with <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetric</a> image processing is also appearing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_surveying_instruments" title="List of surveying instruments">List of surveying instruments</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardware">Hardware</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hardware"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:216px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Theodolite." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg/162px-Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg/243px-Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Kern_Theodolit_DKM2-A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="425" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:216px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total-Robotic-Station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Total Station." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Total-Robotic-Station.jpg/122px-Total-Robotic-Station.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Total-Robotic-Station.jpg/183px-Total-Robotic-Station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Total-Robotic-Station.jpg/244px-Total-Robotic-Station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DumpyLevel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Optical Level." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DumpyLevel.jpg/189px-DumpyLevel.jpg" decoding="async" width="189" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DumpyLevel.jpg/284px-DumpyLevel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DumpyLevel.jpg/378px-DumpyLevel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Survey GPS station." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg/95px-GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg/143px-GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg/190px-GPS_Survey_Equipment_at_Weir_Dyke_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_336908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Surveying equipment. Clockwise from upper left: optical theodolite, robotic total station, <a href="/wiki/Real-time_kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real-time kinematic">RTK</a> GPS base station, optical level.</div></div></div></div> <p>The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tape_measure" title="Tape measure">measuring tape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total station</a>, <a href="/wiki/3D_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="3D scanner">3D scanners</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a>/<a href="/wiki/GNSS" class="mw-redirect" title="GNSS">GNSS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dumpy_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumpy level">level</a> and <a href="/wiki/Level_staff" title="Level staff">rod</a>. Most instruments screw onto a <a href="/wiki/Tripod_(surveying)" title="Tripod (surveying)">tripod</a> when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of smaller distances. 3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used. </p><p>The theodolite is an instrument for the measurement of angles. It uses two separate <i>circles</i>, <i>protractors</i> or <i>alidades</i> to measure angles in the horizontal and the vertical plane. A telescope mounted on trunnions is aligned vertically with the target object. The whole upper section rotates for horizontal alignment. The vertical circle measures the angle that the telescope makes against the vertical, known as the zenith angle. The horizontal circle uses an upper and lower plate. When beginning the survey, the surveyor points the instrument in a known direction (bearing), and clamps the lower plate in place. The instrument can then rotate to measure the bearing to other objects. If no bearing is known or direct angle measurement is wanted, the instrument can be set to zero during the initial sight. It will then read the angle between the initial object, the theodolite itself, and the item that the telescope aligns with. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gyrotheodolite" title="Gyrotheodolite">gyrotheodolite</a> is a form of theodolite that uses a gyroscope to orient itself in the absence of reference marks. It is used in underground applications. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total station</a> is a development of the theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (EDM). A total station can be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane. Since their introduction, total stations have shifted from optical-mechanical to fully electronic devices.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a remote computer and connect to <a href="/wiki/Satellite_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite positioning system">satellite positioning systems</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>. <a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Time Kinematic">Real Time Kinematic</a> GPS systems have significantly increased the speed of surveying, and they are now horizontally accurate to within 1 cm ± 1 ppm in real-time, while vertically it is currently about half of that to within 2 cm ± 2 ppm.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>GPS surveying differs from other GPS uses in the equipment and methods used. Static GPS uses two receivers placed in position for a considerable length of time. The long span of time lets the receiver compare measurements as the satellites orbit. The changes as the satellites orbit also provide the measurement network with well conditioned geometry. This produces an accurate <a href="/wiki/Baseline_(surveying)" title="Baseline (surveying)">baseline</a> that can be over 20 km long. RTK surveying uses one static antenna and one roving antenna. The static antenna tracks changes in the satellite positions and atmospheric conditions. The surveyor uses the roving antenna to measure the points needed for the survey. The two antennas use a radio link that allows the static antenna to send corrections to the roving antenna. The roving antenna then applies those corrections to the GPS signals it is receiving to calculate its own position. RTK surveying covers smaller distances than static methods. This is because divergent conditions further away from the base reduce accuracy. </p><p>Surveying instruments have characteristics that make them suitable for certain uses. Theodolites and levels are often used by constructors rather than surveyors in first world countries. The constructor can perform simple survey tasks using a relatively cheap instrument. Total stations are workhorses for many professional surveyors because they are versatile and reliable in all conditions. The productivity improvements from a GPS on large scale surveys makes them popular for major infrastructure or data gathering projects. One-person robotic-guided total stations allow surveyors to measure without extra workers to aim the telescope or record data. A fast but expensive way to measure large areas is with a helicopter, using a GPS to record the location of the helicopter and a laser scanner to measure the ground. To increase precision, surveyors place <a href="/wiki/Beacons" class="mw-redirect" title="Beacons">beacons</a> on the ground (about 20 km (12 mi) apart). This method reaches precisions between 5–40 cm (depending on flight height).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surveyors use ancillary equipment such as tripods and instrument stands; staves and beacons used for sighting purposes; <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a>; vegetation clearing equipment; digging implements for finding survey markers buried over time; hammers for placements of markers in various surfaces and structures; and portable radios for communication over long lines of sight. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software">Software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Land surveyors, construction professionals, geomatics engineers and civil engineers using <a href="/wiki/Total_station" title="Total station">total station</a>, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, 3D scanners, and other collector data use land surveying software to increase efficiency, accuracy, and productivity. Land Surveying Software is a staple of contemporary land surveying.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typically, much if not all of the <a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">drafting</a> and some of the <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">designing</a> for <a href="/wiki/Site_plan" title="Site plan">plans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plat" title="Plat">plats</a> of the surveyed property is done by the surveyor, and nearly everyone working in the area of drafting today (2021) utilizes <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">CAD</a> software and hardware both on PC, and more and more in newer generation data collectors in the field as well.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other computer platforms and tools commonly used today by surveyors are offered online by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Federal Government">U.S. Federal Government</a> and other governments' survey agencies, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Geodetic_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geodetic Survey">National Geodetic Survey</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Continuously_Operating_Reference_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuously Operating Reference Station">CORS</a> network, to get automated corrections and conversions for collected <a href="/wiki/Real-time_kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real-time kinematic">GPS</a> data, and the data <a href="/wiki/Spatial_reference_system" title="Spatial reference system">coordinate systems</a> themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brunton.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A compass with extra sights for measuring bearings." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Brunton.JPG/220px-Brunton.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Brunton.JPG/330px-Brunton.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Brunton.JPG/440px-Brunton.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2593" /></a><figcaption>A standard Brunton Geo <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, still used commonly today by geographers, geologists, and surveyors for field-based measurements</figcaption></figure> <p>Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that can affect the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create vectors, bearings, coordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are often split into horizontal and vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic measurements also need measurement of a time component. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distance_measurement">Distance measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Distance measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field-Map_birdie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Woman with a backpack holding a laser rangefinder, a handheld GPS and a Tablet computer." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/170px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/255px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/340px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="2768" /></a><figcaption>Example of modern equipment for surveying (<a href="/wiki/Field-Map" title="Field-Map">Field-Map</a> technology): <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinder</a> and field computer allows surveying as well as <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> (creation of map in real-time) and field data collection.</figcaption></figure> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/Rangefinder" title="Rangefinder">EDM</a> (Electronic Distance Measurement) laser devices, <a href="/wiki/Distance" title="Distance">distances</a> were measured using a variety of means. In pre-colonial America Natives would use the "bow shot" as a distance reference ("as far as an arrow can slung out of a bow", or "flights of a Cherokee long bow").<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europeans used chains with links of a known length such as a <a href="/wiki/Gunter%27s_chain" title="Gunter's chain">Gunter's chain</a>, or measuring tapes made of steel or <a href="/wiki/Invar" title="Invar">invar</a>. To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack. The distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold the measuring instrument level would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an increment less than the total length of the chain. <a href="/wiki/Surveyor%27s_wheel" title="Surveyor's wheel">Perambulators</a>, or measuring wheels, were used to measure longer distances but not to a high level of accuracy. <a href="/wiki/Tacheometry" title="Tacheometry">Tacheometry</a> is the science of measuring distances by measuring the angle between two ends of an object with a known size. It was sometimes used before to the invention of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Angle_measurement">Angle measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Angle measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a <a href="/wiki/Circumferentor" title="Circumferentor">compass</a> to provide a magnetic bearing or azimuth. Later, more precise scribed discs improved angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with <a href="/wiki/Reticle" title="Reticle">reticles</a> atop the disc allowed more precise sighting (see <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>). Levels and calibrated circles allowed the measurement of vertical angles. <a href="/wiki/Vernier_scale" title="Vernier scale">Verniers</a> allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-the-century <a href="/wiki/Transit_(surveying)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit (surveying)">transit</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Plane_table" title="Plane table">plane table</a> provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced the amount of mathematics required. In 1829 <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> invented a <a href="/wiki/Reflecting_instrument#Surveying_sector" title="Reflecting instrument">reflecting instrument</a> for recording angles graphically by modifying the <a href="/wiki/Octant_(instrument)" title="Octant (instrument)">octant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the figure. The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180° difference. This is called a <i>close</i>. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in the survey, called the <i>angular misclose</i>. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the work meets the expected standards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leveling">Leveling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Leveling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Levelling" title="Levelling">Levelling</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tide_station_leveling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A woman setting up an optical level on a tripod." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tide_station_leveling.jpg/220px-Tide_station_leveling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tide_station_leveling.jpg/330px-Tide_station_leveling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tide_station_leveling.jpg/440px-Tide_station_leveling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services staff member conducts tide station leveling in support of the US Army Corps of Engineers in Richmond, Maine.</figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest method for measuring height is with an <a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">altimeter</a> using air pressure to find the height. When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as differential leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between the two endpoints. With the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS), elevation can be measured with satellite receivers. Usually, GPS is somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances. </p><p>When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument. There may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these situations, extra setups are needed. <i>Turning</i> is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is taken from the new location of the level and the height difference is used to find the new elevation of the level gun, which is why this method is referred to as <i>differential levelling</i>. This is repeated until the series of measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is lower than the base of the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised up to 25 feet (7.6 m) high, allowing the level to be set much higher than the base of the rod. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determining_position">Determining position</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Determining position"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary way of determining one's position on the Earth's surface when no known positions are nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the Sun, Moon and stars could all be made using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to a star is determined, the bearing can be transferred to a reference point on Earth. The point can then be used as a base for further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to observe and calculate and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were made. Since the advent of the GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows adequate positions to be determined over most of the surface of the Earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_networks">Reference networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reference networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodetic network">Geodetic network</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of survey markers running along a shoreline." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png/220px-Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png/330px-Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png/440px-Traversing_and_Offsetting_DP_79152.png 2x" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A survey using traverse and offset measurements to record the location of the shoreline shown in blue. Black dashed lines are traverse measurements between reference points (black circles). The red lines are offsets measured at right angles to the traverse lines.</figcaption></figure> <p>Few survey positions are derived from the first principles. Instead, most surveys points are measured relative to previously measured points. This forms a reference or <i>control</i> network where each point can be used by a surveyor to determine their own position when beginning a new survey. </p><p>Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven into the ground to <a href="/wiki/Trig_beacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Trig beacon">large beacons</a> that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their instruments in this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured against. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">Triangulation</a></i> is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since the early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for <a href="/wiki/Topographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographic">topographic</a> maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two of the objects, known as the <a href="/wiki/Baseline_(surveying)" title="Baseline (surveying)">baseline</a>. Then the heights, distances and angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements were repeated for increased accuracy. See also <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_in_three_dimensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangulation in three dimensions">Triangulation in three dimensions</a>. </p><p><i>Offsetting</i> is an alternate method of determining the position of objects, and was often used to measure imprecise features such as riverbanks. The surveyor would mark and measure two known positions on the ground roughly parallel to the feature, and mark out a baseline between them. At regular intervals, a distance was measured at right angles from the first line to the feature. The measurements could then be plotted on a plan or map, and the points at the ends of the offset lines could be joined to show the feature. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Traverse_(surveying)" title="Traverse (surveying)"><i>Traversing</i></a> is a common method of surveying smaller areas. The surveyor starts from an old reference mark or known position and places a network of reference marks covering the survey area. They then measure bearings and distances between the reference marks, and to the target features. Most traverses form a loop pattern or link between two prior reference marks so the surveyor can check their measurements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Datum_and_coordinate_systems">Datum and coordinate systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Datum and coordinate systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_datum" title="Geodetic datum">Geodetic datum</a></div> <p>Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the Earth, but instead, measure the relative positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items need to be compared to outside data, such as boundary lines or previous survey's objects. The oldest way of describing a position is via latitude and longitude, and often a height above sea level. As the surveying profession grew it created Cartesian coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small parts of the Earth. The simplest coordinate systems assume that the Earth is flat and measure from an arbitrary point, known as a 'datum' (singular form of data). The coordinate system allows easy calculation of the distances and direction between objects over small areas. Large areas distort due to the Earth's curvature. North is often defined as true north at the datum. </p><p>For larger regions, it is necessary to model the shape of the Earth using an ellipsoid or a geoid. Many countries have created coordinate-grids customized to lessen error in their area of the Earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Errors_and_accuracy">Errors and accuracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Errors and accuracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A basic tenet of surveying is that no measurement is perfect, and that there will always be a small amount of error.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three classes of survey errors: </p> <ul><li><i>Gross errors or blunders:</i> Errors made by the surveyor during the survey. Upsetting the instrument, misaiming a target, or writing down a wrong measurement are all gross errors. A large gross error may reduce the accuracy to an unacceptable level. Therefore, surveyors use redundant measurements and independent checks to detect these errors early in the survey.</li> <li><i>Systematic:</i> Errors that follow a consistent pattern. Examples include effects of temperature on a chain or EDM measurement, or a poorly adjusted spirit-level causing a tilted instrument or target pole. Systematic errors that have known effects can be compensated or corrected.</li> <li><i>Random:</i> Random errors are small unavoidable fluctuations. They are caused by imperfections in measuring equipment, eyesight, and conditions. They can be minimized by redundancy of measurement and avoiding unstable conditions. Random errors tend to cancel each other out, but checks must be made to ensure they are not propagating from one measurement to the next.</li></ul> <p>Surveyors avoid these errors by calibrating their equipment, using consistent methods, and by good design of their reference network. Repeated measurements can be averaged and any outlier measurements discarded. Independent checks like measuring a point from two or more locations or using two different methods are used, and errors can be detected by comparing the results of two or more measurements, thus utilizing <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">redundancy</a>. </p><p>Once the surveyor has calculated the level of the errors in his or her work, it is <a href="/wiki/Adjustment_of_observations" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjustment of observations">adjusted</a>. This is the process of distributing the error between all measurements. Each observation is weighted according to how much of the total error it is likely to have caused and part of that error is allocated to it in a proportional way. The most common methods of adjustment are the <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Bowditch" title="Nathaniel Bowditch">Bowditch</a> method, also known as the compass rule, and the <a href="/wiki/Least_squares" title="Least squares">principle of least squares</a> method. </p><p>The surveyor must be able to distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">accuracy and precision</a>. In the United States, surveyors and civil engineers use units of feet wherein a survey foot breaks down into 10ths and 100ths. Many deed descriptions containing distances are often expressed using these units (125.25 ft). On the subject of accuracy, surveyors are often held to a standard of one one-hundredth of a foot; about 1/8 inch. Calculation and mapping tolerances are much smaller wherein achieving near-perfect closures are desired. Though tolerances will vary from project to project, in the field and day to day usage beyond a 100th of a foot is often impractical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Survey_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Survey (disambiguation)">Survey (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Survey_(disambiguation)#Earth_sciences" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Survey (disambiguation)">Survey (disambiguation) § Earth sciences</a></div> <p>Local organisations or regulatory bodies class specializations of surveying in different ways. Broad groups are: </p> <ul><li><i>As-built survey</i>: a survey that documents the location of recently constructed elements of a construction project. As-built surveys are done for record, completion evaluation and payment purposes. An as-built survey is also known as a 'works as executed survey'. As built surveys are often presented in red or redline and laid over existing plans for comparison with design information.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cadastral_surveying" title="Cadastral surveying">Cadastral or boundary surveying</a></i>: a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a parcel using a <a href="/wiki/Land_description" title="Land description">legal description</a>. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or along the boundaries of a parcel. These take the form of iron rods, <a href="/wiki/Pipe_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipe (material)">pipes</a>, or concrete monuments in the ground, or <a href="/wiki/Nail_(fastener)" title="Nail (fastener)">nails</a> set in concrete or asphalt. The <i>ALTA/ACSM</i> Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the <a href="/wiki/American_Land_Title_Association" title="American Land Title Association">American Land Title Association</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Congress_on_Surveying_and_Mapping" title="American Congress on Surveying and Mapping">American Congress on Surveying and Mapping</a>. It incorporates elements of the boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Control_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Control surveying">Control surveying</a></i>: Control surveys establish reference points to use as starting positions for future surveys. Most other forms of surveying will contain elements of control surveying.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Construction_surveying" title="Construction surveying">Construction surveying</a></i> and <i>engineering surveying</i>: topographic, layout, and as-built surveys associated with engineering design. They often need geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deformation_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Deformation survey">Deformation survey</a>:</i> a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or moving. First the positions of points on an object are found. A period of time is allowed to pass and the positions are then re-measured and calculated. Then a comparison between the two sets of positions is made.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dimensional_control_survey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dimensional control survey (page does not exist)">Dimensional control survey</a>:</i> This is a type of survey conducted in or on a non-level surface. Common in the oil and gas industry to replace old or damaged pipes on a like-for-like basis, the advantage of dimensional control survey is that the instrument used to conduct the survey does not need to be level. This is useful in the off-shore industry, as not all platforms are fixed and are thus subject to movement.</li> <li><i>Foundation survey</i>: a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been poured and is cured. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the location, and at the elevation, authorized in the <i>plot plan</i>, <i>site plan</i>, or <i>subdivision plan</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hydrographic_survey" title="Hydrographic survey">Hydrographic survey</a></i>: a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the shoreline and bed of a body of water. Used for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leveling" class="mw-redirect" title="Leveling">Leveling</a></i>: either finds the elevation of a given point or establish a point at a given elevation.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Flood_Insurance_Program#Removal_from_NFIP" title="National Flood Insurance Program">LOMA survey</a></i>: Survey to change base flood line, removing property from a <a href="/wiki/Special_Flood_Hazard_Area" title="Special Flood Hazard Area">SFHA</a> special flood hazard area.</li> <li><i>Measured survey</i> : a building survey to produce plans of the building. such a survey may be conducted before renovation works, for commercial purpose, or at end of the construction process.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mine_survey" title="Mine survey">Mining surveying</a></i>: Mining surveying includes directing the digging of mine shafts and galleries and the calculation of volume of rock. It uses specialised techniques due to the restraints to survey geometry such as vertical shafts and narrow passages.</li> <li><i>Mortgage survey:</i> A <i>mortgage survey</i> or <i>physical survey</i> is a simple survey that delineates land boundaries and building locations. It checks for <i><a href="/wiki/Structural_encroachment" title="Structural encroachment">encroachment</a></i>, building setback restrictions and shows nearby flood zones. In many places a mortgage survey is a precondition for a mortgage loan.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photographic control survey</a></i>: A survey that creates reference marks visible from the air to allow <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photographs</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Orthophoto" title="Orthophoto">rectified</a>.</li> <li><i>Stakeout, layout or setout</i>: an element of many other surveys where the calculated or proposed position of an object is marked on the ground. This can be temporary or permanent. This is an important component of engineering and cadastral surveying.</li> <li><i>Structural survey</i>: a detailed inspection to report upon the physical condition and structural stability of a building or structure. It highlights any work needed to maintain it in good repair.</li> <li><i>Subdivision</i>: A boundary survey that splits a property into two or more smaller properties.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topographic_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographic survey">Topographic survey</a></i>: a survey of the positions and elevations of points and objects on a land surface, presented as a <a href="/wiki/Topographic_Map" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographic Map">topographic map</a> with <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a>.</li> <li><i>Existing conditions</i>: Similar to a topographic survey but instead focuses more on the specific location of key features and structures as they exist at that time within the surveyed area rather than primarily focusing on the elevation, often used alongside <a href="/wiki/Architectural_drawing" title="Architectural drawing">architectural drawings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blueprints" class="mw-redirect" title="Blueprints">blueprints</a> to locate or place building structures.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underwater_survey" title="Underwater survey">Underwater survey</a></i>: a survey of an underwater site, object, or area.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plane_vs._geodetic_surveying">Plane vs. geodetic surveying</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Plane vs. geodetic surveying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on the considerations and true shape of the Earth, surveying is broadly classified into two types. </p><p><i>Plane surveying</i> assumes the Earth is flat. Curvature and spheroidal shape of the Earth is neglected. In this type of surveying all triangles formed by joining survey lines are considered as plane triangles. It is employed for small survey works where errors due to the Earth's shape are too small to matter.<sup id="cite_ref-BC_Punmia_2005_2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BC_Punmia_2005_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodetic surveying">geodetic surveying</a></i> the curvature of the Earth is taken into account while calculating reduced levels, angles, bearings and distances. This type of surveying is usually employed for large survey works. Survey works up to 100 square miles (260 square kilometers ) are treated as plane and beyond that are treated as geodetic.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In geodetic surveying necessary corrections are applied to reduced levels, bearings and other observations.<sup id="cite_ref-BC_Punmia_2005_2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BC_Punmia_2005_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_the_basis_of_the_instrument_used">On the basis of the instrument used</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: On the basis of the instrument used"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chain Surveying</li> <li>Compass Surveying</li> <li>Plane table Surveying</li> <li>Levelling</li> <li>Theodolite Surveying</li> <li>Traverse Surveying</li> <li>Tacheometric Surveying</li> <li>Aerial Surveying</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profession">Profession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Profession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying_in_North_America" title="Surveying in North America">Surveying in North America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surveying_in_Oceania_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Surveying in Oceania (disambiguation)">Surveying in Oceania</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NainSingh.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head and shoulders portrait of Nain Singh Rawat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/NainSingh.gif/170px-NainSingh.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/NainSingh.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pundit_(explorer)" title="Pundit (explorer)">pundit</a> cartographer <a href="/wiki/Nain_Singh_Rawat" class="mw-redirect" title="Nain Singh Rawat">Nain Singh Rawat</a> (19th century) received a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> gold medal in 1876, for his efforts in exploring <a href="/wiki/The_Himalayas" class="mw-redirect" title="The Himalayas">the Himalayas</a> for the British.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project,_Idaho_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four women pose with a theodolite, a plane table and two levelling staves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg/220px-All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg/330px-All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg/440px-All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>An all-female surveying crew in <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by surveyors have evolved. Engineering, especially civil engineering, often needs surveyors. </p><p>Surveyors help determine the placement of roads, railways, reservoirs, dams, <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining walls</a>, bridges, and buildings. They establish the boundaries of legal descriptions and political divisions. They also provide advice and data for <i><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographical information systems</a></i> (GIS) that record land features and boundaries. </p><p>Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>, basic <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a>, and contracts. </p><p>Most jurisdictions recognize three different levels of qualification: </p> <ol><li><i>Survey assistants</i> or <i>chainmen</i> are usually unskilled workers who help the surveyor. They place target reflectors, find old reference marks, and mark points on the ground. The term 'chainman' derives from past use of <a href="/wiki/Measuring_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Measuring chain">measuring chains</a>. An assistant would move the far end of the chain under the surveyor's direction.</li> <li><i>Survey technicians</i> often operate survey instruments, run surveys in the field, do survey calculations, or draft plans. A technician usually has no legal authority and cannot certify his work. Not all technicians are qualified, but qualifications at the certificate or diploma level are available.</li> <li><i>Licensed, registered, or <a href="/wiki/Chartered_Surveyor" title="Chartered Surveyor">chartered surveyors</a></i> usually hold a degree or higher qualification. They are often required to pass further exams to join a professional association or to gain certifying status. Surveyors are responsible for planning and management of surveys. They have to ensure that their surveys, or surveys performed under their supervision, meet the legal standards. Many <a href="/wiki/Principal_(commercial_law)" title="Principal (commercial law)">principals of surveying firms</a> hold this status.</li></ol> <p>Related professions include <a href="/wiki/Cartographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographer">cartographers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrographer">hydrographers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geodesist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesist">geodesists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetrist" class="mw-redirect" title="Photogrammetrist">photogrammetrists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Topographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographer">topographers</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">civil engineers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineer">geomatics engineers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Licensing">Licensing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Licensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Licensing requirements vary with jurisdiction, and are commonly consistent within national borders. Prospective surveyors usually have to receive a degree in surveying, followed by a detailed examination of their knowledge of surveying law and principles specific to the region they wish to practice in, and undergo a period of on-the-job training or portfolio building before they are awarded a license to practise. Licensed surveyors usually receive a <a href="/wiki/Post_nominal_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Post nominal letters">post nominal</a>, which varies depending on where they qualified. The system has replaced older apprenticeship systems. </p><p>A licensed land surveyor is generally required to sign and seal all plans. The state dictates the format, showing their name and registration number. </p><p>In many jurisdictions, surveyors must mark their registration number on <a href="/wiki/Survey_monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey monument">survey monuments</a> when setting boundary corners. Monuments take the form of capped iron rods, concrete monuments, or nails with washers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveying_institutions">Surveying institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Surveying institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Uniformed group poses with theodolites, level staves and octant." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg/220px-Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg/330px-Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>Surveying students with their professor at the <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_University_of_Technology" title="Helsinki University of Technology">Helsinki University of Technology</a> in the late 19th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Most countries' governments regulate at least some forms of surveying. Their survey agencies establish regulations and standards. Standards control accuracy, surveying credentials, monumentation of boundaries and maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodetic network">geodetic networks</a>. Many nations devolve this authority to regional entities or states/provinces. Cadastral surveys tend to be the most regulated because of the permanence of the work. Lot boundaries established by cadastral surveys may stand for hundreds of years without modification. </p><p>Most jurisdictions also have a form of professional institution representing local surveyors. These institutes often endorse or license potential surveyors, as well as set and enforce ethical standards. The largest institution is the <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Surveyors" title="International Federation of Surveyors">International Federation of Surveyors</a> (Abbreviated FIG, for French: <i lang="fr">Fédération Internationale des Géomètres</i>). They represent the survey industry worldwide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Building_surveying">Building surveying</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Building surveying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Building_surveying#Profession" class="mw-redirect" title="Building surveying">Building surveying § Profession</a></div> <p>Most English-speaking countries consider building surveying a distinct profession. They have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. A building surveyor can provide technical building advice on existing buildings, new buildings, design, compliance with regulations such as planning and building control. A building surveyor normally acts on behalf of his or her client ensuring that their vested interests remain protected. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) is a world-recognised governing body for those working within the built environment.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cadastral_surveying">Cadastral surveying<span class="anchor" id="Cadastral"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cadastral surveying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cadastral_surveying" title="Cadastral surveying">Cadastral surveying</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cadastre#Surveys" title="Cadastre">Cadastre § Surveys</a></div> <p>One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. The surveyor must determine where the adjoining landowners wish to put the boundary. The boundary is established in legal documents and plans prepared by attorneys, engineers, and land surveyors. The surveyor then puts monuments on the corners of the new boundary. They might also find or resurvey the corners of the property monumented by prior surveys. </p><p><i>Cadastral land surveyors</i> are licensed by governments. The cadastral survey branch of the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">Bureau of Land Management</a> (BLM) conducts most cadastral surveys in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consult with <a href="/wiki/US_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Forest Service">Forest Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="US Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Fish and Wildlife Service">Fish and Wildlife Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_Bureau_of_Reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="US Bureau of Reclamation">Bureau of Reclamation</a>, and others. The BLM used to be known as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_General_Land_Office" title="United States General Land Office">United States General Land Office</a> (GLO). </p><p>In states organized per the <a href="/wiki/Public_Land_Survey_System" title="Public Land Survey System">Public Land Survey System</a> (PLSS), surveyors must carry out BLM cadastral surveys under that system. </p><p>Cadastral surveyors often have to work around changes to the earth that obliterate or damage boundary monuments. When this happens, they must consider evidence that is not recorded on the title deed. This is known as extrinsic evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantity_surveying">Quantity surveying</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Quantity surveying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantity_surveyor" title="Quantity surveyor">Quantity surveyor</a></div> <p>Quantity surveying is a profession that deals with the <i>costs and contracts</i> of construction projects. A quantity surveyor is an expert in estimating the <i>costs of materials, labor, and time</i> needed for a project, as well as managing the <i>financial and legal aspects</i> of the project. A quantity surveyor can work for either the client or the contractor, and can be involved in different stages of the project, from planning to completion. Quantity surveyors are also known as <i>Chartered Surveyors</i> in the UK. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_surveyors">Notable surveyors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notable surveyors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Surveyors" title="Category:Surveyors">Surveyors</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geodesist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesist">Notable geodesists</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Surveying" title="Special:EditPage/Surveying">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some U.S. Presidents were land surveyors. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> <a href="/wiki/Surveying_in_early_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Surveying in early America">surveyed</a> colonial or frontier territories early in their career, prior to serving in office. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Rudolph_Hassler" title="Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler">Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler</a> is considered the "father" of geodetic surveying in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_T._Abercrombie" title="David T. Abercrombie">David T. Abercrombie</a> practiced land surveying before starting an <a href="/wiki/Outfitter" title="Outfitter">outfitter</a> store of <a href="/wiki/Excursion" title="Excursion">excursion</a> goods. The business would later turn into <a href="/wiki/Abercrombie_%26_Fitch" title="Abercrombie & Fitch">Abercrombie & Fitch</a> lifestyle clothing store. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Percy_Fawcett" title="Percy Fawcett">Percy Harrison Fawcett</a> was a British surveyor that explored the jungles of South America attempting to find the <a href="/wiki/Lost_City_of_Z" title="Lost City of Z">Lost City of Z</a>. His biography and expeditions were recounted in the book <a href="/wiki/The_Lost_City_of_Z_(book)" title="The Lost City of Z (book)"><i>The Lost City of Z</i></a> and were later adapted on <a href="/wiki/The_Lost_City_of_Z_(film)" title="The Lost City of Z (film)">film screen</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/In%C5%8D_Tadataka" title="Inō Tadataka">Inō Tadataka</a> produced the first map of Japan using modern surveying techniques starting in 1800, at the age of 55. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_and_methods">Types and methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Types and methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a>, a method of collecting information using aerial photography and satellite images</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadastre" title="Cadastre">Cadastral surveyor</a>, used to document land ownership by the production of documents, diagrams, plats, and maps <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_Land_Survey" title="Dominion Land Survey">Dominion Land Survey</a>, the method used to divide most of Western Canada into one-square-mile sections for agricultural and other purposes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Land_Survey_System" title="Public Land Survey System">Public Land Survey System</a>, a method used in the United States to survey and identify land parcels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_township" title="Survey township">Survey township</a>, a square unit of land, six miles (~9.7 km) on a side, done by the U.S. Public Land Survey System</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_surveying" title="Construction surveying">Construction surveying</a>, the locating of structures relative to a reference line, used in the construction of buildings, roads, mines, and tunnels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviation_survey" title="Deviation survey">Deviation survey</a>, used in the oil industry to measure a borehole's departure from the vertical</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geospatial_survey_organizations">Geospatial survey organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Geospatial survey organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Survey_of_India" title="Survey of India">Survey of India</a>, India's central agency in charge of mapping and surveying</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a>, a national mapping agency for Great Britain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Geodetic_Survey" title="U.S. National Geodetic Survey">U.S. National Geodetic Survey</a>, performing geographic surveys as part of the U.S. Department of Commerce</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_and_Geodetic_Survey" title="United States Coast and Geodetic Survey">United States Coast and Geodetic Survey</a>, a former surveying agency of the United States Government</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burt%27s_solar_compass" title="Burt's solar compass">Burt's solar compass</a> – Surveying instrument that uses the Sun's direction instead of magnetism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> – Study and practice of making maps</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsecant" title="Exsecant">Exsecant</a> – Trigonometric function defined as secant minus one</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Surveyors" title="International Federation of Surveyors">International Federation of Surveyors</a> – Global organization for the profession of surveying and related disciplines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_compass" title="Prismatic compass">Prismatic compass</a> – Navigation and surveying instrument to measure magnetic bearing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution_of_Chartered_Surveyors" title="Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors">Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying_in_early_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Surveying in early America">Surveying in early America</a> – Mapping Indian land cessions<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying_in_North_America" title="Surveying in North America">Surveying in North America</a> – Survey methods in North America</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Department_of_the_Interior1973" class="citation book cs1">United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Technical Bulletin (1973). <i>Manual of Instructions for the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States 1973</i>. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0910845601" title="Special:BookSources/978-0910845601"><bdi>978-0910845601</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+of+Instructions+for+the+Survey+of+the+Public+Lands+of+the+United+States+1973&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0910845601&rft.aulast=United+States+Department+of+the+Interior&rft.aufirst=Bureau+of+Land+Management+Technical+Bulletin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fig.net/about/general/definition/index.asp">"Definition"</a>. <i>fig.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fig.net&rft.atitle=Definition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fig.net%2Fabout%2Fgeneral%2Fdefinition%2Findex.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong-Sen_Yan_&_Marco_Ceccarelli2009" class="citation cs2">Hong-Sen Yan & Marco Ceccarelli (2009), <i>International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM 2008</i>, <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>, p. 107, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9484-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9484-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-9484-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Symposium+on+History+of+Machines+and+Mechanisms%3A+Proceedings+of+HMM+2008&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-9484-2&rft.au=Hong-Sen+Yan+%26+Marco+Ceccarelli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, Anthony, <i>Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma</i>. (Thames & Hudson, 2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05155-9">978-0-500-05155-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis2001-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis2001_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2001" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, M. J. T. (23 April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Izau5_ihmsC"><i>Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surveying+Instruments+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001-04-23&rft.isbn=9780521792974&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1Izau5_ihmsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-turner-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-turner_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner, Gerard L'E. <i>Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments</i>, Sotheby Publications, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85667-170-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-85667-170-3">0-85667-170-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturmanWright" class="citation web cs1">Sturman, Brian; Wright, Alan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2008/papers/hs01/hs01_03_sturman_wright_2833.pdf">"The History of the Tellurometer"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jerrymahun.com/library/Distance/a.htm">the original</a> on 29 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jerrymahun.com&rft.atitle=Electronic+Distance+Measurement&rft.aulast=Mahun&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjerrymahun.com%2Flibrary%2FDistance%2Fa.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeyLemmens" class="citation web cs1">Key, Henk; Lemmens, Mathias. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gim-international.com/content/article/robotic-total-stations">"Robotic Total Stations"</a>. <i>GIM International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GIM+International&rft.atitle=Robotic+Total+Stations&rft.aulast=Key&rft.aufirst=Henk&rft.au=Lemmens%2C+Mathias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gim-international.com%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Frobotic-total-stations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://novatel.com/an-introduction-to-gnss/chapter-5-resolving-errors/real-time-kinematic-rtk">"Real-Time Kinematic (RTK): Chapter 5- Resolving Errors"</a>. <i>Hexagon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hexagon&rft.atitle=Real-Time+Kinematic+%28RTK%29%3A+Chapter+5-+Resolving+Errors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnovatel.com%2Fan-introduction-to-gnss%2Fchapter-5-resolving-errors%2Freal-time-kinematic-rtk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325194334/http://www.isprs.org/commission3/annapolis/pdf/Schenk.pdf">"Toni Schenk, Suyoung Seo, Beata Csatho: <i>Accuracy Study of Airborne Laser Scanning Data with Photogrammetry</i>, p. 118"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isprs.org/commission3/annapolis/pdf/Schenk.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Toni+Schenk%2C+Suyoung+Seo%2C+Beata+Csatho%3A+Accuracy+Study+of+Airborne+Laser+Scanning+Data+with+Photogrammetry%2C+p.+118&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isprs.org%2Fcommission3%2Fannapolis%2Fpdf%2FSchenk.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gisuser.com/content/view/4843/">"View DigitalGlobe Imagery Solutions @ Geospatial Forum"</a>. 4 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=View+DigitalGlobe+Imagery+Solutions+%40+Geospatial+Forum&rft.date=2010-06-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gisuser.com%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F4843%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tutorgram.net/cad-for-surveying-2/">"CAD for Surveying"</a>. <i>Tutorgram</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tutorgram&rft.atitle=CAD+for+Surveying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftutorgram.net%2Fcad-for-surveying-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.mht.maryland.gov/Medusa/PDF/NR_PDFs/NR-311.pdf">"National Register of Historic Places - Registration form for Antietam Village Historic District"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places+-+Registration+form+for+Antietam+Village+Historic+District&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.mht.maryland.gov%2FMedusa%2FPDF%2FNR_PDFs%2FNR-311.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonalds2016" class="citation book cs1">Ronalds, B.F. (2016). <i>Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph</i>. London: Imperial College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4"><bdi>978-1-78326-917-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Francis+Ronalds%3A+Father+of+the+Electric+Telegraph&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78326-917-4&rft.aulast=Ronalds&rft.aufirst=B.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahmenFaig1988" class="citation book cs1">Kahmen, Heribert; Faig, Wolfgang (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5AFNBqbiLzoC&q=surveying"><i>Surveying</i></a>. Berlin: de Gruyter. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-008303-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-008303-5"><bdi>3-11-008303-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surveying&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=3-11-008303-5&rft.aulast=Kahmen&rft.aufirst=Heribert&rft.au=Faig%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5AFNBqbiLzoC%26q%3Dsurveying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BC_Punmia_2005_2-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BC_Punmia_2005_2_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BC_Punmia_2005_2_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBC_Punmia2005" class="citation book cs1">BC Punmia (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EM-sLyVmMwIC"><i>Surveying by BC Punmia</i></a>. Firewall Media. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170088530" title="Special:BookSources/9788170088530"><bdi>9788170088530</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surveying+by+BC+Punmia&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Firewall+Media&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9788170088530&rft.au=BC+Punmia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEM-sLyVmMwIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN_N_Basak2014" class="citation book cs1">N N Basak (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fIvvAwAAQBAJ"><i>Surveying and Levelling</i></a>. McGraw Hill Education. p. 542. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789332901537" title="Special:BookSources/9789332901537"><bdi>9789332901537</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surveying+and+Levelling&rft.pages=542&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789332901537&rft.au=N+N+Basak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfIvvAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zfn.co.uk/building-surveyors-london">"Building Surveyors London - ZFN Chartered Surveyors"</a>. <i>ZFN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ZFN&rft.atitle=Building+Surveyors+London+-+ZFN+Chartered+Surveyors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zfn.co.uk%2Fbuilding-surveyors-london&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A History of the Rectangular Survey System by C. Albert White, 1983, Pub: Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management : For sale by Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, D., & Hermansen, K. (1995). Use of extrinsic evidence to aid interpretation of deeds. Journal of Surveying Engineering, (121), 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joe Dracup (1997) "A new age of geodesy begins: 1970-1990", History of Geodetic Survey – Part 7, <i>ACSM Bulletin</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Congress_on_Surveying_and_Mapping" title="American Congress on Surveying and Mapping">American Congress on Surveying and Mapping</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://aagsmo.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/History-Part-VIII-july_a_001.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Surveying</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Surveying">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Surveying&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkerMinnick1995" class="citation book cs1">Brinker, Russell C; Minnick, Roy, eds. (1995). <i>The Surveying Handbook</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-2067-2">10.1007/978-1-4615-2067-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5858-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5858-9"><bdi>978-1-4613-5858-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Surveying+Handbook&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-2067-2&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-5858-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurveying" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Keay J (2000), <i>The Great Arc: The Dramatic Tale of How <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> was Mapped and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Everest</a> was Named</i>, Harper Collins, 182pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-653123-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-653123-7">0-00-653123-7</a>.</li> <li>Pugh J C (1975), <i>Surveying for Field Scientists</i>, Methuen, 230pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-07530-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-07530-4">0-416-07530-4</a></li> <li>Genovese I (2005), <i>Definitions of Surveying and Associated Terms</i>, ACSM, 314pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9765991-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9765991-0-4">0-9765991-0-4</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surveying&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/surveying" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/surveying">surveying</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Surveying" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Surveying">Surveying</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geometres-sans-frontieres.org">Géomètres sans Frontières</a> : Association de géometres pour aide au développement. NGO Surveyors without borders <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalsurveyingmuseum.org/">The National Museum of Surveying</a> The Home of the National Museum of Surveying in Springfield, Illinois</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://landsurveyorsunited.com/">Land Surveyors United Support Network</a> Global social support network featuring surveyor forums, instructional videos, industry news and support groups based on geolocation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/edu/geod/survey/index_e.php">Natural Resources Canada – Surveying</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101029233216/http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/edu/geod/survey/index_e.php">Archived</a> 29 October 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Good overview of surveying with references to construction surveys, cadastral surveys, photogrammetry surveys, mining surveys, hydrographic surveys, route surveys, control surveys and topographic surveys</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&id=HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia02&entity=HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia02.p0813&isize=XL">Table of Surveying, 1728 Cyclopaedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.survequip.com/surveying-triangulation/">Surveying & Triangulation</a> The History of Surveying And Survey Equipment</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncees.org/">NCEES</a> National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsps.us.com/">NSPS</a> National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usradar.com/about-ground-penetrating-radar-gpr/faq/">Ground Penetrating Radar FAQ</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222220303/http://www.usradar.com/about-ground-penetrating-radar-gpr/faq/">Archived</a> 22 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Using Ground Penetrating Radar for Land Surveying</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://landsurveyorsunited.com/hubs/SEIAD">Survey Earth</a> A Global event for professional land surveyors and students to remeasure planet in a single day during summer solstice as a community of land surveyors.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes171022.htm">Surveyors – Occupational Employment Statistics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blmsurveymanual.org/">Public Land Survey System Foundation (2009), <i>Manual of Surveying Instructions For the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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