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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>International Energy Statistics (IEA) as of 2014</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Energy_Statistics_(IEA)_as_of_2014-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulatory_framework" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Regulatory framework</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regulatory_framework-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regulatory framework subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federal_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Federal regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provincial_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincial_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Provincial regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincial_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_fuel_subsidies_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_fuel_subsidies_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Fossil fuel subsidies in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_fuel_subsidies_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Constitutional issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Energy policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Coal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Coal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Coal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Coal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_coal_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_coal_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>History of coal in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_coal_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coal_in_modern_day_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coal_in_modern_day_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Coal in modern day Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coal_in_modern_day_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petroleum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petroleum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Petroleum</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Petroleum-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Petroleum subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Petroleum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>First fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turner_Valley_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turner_Valley_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Turner Valley era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turner_Valley_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_discoveries_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_discoveries_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Post-war discoveries and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_discoveries_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Oil_Policy_(1964)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Oil_Policy_(1964)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>National Oil Policy (1964)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Oil_Policy_(1964)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_energy_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_energy_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Government energy companies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_energy_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_crises_(1973_and_1979)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_crises_(1973_and_1979)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Energy crises (1973 and 1979)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_crises_(1973_and_1979)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Energy_Program_(1980-1985)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Energy_Program_(1980-1985)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>National Energy Program (1980-1985)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Energy_Program_(1980-1985)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petro-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petro-Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Petro-Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petro-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-conventional_oil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-conventional_oil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Non-conventional oil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-conventional_oil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Natural gas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_gas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural gas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Albertan_natural_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albertan_natural_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Albertan natural gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albertan_natural_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Columbian_natural_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Columbian_natural_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>British Columbian natural gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Columbian_natural_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Electricity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Electricity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_in_Ontario" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_Ontario"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Development in Ontario</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_Ontario-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_in_Quebec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_Quebec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Development in Quebec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_Quebec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_in_British_Columbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_British_Columbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Development in British Columbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_British_Columbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_in_Alberta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_Alberta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Development in Alberta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_Alberta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alberta_Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alberta_Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5.1</span> <span>Alberta Power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alberta_Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edmonton_Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edmonton_Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5.2</span> <span>Edmonton Power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edmonton_Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alberta_Electrical_Distribution_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alberta_Electrical_Distribution_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5.3</span> <span>Alberta Electrical Distribution System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alberta_Electrical_Distribution_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_power_and_Uranium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_power_and_Uranium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Nuclear power and Uranium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_power_and_Uranium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewable_energy_and_carbon_neutral_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewable_energy_and_carbon_neutral_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Renewable energy and carbon neutral energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewable_energy_and_carbon_neutral_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_conservation_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_conservation_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Energy conservation in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_conservation_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22">"Energy policy of Canada"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Energy+policy+of+Canada%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#00CC4B; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 791.58150883059px; border-left-color:#7C6250"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#7C6250"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#7C6250"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:87.630668004386px 48.175367410172px 0 0; border-top-color:#de2821"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#de2821"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:58.778525229247px 80.901699437495px 0 0; border-top-color:#005CE6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#005CE6"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 63.461929754415px 100px 0; border-right-color:#ef8e39"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:#ef8e39"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:63.187544731532px; border-width:0 0 36.812455268468px 92.977648588825px; border-bottom-color:#313c42"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>Canada total primary energy consumption by fuel in 2015<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#313c42; color:white;"> </span> Coal (6%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ef8e39; color:black;"> </span> Natural gas (28%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#005CE6; color:white;"> </span> Hydro (26%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#de2821; color:white;"> </span> Nuclear (7%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7C6250; color:white;"> </span> Oil (31%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00CC4B; color:black;"> </span> Renewable energy (2%)</div> </div> </div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_emissions_Canada.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CO2_emissions_Canada.svg/220px-CO2_emissions_Canada.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CO2_emissions_Canada.svg/330px-CO2_emissions_Canada.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CO2_emissions_Canada.svg/440px-CO2_emissions_Canada.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Development of CO2 emissions</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:18.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_Canada" title="Category:Economy of Canada">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Canada" title="Economy of Canada">Economy of Canada</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Canada" title="Economy of Canada"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Transparenteconomycanada.png/130px-Transparenteconomycanada.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Transparenteconomycanada.png/195px-Transparenteconomycanada.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Transparenteconomycanada.png/260px-Transparenteconomycanada.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Canada" title="Economic history of Canada">Economic history </a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Canadian_banking_system" title="Early Canadian banking system">Banking history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Petroleum history</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Energy policy of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">Canadian dollar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Primary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sector">Primary sector</a></dt> <dd> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Canada" title="Agriculture in Canada">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_production_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum production in Canada">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Canada" title="Electricity sector in Canada">Electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Canada" title="Mining in Canada">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Canada" title="Fishing industry in Canada">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Canada" title="Forestry in Canada">Forestry</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sector">Secondary sector</a></dt> <dd> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Canada" title="Automotive industry in Canada">Automotives</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary sector">Tertiary sector</a></dt> <dd> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_Canada" title="Social programs in Canada">Social programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in Canada">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Canada" title="Tourism in Canada">Tourism</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">Finance</a></dt> <dd> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Canada" title="Bank of Canada">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Canada" title="Banking in Canada">Banking in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stock_exchanges_in_Canada" title="Category:Stock exchanges in Canada">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Canadian companies">Companies</a></dt> <dd> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_companies_listed_on_the_Toronto_Stock_Exchange" title="Category:Lists of companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange">Companies listed on the TSX</a></li></ul></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Economy by province</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Alberta" title="Economy of Alberta">Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ontario" title="Economy of Ontario">Ontario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Quebec" title="Economy of Quebec">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Saskatchewan" title="Economy of Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provinces_and_territories_by_gross_domestic_product" title="List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product"><i>more...</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Economy by city</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Montreal" title="Economy of Montreal">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Toronto" title="Economy of Toronto">Toronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Vancouver" title="Economy of Vancouver">Vancouver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_Canada_by_city" title="Category:Economy of Canada by city"><i>more...</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/14px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/21px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/28px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="343" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Canada" title="Portal:Canada">Canada portal</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Canada has access to all main sources of energy including <a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil and Gas">oil and gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">marine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a>. It is the world's second largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> third largest producer of hydro-electricity,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fourth largest natural gas producer, and the fifth largest producer of crude oil.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, only <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> produce more total energy than Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-CEF_GC_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEF_GC-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> is Canada's major trade market for energy products and services. Canada sent around 98% of its total energy exports to the United States in 2015, meaning that Canada is the largest supplier of energy exports to the world's largest economy. Canada also exports significant amounts of uranium and coal to Asia, Europe and Latin America.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite being a net energy exporter, Canada also imports energy products. $24.5 billion of energy products were imported in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-CEF_GC_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEF_GC-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Canada has a robust energy profile with abundant and diverse resources. The energy and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">climate policies</a> in Canada are interrelated. These energy and climate policies are implemented at both the federal and provincial government level. The federal government is responsible for establishing objectives for the entire country and the provincial governments are responsible for enforcing these objectives and developing the methods to achieve these goals.<sup id="cite_ref-Fertel_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fertel-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, the federal and provincial governments created a national agreement for cooperating in boosting the nation's energy industry while transitioning to a <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">low-carbon economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Laverty_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Provincial governments are developing their own strategies in order to reach the national goals. In 2016, Prince Edward Island Strategy became one of the first provinces to develop their own strategies in response to the federal agreement goals.<sup id="cite_ref-PEI_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PEI-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, Canada paid US$43 billion in post-tax <a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy subsidies">energy subsidies</a> according to a 2019 <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) report.<sup id="cite_ref-IMF_Coady_20190502_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMF_Coady_20190502-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Canada has been dependent on energy imports largely because of the great distances separating indigenous sources of supply from markets. It is therefore primarily as a result of geography, rather than geology, that questions concerning the importation, export and particularly the transportation of energy have preoccupied energy policymakers."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>François Bregha, <i>Energy Policy.</i> (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Aspects of Canada's "unique" political and economic reality affect its federal energy strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> Canada has "significant resources of conventional and <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a>, natural gas and hydroelectricity" and has become "one of the world’s largest energy producers."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 72">: 72 </span></sup> According to a 2015 <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Global_Affairs_Institute" title="Canadian Global Affairs Institute">Canadian Global Affairs Institute</a> (CGAI), the "design and structure" of <a href="/wiki/Canadian_federalism" title="Canadian federalism">Canadian federalism</a> has resulted in an "unwillingness of the federal government to commit to a national vision in most resource issues for fear of risking political capital in debates with those provinces who resist cooperative resource development."<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> Canada was one of the few OECD countries that did not have a national energy policy.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors of the 2003 publication, <i>Power Switch: Energy Regulatory Governance in the 21st Century</i>, wrote that "Canada has one of the most divided and decentralized constitutional arrangements for energy among Western industrialized countries."<sup id="cite_ref-CPSA_Gattinger_2013_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPSA_Gattinger_2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doern_Gattinger_2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doern_Gattinger_2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since 1867, the rules of Canadian federalism ensure that "individual provinces own, market and control energy exports" of energy resources contained within their own provincial borders.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> The federal government has the responsibility over infrastructure between provinces, which includes pipelines.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the major challenges of energy policy in Canada concerns geography not geology. The majority of energy consumers live in Ontario and Quebec and the major energy producers are located in the east and west. Canada's energy policies attempt to reconcile the economic interests of energy consumers who want the cheapest product, with the challenge of transporting indigenous energy products—such as coal from Nova Scotia in the 19th century for example, or oil and gas from Alberta—over long distances at competitive prices.<sup id="cite_ref-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the post-Confederation period one of the most important energy policy debates involved Nova Scotia's coal producers who sought tariffs that would protect their industry against imports of cheaper coal from the American midwest. Coal consumers in central Canada wanted free trade which would ensure access to the less expensive American coal which involved much lower transportation costs.<sup id="cite_ref-McDougall_1982_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDougall_1982-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1982 publication entitled <i>Fuels and the National Policy</i>, John N. McDougall wrote that debates on energy policies in Canada pitted those who proposed free markets for energy products, regardless of national origin, against those who called for government intervention through tariffs and other means.<sup id="cite_ref-McDougall_1982_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDougall_1982-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1946, the Atomic Energy Control Act was passed and the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB) was established to regulate the production and uses of uranium in Canada, under the premiership of <a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">William Lyon Mackenzie King</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nuclearsafety_1946_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclearsafety_1946-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The federal government took over the jurisdiction over uranium from the provinces. </p><p>The Royal Commission on Energy (1957–1959)−the Borden Commission—established by then-Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/John_Diefenbaker" title="John Diefenbaker">John Diefenbaker</a>, resulted in new legislation—the National Energy Board Act—Canada's "first integrated federal energy statute".<sup id="cite_ref-ALRJ_Priddle_1999_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALRJ_Priddle_1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 524">: 524 </span></sup> In 1957, oil producers in the western provinces sought federal support for the construction of a pipeline to provide them with access to eastern markets.<sup id="cite_ref-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastern oil refiners were purchasing cheap oil mainly from the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1959, the NEB was advised by a New York oil consultant <a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Levy" title="Walter J. Levy">Walter J. Levy</a> to not build the proposed Edmonton-to-Montreal pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levy also recommended that "Alberta oil should go to U.S. markets."<sup id="cite_ref-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, the National Oil Policy (NOP) was adopted through which the NEB accepted Mr. Levy's recommendations,<sup id="cite_ref-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theglobeandmail_Tertzakian_20130806-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was the cornerstone of Canada's energy policy until the NOP ended in September 1973. The NOP fostered growth of the fledgling oil industry in Western Canada,<sup id="cite_ref-canadianencyclopedia_Marsh_1988_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadianencyclopedia_Marsh_1988-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 701">: 701 </span></sup> which had begun with discovery of oil in <a href="/wiki/Leduc,_Alberta" title="Leduc, Alberta">Leduc, Alberta</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-AB_oilmagazine_200906_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AB_oilmagazine_200906-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a 2009 article in the <i>Alberta Oil Magazine</i>, the NOP made "consumers buy more Alberta oil and pay a premium over international prices that were depressed at the time. All of Canada west of the Ottawa River was reserved as an exclusive market for domestic production by a federal ban against cheaper imports."<sup id="cite_ref-AB_oilmagazine_200906_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AB_oilmagazine_200906-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NOP "established a protected market for domestic oil west of the Ottawa Valley, which freed the industry from foreign competition",<sup id="cite_ref-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 767–9">: 767–9 </span></sup> while the five eastern provinces, which included major refineries in Ontario and Quebec, continued to rely on foreign imports of crude oil, for example from Venezuela.<sup id="cite_ref-OAG_2007_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OAG_2007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were no major oil and gas policies made during the rest of the 1960s, a period marked stable fuel prices by increase in oil and gas consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadian_encyclopedia_energy_policy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 767–9">: 767–9 </span></sup> </p><p>During the Premiership of <a href="/wiki/John_Diefenbaker" title="John Diefenbaker">John Diefenbaker</a> from 1957 to 1963, and that of his successor, <a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Lester B. Pearson</a>, there was a focus on increased development of electricity resources for both domestic and export to the United States and to improve interprovincial transmission systems which many hoped would become a national electricity grid. In 1963, Pearson's administration introduced the National Power Policy.<sup id="cite_ref-Froschauer_2000_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froschauer_2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the installation of interprovincial transmission lines was politically sensitive.<sup id="cite_ref-Froschauer_2000_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froschauer_2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> If federal policies forced provinces to comply they would be accused of being heavy-handed.<sup id="cite_ref-Duquette_1995_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duquette_1995-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some provinces preferred to market their excess power to the United States to escape the perceived burden of federalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Froschauer_2000_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froschauer_2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> The premiers of Newfoundland and Quebec were engaged in a decades-long dispute over transmission of electricity from Newfoundland's <a href="/wiki/Churchill_Falls_Generating_Station" title="Churchill Falls Generating Station">Churchill Falls hydroelectric project</a> on the lower portion of the <a href="/wiki/Churchill_River_(Atlantic)" title="Churchill River (Atlantic)">Churchill River</a> through the province of Quebec.<sup id="cite_ref-Froschauer_2000_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froschauer_2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then Newfoundland Premier Smallwood, had appealed to Prime Minister Pearson to "strengthen provisions for interprovincial transmission of electricity".<sup id="cite_ref-Froschauer_2000_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froschauer_2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to the provinces' increasing concerns about federal funding programs, the Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements and Established Programs Financing Act of 1977 was passed which gave the provinces more autonomy. It resulted in significant decentralization of government that favoured the provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-CMC_nd_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMC_nd-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1980 <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Program" title="National Energy Program">National Energy Program</a> (NEP), which was introduced during the <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Pierre_Trudeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Premiership of Pierre Trudeau">Premiership of Pierre Trudeau</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Budget_1980_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budget_1980-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was one of the "most controversial policy initiatives in Canadian history".<sup id="cite_ref-CJPS_James_1993_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJPS_James_1993-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Publius_Pollard_1986_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publius_Pollard_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was introduced by the federal Liberal government, against the backdrop of the global recession following the <a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">Energy crisis</a> of the 1970s—which included two major oil price shocks: the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Grytten_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grytten-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the mid-1970s to mid-1980s, energy policies—particularly policy regarding the oil and gas industry—was a very "contentious", and "high profile" intergovernmental issue, which had a "deletrious effect on federal-provincial relations".<sup id="cite_ref-Publius_Pollard_1986_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publius_Pollard_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CJPS_James_1993_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJPS_James_1993-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31">: 31 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-James_1990_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James_1990-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Courchene_Melvin_1980_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courchene_Melvin_1980-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1986, during the <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Brian_Mulroney" class="mw-redirect" title="Premiership of Brian Mulroney">Premiership of Brian Mulroney</a>, provincial-federal relationships improved with greater cooperation regarding energy policies, largely because the international energy situation had changed.<sup id="cite_ref-Publius_Pollard_1986_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publius_Pollard_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prime Minister Mulroney entered into three "important intergovernmental agreements in the energy sector".<sup id="cite_ref-Publius_Pollard_1986_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publius_Pollard_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal-provincial accords and agreements included policies related to "management of Newfoundland's offshore resources, oil pricing and taxation in the western provinces, and natural gas pricing in western Canada."<sup id="cite_ref-Publius_Pollard_1986_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publius_Pollard_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NEP was dismantled through the Western Accord, market oriented agreement which brought in full deregulation of oil prices, "abolished import subsidies, the export tax on crude and oil products, and the petroleum compensation charge. It also phased out PIP grants and the PGRT. In addition, controls were lifted on oil exports."<sup id="cite_ref-Budget_1985_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budget_1985-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12–15">: 12–15 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OAG_2007_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OAG_2007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other major agreements and accords between the provinces and the federal government include the 1994 Agreement on Internal Trade (AIT), the 1999 Social Union Framework Agreement (SUFA) and the 2003 Council of the Federation (COF). </p><p>Energy production, energy resource marketing, equity investment in the energy sector, environmental issues, relationships First Nations peoples, are more complex because of the nature of Canadian federalism.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout Canada's history, federal powers and policies have fluctuated between centralizaton and de-centralization.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2015, Canada faced a deepening dilemma regarding energy export potential.<sup id="cite_ref-CGAI_Moore_201510_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGAI_Moore_201510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p><p>In 2014, under the <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Stephen_Harper" title="Premiership of Stephen Harper">Premiership of Stephen Harper</a>, the federal government focused on three main principles underlying its energy policies—market orientation, "respect for jurisdictional authority and the role of the provinces", and when necessary, "targeted intervention in the market process to achieve specific policy objectives through regulation or other means."<sup id="cite_ref-CNR_20140414_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNR_20140414-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canada_Natural_Resources&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canada Natural Resources (page does not exist)">Canada Natural Resources</a> described how federal-provincial agreements and accords had informed Canada's energy policy including the Western Accord on oil and gas pricing and taxation with the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, the Agreement on Natural Gas Markets and Prices with Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, and the Atlantic Accords with Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador, which included the creation of the Offshore Boards. International agreements that impact on Canada's energy policy include the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA).<sup id="cite_ref-CNR_20140414_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNR_20140414-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, the NRC listed the <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB) (1959-2019) the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Nuclear_Safety_Commission" title="Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission">Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_of_Canada_Limited" title="Atomic Energy of Canada Limited">Atomic Energy of Canada Limited</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Program_on_Energy_Research_and_Development&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Program on Energy Research and Development (page does not exist)">Program on Energy Research and Development</a> as contributors to the development of Canada's energy policy.<sup id="cite_ref-CNR_20140414_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNR_20140414-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Justin_Trudeau" title="Premiership of Justin Trudeau">Premiership of Justin Trudeau</a>, Canada entered into the Canada-EU Strategic Partnership Agreement in 2018, which includes the High Level Energy Dialogue (HLED),<sup id="cite_ref-GC_EU_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GC_EU-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on "energy policy issues, such as market transparency, maintaining a safe, sustainable and competitive energy supply, as well as research and development in the energy industries with a focus on "transition toward a low carbon future, addressing market barriers and 'clean financing'."<sup id="cite_ref-GC_EU_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GC_EU-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The EU's 2018 modern energy policy legislative framework called "Clean Energy for All Europeans" includes "regulatory certainty" with "binding renewable energy and energy efficiency targets", "national energy and climate plans", creates a "new energy ecosystem" and a market for Canadian "transition fuels (e.g. LNG), clean technologies, and services."<sup id="cite_ref-GC_EU_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GC_EU-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 2019 federal election campaign, both the Liberals and Conservatives had "agreed to try to hit existing Paris commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30 per cent by 2030."<sup id="cite_ref-NaObserver_20191021_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NaObserver_20191021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Canada research chair in climate and energy policy, Nicholas Rivers, said that there is not enough discussion of "renewable technologies such as wind power, solar and zero-emissions aluminum" in the electricity sector.<sup id="cite_ref-NaObserver_20191021_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NaObserver_20191021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivers said that, "Canadian governments have a terrible record at hitting their climate targets...What matters is what impact the policies will have on these emissions....We should be pretty cautious, because we haven't got a great deal of data to look at in terms of what the effects of these policies will actually be...Things are changing more rapidly than we imagined."<sup id="cite_ref-NaObserver_20191021_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NaObserver_20191021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivers said that the "federal government’s climate goals and Canada's oil and gas industry are [not] fundamentally incompatible." There is, however, "some tension between them."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2018, NRCAN's Generation Energy Council submitted their report entitled "Canada's Energy Transition: Getting to Our Energy Future, Together",<sup id="cite_ref-GEC_Smith_Coady_20180628_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEC_Smith_Coady_20180628-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNR_20180628_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNR_20180628-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which examined Canada's "long-term energy future", "generational goals", "guiding principles", and "potential pathways and milestones." The report by NRC's Generation Energy Council was informed by a 2017 national dialogue which included a Generation Energy Forum held in Winnipeg in October, on a "low-carbon energy future".<sup id="cite_ref-NRCAN_GEC_201806_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCAN_GEC_201806-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2017, Natural Resources Canada established the Generation Energy Council, composed of "energy thought leaders with diverse perspectives and expertise on Canada's energy systems" as a follow-up to the forum. According to the "Canada’s Energy Transition" report, the decoupling of Canadian energy use and GDP growth from 1990 to 2015, was confirmed by statistics showing that during that period, Canada's GDP grew by almost 80 percent, while Canadian energy use increased by only 30 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-NRCAN_GEC_201806_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCAN_GEC_201806-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 23">: 23 </span></sup> </p><p>In June 2016, Prime Minister Trudeau, said that he supported "interprovincial efforts to get carbon emissions down and emphasize hydroelectricity as a power source."<sup id="cite_ref-vancouversun_Lintz_20160620_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vancouversun_Lintz_20160620-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BC Hydro's $8.8-billion Site C hydroelectric project on Peace River in northeastern B.C. which is slated for completion in 2024, would supply electricity to Alberta to decrease Alberta's dependency on natural gas and coal.<sup id="cite_ref-vancouversun_Lintz_20160620_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vancouversun_Lintz_20160620-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2020, during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">2020 coronavirus pandemic</a>, Prime Minister Trudeau's energy policy appeared to appease both environmentalists and the oil industry.<sup id="cite_ref-CBC_Wherry_20200418_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC_Wherry_20200418-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a>, the <a href="/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash" title="2020 stock market crash">2020 stock market crash</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a> which resulted in the "collapse in oil prices", left Alberta with its "greatest challenge" in the province's "modern history, threatening its main industry and wreaking havoc on its finances."<sup id="cite_ref-NaPo_Bloomberg_Orland_20200407_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NaPo_Bloomberg_Orland_20200407-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While announcing a "series of measures to support the oil and gas industry", Trudeau said that "Just because we're in a health crisis doesn't mean we can neglect the environmental crisis." Some of the "measures had a complementary goal of addressing serious environmental concerns."<sup id="cite_ref-NaPo_Bloomberg_Orland_20200407_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NaPo_Bloomberg_Orland_20200407-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_Energy_Statistics_(IEA)_as_of_2014"><span id="International_Energy_Statistics_.28IEA.29_as_of_2014"></span>International Energy Statistics (IEA) as of 2014</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: International Energy Statistics (IEA) as of 2014"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;">Energy in Canada<sup id="cite_ref-IEA2015_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA2015-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#cfb;"> </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Capita </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Prim. energy </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Production </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Export </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Electricity </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">CO<sub>2</sub> emission </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#cfb;"> </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Million </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">TWh </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">TWh </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">TWh </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">TWh </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Mt </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2004</td> <td style="text-align:right;">31.95</td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,129</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,623</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,558</td> <td style="text-align:right;">549</td> <td style="text-align:right;">551 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2007</td> <td style="text-align:right;">32.98</td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,133</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,805</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,742</td> <td style="text-align:right;">560</td> <td style="text-align:right;">557 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2008</td> <td style="text-align:right;">33.33</td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,103</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,738</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,683</td> <td style="text-align:right;">568</td> <td style="text-align:right;">551 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2009</td> <td style="text-align:right;">33.74</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,955</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,533</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,645</td> <td style="text-align:right;">522</td> <td style="text-align:right;">521 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2010</td> <td style="text-align:right;">34.11</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,929</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,627</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,741</td> <td style="text-align:right;">516</td> <td style="text-align:right;">536 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2012</td> <td style="text-align:right;">34.48</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,929</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,757</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,843</td> <td style="text-align:right;">566</td> <td style="text-align:right;">530 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2012R</td> <td style="text-align:right;">34.88</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,921</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,881</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,962</td> <td style="text-align:right;">543</td> <td style="text-align:right;">534 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2013</td> <td style="text-align:right;">35.15</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,945</td> <td style="text-align:right;">5,060</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,146</td> <td style="text-align:right;">546</td> <td style="text-align:right;">536 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">Change 2004-10</td> <td style="text-align:right;">6.8%</td> <td style="text-align:right;">-6.4%</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0.1%</td> <td style="text-align:right;">11.7%</td> <td style="text-align:right;">-5.9%</td> <td style="text-align:right;">-2.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;" colspan="7"><small> Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, Prim. energy includes energy losses that are 2/3 for nuclear power<sup id="cite_ref-Sverigetab49_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sverigetab49-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> <p><small>2012R = CO<sub>2</sub> calculation criteria changed, numbers updated </small> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulatory_framework">Regulatory framework</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regulatory framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a 2006 Natural Resources Canada report on legal and policy frameworks on energy in North America, Canada's <a href="/wiki/Federal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal system">federal system</a> of government, jurisdiction over energy is divided between the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">provincial and territorial governments</a>. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-renewable resources">non-renewable resources</a>, as well as the generation and production of <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources on <a href="/wiki/Federal_lands" title="Federal lands">federal lands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NRCAN_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCAN-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_regulation">Federal regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Federal regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB) was an independent federal <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_agency" title="Regulatory agency">regulatory agency</a> that regulated the Canadian energy industry. The NEB was created in 1959 and reported through the Minister of Natural Resources to the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament of Canada</a>. Its primary responsibilities included: </p> <ul><li>Inter-provincial and international oil and gas <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Power lines">power lines</a>,</li> <li>Export and import of natural gas under long-term licenses and short-term orders,</li> <li>Oil exports under long-term licenses and short-term orders (no applications for long-term exports have been filed in recent years), and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier lands">Frontier lands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offshore_drilling" title="Offshore drilling">offshore areas</a> not covered by provincial/federal management agreements.</li></ul> <p>The NEB was superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Energy_Regulator" title="Canadian Energy Regulator">Canadian Energy Regulator</a> (CER) in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1985, the federal government and the provincial governments in <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a> agreed to <a href="/wiki/Deregulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Deregulate">deregulate</a> the prices of crude oil and natural gas. Offshore oil <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> is administered under joint federal and provincial responsibility in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NRCAN_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCAN-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincial_regulation">Provincial regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Provincial regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Provincial regulation of oil and natural gas activities, pipelines, and distribution systems is administered by provincial <a href="/wiki/Public_Utilities_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Utilities Commission">utility boards</a>. The producing provinces impose <a href="/wiki/Royalties" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalties">royalties</a> and taxes on oil and natural gas production; provide drilling incentives; and grant permits and licenses to construct and operate facilities. The consuming provinces regulate distribution systems and oversee the <a href="/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">retail</a> <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">price</a> of natural gas to <a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumers</a>. The key regulations with respect to the <a href="/wiki/Wholesale" class="mw-redirect" title="Wholesale">wholesale</a> and retail electricity competition are at the provincial level. To date, two provinces (Alberta and Ontario) have initiated <a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">retail competition</a>. In Alberta, the electricity sector is largely <a href="/wiki/Privatized" class="mw-redirect" title="Privatized">privatized</a>, in Ontario the process is ongoing. In other provinces electricity is mostly generated and distributed by <a href="/wiki/Crown_corporations_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown corporations of Canada">provincially owned</a> utilities.<sup id="cite_ref-NRCAN_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCAN-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_fuel_subsidies_in_Canada">Fossil fuel subsidies in Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fossil fuel subsidies in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the 2 May 2019 <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) report, in 2015, Canada paid US$43 billion in post-tax energy subsidies which represents 2.9 percent of the GDP and an expenditure of US$1,191 per capita.<sup id="cite_ref-IMF_Coady_20190502_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMF_Coady_20190502-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> On the eve of the <a href="/wiki/2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a> (COP21) held in Paris, CBC news reported that <a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a> countries spend US$452 billion annually on <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_subsidies" title="Fossil fuel subsidies">fossil fuel subsidies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CBC_McDiarmid_20151112_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC_McDiarmid_20151112-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fiscal year 2013–2014, the federal government gave the petroleum industry approximately US$1.6 billion. The combined federal and provincial support for the petroleum industry during that period totalled almost US$2.7 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-CBC_McDiarmid_20151112_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC_McDiarmid_20151112-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CBC article cite the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a> 2015 report on G20 subsidies to oil, gas and coal production.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leaders of the G20 countries had pledged in 2011 to phase-out fossil fuel subsidies.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013–2014, Canada also provided a "high level of public finance"—several billion dollars—for fossil fuel production abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> This included subsidies for oil and gas and fossil fuel-based electricity for state-owned enterprises (SOE), such as, Oil India, JOGMEC in Japan, KNOC in Korea, and EDF in France.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup> The ODI report noted that as the global price of oil decreased, about 30 countries introduced fossil fuel consumer subsidy phase-out in 2014 and 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that same period, fossil fuel-extracting companies in Canada "increased their pressure on governments" for help in remaining "competitive" by giving them "more tax breaks and other support."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD) published <i>The OECD Inventory of Support Measures for Fossil Fuels 2015</i> and a Companion to the inventory. Canada prepared a <i>Study of Federal Support to the Fossil Fuel Sector</i> and the Office of the Auditor General of Canada compiled a report as part of a parliamentary enquiry in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 33">: 33 </span></sup> in 2013-2014 Canada spent US$2,738 million on subsidies for "upstream oil and gas, oil and gas pipelines, power plants and refining, multiple <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> or unspecified, coal mining, and coal-fired power."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p><p>The ODI reported that by late 2015, the Canadian federal government was phasing out some subsidies to oil, gas and mining.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> By January 2015, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Athasbaska_oil_sands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Athasbaska oil sands (page does not exist)">Athasbaska oil sands</a> "were no longer eligible for accelerated depreciation."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> They were "subject to the same tax regime as other oil, mining and gas development."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> The Atlantic Investment Tax Credit was also in the process of being phased out.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> The federal government introduced new fossil fuel subsidies in the form of "tax breaks for LNG production in the form of increased capital cost allowance rates that allow companies to deduct capital spending more quickly than was previously possible."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Export_Development_Canada" title="Export Development Canada">Export Development Canada</a> (EDC), Canada's export credit agency spent about $2.5 billion per year in 2013 and 2014 in the energy industries.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_Bast_201511_13-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI_Bast_201511-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 72">: 72 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_issues">Constitutional issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Constitutional issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canadian energy policy reflects the constitutional <a href="/wiki/Division_of_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of powers">division of powers</a> between the federal government and the provincial governments. The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Constitution of Canada</a> places natural resources under the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_federalism" title="Canadian federalism">jurisdiction of the provinces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the three <a href="/wiki/Prairie_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Prairie provinces">prairie provinces</a> originally did not control the natural resources in the provinces as a condition of their entry into Confederation, until the <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Acts" title="Natural Resources Acts">Natural Resources Acts</a> of 1930. The provincial governments own most of the petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves, and control most of the electricity production. This means that the national government must coordinate its energy policies with those of the provincial governments, and intergovernmental conflicts sometimes arise. The problem is particularly acute since, while the energy consuming provinces have the bulk of the population and are able to elect federal governments which introduce policies favouring energy consumers, the energy producing provinces have the ability to defeat such policies by exercising their constitutional authority over natural resources. </p><p>Section 92A of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a> assigned to the provincial governments the exclusive authority to make laws in relation to non-renewable resources and electrical energy, while Section 125 prevented the federal government from taxing any provincial government lands or property. On the other hand, the federal government has the power to make treaties with foreign countries. This has important implications for treaties involving energy production, like the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, which the Canadian government signed in 2002. Although the federal government had the authority to sign the treaty, it may require the cooperation of the provincial governments to enforce it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_policies">Energy policies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Energy policies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png/220px-World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png/330px-World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png/440px-World_Map_-_Energy_Use_2013.png 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>A map depicting world <a href="/wiki/World_energy_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy consumption">energy consumption</a> per capita based on 2013 data from the World Bank.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Canada has a robust energy profile with abundant and diverse resources. Energy and climate policies are interrelated. These policies are implemented at both the federal and provincial governmental level. A recent <a href="/wiki/SWOT_analysis" title="SWOT analysis">SWOT</a> analysis conducted in 2013 of a Canadian energy and climate policies has shown that there is a lack of consistency between federal and regional strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Fertel_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fertel-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason for this lack of consistency was attributed to the economic and environmental realities, the diversity of energy sources and energy demands that vary greatly among the Canadian provinces. As a result of the differing energy characteristics of the provinces there is creation of multiple federal and provincial strategies, sometimes complementary, but often contradictory. </p><p>The Canadian energy policy is based on three important principles. These principles are (1) competitive markets to ensure a successful and innovative energy system capable of meeting Canadian energy needs, (2) respecting the jurisdictions of provinces and the federal government and (3) targeted federal interventions in the energy trading process ensuring the specific energy-policy objectives are achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-Laverty_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to improve the coherence of provinces and federal policies a combination of policy tools have been instituted to facilitate collaboration between the federal and provincial governments. These policies tools have resulted in equal balance of federal and provincial government in the creation of energy policies. The federal government is responsible for establishing objectives for the entire country and the provincial governments are responsible for enforcing these objectives and developing the methods to achieve these goals.<sup id="cite_ref-Laverty_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the federal government worked with Canada's provincial leaders and reached an agreement for cooperating in boosting the nation's industry while transitioning to a low-carbon economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Laverty_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The critics of this agreement doubted that the provincial leaders would be to reach an agreement and they also doubted that they would be successful in forming a joint energy policy. However, this was not the case. After a three-day meeting in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, the Council of the Federation released this report that set out their vision for a national energy strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-Laverty_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This agreement is meant to guide energy policy among the provincial governments. This agreement seeks out to influence provinces to promote energy efficiency and conservation, transition to lower carbon economy and enhance energy information and awareness. The Prince Edward Island Strategy is a provincial strategy that was in response to meeting the federal government goals presented in this agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-PEI_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PEI-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coal">Coal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Coal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coal_in_Canada" title="Coal in Canada">Coal in Canada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_coal_in_Canada">History of coal in Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History of coal in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coal has been mined in Canada since 1639 when a small mine was opened at <a href="/wiki/Grand_Lake,_New_Brunswick" title="Grand Lake, New Brunswick">Grand Lake, New Brunswick</a>. In 1720 French soldiers opened a mine in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Regional_Municipality,_Nova_Scotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia">Cape Breton, Nova Scotia</a> to supply the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Louisbourg" title="Louisbourg">Louisbourg</a>. Cape Breton later supplied coal to <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and other American ports. Commercial mining in New Brunswick began in 1825 although most of the province's coal production has been used locally. In <a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">western Canada</a>, coal was first mined on <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> from 1853. Starting in the 1880s, the building of the <a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcontinental railway">transcontinental railways</a> through <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> caused coal mines to be developed in various locations near railway lines in the prairies and mountains. By 1911 western mines produced most of the coal in Canada and, despite downturns, gradually expanded to produce over 95% of Canadian coal.<sup id="cite_ref-Page_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coal was subsidised in Canada from 1887. The mines of Cape Breton were involved in this tariff protection to help it compete against American coal entering Ontario via the Great Lakes. Cape Breton coal was dug underground then shipped to Toronto and Montreal. The vast industries of the east, including steel mills, were fuelled with this coal. While there were difficulties and strikes, coal powered Canada into the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. There were several <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commissions</a> into coal: one in 1947 and other in 1965. </p><p>Federal involvement in Cape Breton, continued with the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Development_Corporation" title="Cape Breton Development Corporation">Cape Breton Development Corporation</a>, or Devco which was in reality a large subsidy. The completion of the trans-Canada pipeline, nuclear reactors and the <a href="/wiki/Hibernia_oil_field" title="Hibernia oil field">Hibernia oil fields</a> have finished<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (June 2019)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> coal in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>. Coal is located on Vancouver Island: there are coal deposits in Cassidy, <a href="/wiki/Nanaimo" title="Nanaimo">Nanaimo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campbell_River,_British_Columbia" title="Campbell River, British Columbia">Campbell River</a> and Fort Rupert. Coal was mined at Nanaimo for 102 years from 1853 to 1955. In BC's interior coal was mined at <a href="/wiki/Merritt,_British_Columbia" title="Merritt, British Columbia">Merritt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coalmont,_British_Columbia" title="Coalmont, British Columbia">Coalmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fernie,_British_Columbia" title="Fernie, British Columbia">Fernie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Hope,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hudson's Hope, British Columbia">Hudson's Hope</a>. The development of coal mines in western Canada is integrally mixed with the building of railways—the Canadian Pacific Railway was directly involved with the Fermie mines. A separate railway—the Crow's Nest Line—was built to move coal from the Rockies to the smelter at Trail. Coal in Alberta underlays parts of the Rocky Mountains. Historically, there were pits in <a href="/wiki/Lethbridge" title="Lethbridge">Lethbridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pincher_Creek" title="Pincher Creek">Pincher Creek</a>, Canmore and <a href="/wiki/Nordegg,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordegg, Alberta">Nordegg</a>. </p><p>The discovery of huge oil fields in western Canada starting with the <a href="/wiki/Leduc,_Alberta" title="Leduc, Alberta">Leduc, Alberta</a> field in 1947, and growing imports of cheap foreign oil into eastern Canada drastically affected the demand for Canadian coal. Beginning about 1950, almost all the coal used for heating, industry, and transportation was replaced by petroleum products and natural gas. This had a devastating effect on the coal mining communities of Atlantic Canada, although in western Canada the loss of jobs in the coal industry was more than compensated for by gains in the oil industry. </p><p>Coal mining began an expansion phase in the late 1960s with the signing of long-term contracts to supply <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_coal" title="Metallurgical coal">metallurgical coal</a> to the booming Japanese steel industry. This was of little benefit to Atlantic Canada, but led to the re-opening of closed mines and the development of new mines in Alberta and BC. Around the same time, Alberta and Saskatchewan began to use their substantial coal resources to generate electricity. Crude oil price increases in the 1970s and early 1980s increased the demand for coal worldwide. New mines opened in Alberta and BC, and new port facilities were built in BC to supply the growing demand in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Page_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coal_in_modern_day_Canada">Coal in modern day Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Coal in modern day Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canada has the tenth largest coal reserves in the world, an enormous amount considering the sparse population of the country. However, the vast majority of those reserves are located hundreds or thousands of kilometres from the country's industrial centres and seaports, and the effect of high transportation costs is that they remain largely unexploited. As with other natural resources, regulation of coal production is within the exclusive jurisdiction of the provincial governments, and it only enters federal jurisdiction when it is imported or exported from Canada. </p><p>Over 90% of Canada's coal reserves and 99% of its production are located in the Western provinces of <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>. Alberta has 70% of Canada's coal reserves, and 48% of the province is underlain by coal deposits. The Hat Creek deposit in British Columbia has one of the thickest coal deposits in the world, about 550 metres (1,800 ft) thick. There are also smaller, but substantial, coal deposits in <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic islands">Arctic Islands</a>, which are even further from markets. The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic provinces">Atlantic provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> have coal deposits that were historically a very important source of energy, and Nova Scotia was once the largest coal producer in Canada, but these deposits are much smaller and much more expensive to produce than the Western coal, so coal production in the Atlantic provinces has virtually ceased. Nova Scotia now imports most of the coal for its power plants from other countries like Colombia. At the same time, the Western provinces export their coal to 20 different countries, particularly <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, in addition to using it in their own thermal power plants. </p><p>The region between New Brunswick and Saskatchewan, a distance of thousands of kilometres which includes the major industrial centres of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, is largely devoid of coal. As a result, these provinces used to import almost all of the coal for their steel mills and thermal power plants from the United States. Unfortunately coal from the Eastern United States is high in sulphur content, and this had contributed to a serious air quality problem, particularly in heavily populated Southwestern Ontario until they phased out the last coal fired power plant in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Petroleum">Petroleum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Petroleum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">History of the petroleum industry in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(frontier_exploration_and_development)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (frontier exploration and development)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (frontier exploration and development)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-(in-millions-of-barrels)---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg/220px-Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg/330px-Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg/440px-Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-%28in-millions-of-barrels%29---2017---US-EIA---Jo-Di-graphics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6460" data-file-height="3480" /></a><figcaption>A map of world <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">oil reserves</a> according to U.S. EIA, 2017</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_fields">First fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: First fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1858 James Miller Williams dug the first oil well in North America at Oil Springs, Ontario, preceding Edwin Drake who drilled the first one in the United States one year later. By 1870 Canada had 100 refineries in operation and was exporting oil to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the oil fields of Ontario were shallow and small, and oil production peaked and started to decline around 1900. In contrast, oil production in the United States grew rapidly in the first part of the 20th century after huge discoveries were made in Texas, Oklahoma, California and elsewhere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turner_Valley_era">Turner Valley era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Turner Valley era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1914, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada,_part_one#Turner_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada, part one">Turner Valley</a> became the first significant field found in Alberta. Eastern Canadian investors and the federal government showed little interest and the field was developed primarily by subsidiaries of U.S. companies. It was originally believed to be a gas field with a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Naptha" class="mw-redirect" title="Naptha">naptha</a> condensed in the gas, but due to the lack of regulations, about 90% of the gas was <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada,_part_one#Waste_and_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada, part one">flared off</a> to extract the small amount of petroleum liquids, an amount of gas that today would be worth billions of dollars. </p><p>In 1930, crude oil was discovered in the Turner Valley field, below and to the west of the gas cap. This came as a shock to geologists because the free gas cap, which could have provided the reservoir drive to produce the oil, had largely been produced and flared off by that time. As a result, less than 12% of the original oil in place at Turner Valley will ever be recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Alberta provincial government became upset by the conspicuous waste so in 1931 it passed the Oil and Gas Wells Act, followed in 1932 by the Turner Valley Conservation Act. However, the federal government declared both Acts unconstitutional, and the wasteful burning of natural gas continued. However, in 1938 the provincial government established the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board (today known as the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Resources_Conservation_Board" title="Energy Resources Conservation Board">Energy Resources Conservation Board</a>) to initiate conservation measures, and this time was successful in implementing it.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This body was the regulator of oil and gas production in Alberta, and therefore of most production in Canada. As the provincial regulatory authority with the most experience in the industry, it became a model for the other oil and gas producing provinces - indeed, it has been used as a model by many national petroleum industries around the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war_discoveries_and_development">Post-war discoveries and development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Post-war discoveries and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the end of World War II, Canada was importing 90% of its oil from the U.S. The situation changed dramatically in 1947 when <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a> drilled into a peculiar anomaly on its newly developed <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> recordings near the then-village of <a href="/wiki/Leduc,_Alberta" title="Leduc, Alberta">Leduc</a>, Alberta. The <a href="/wiki/Leduc_No._1" title="Leduc No. 1">Leduc No. 1</a> well identified a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada,_part_one#Leduc" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada, part one">large oil field</a>, and provided the geological key for other important discoveries within Alberta. Geologists soon began to identify and drill other <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reefs</a>, mostly in the north-central portion of the province. The Alberta oil rush began, and drillers quickly began to identify other important oil-bearing formations like the one hosting the giant Pembina oilfield. </p><p>The Leduc discovery and the string of even bigger ones that followed rapidly backed imported oil out of the Canadian prairies and produced a huge oil surplus which had no immediate market. In 1949, Imperial Oil applied to the federal government to build the <a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Interprovincial Pipeline</a> (IPL) to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>, and in 1950 it was completed to the port of <a href="/wiki/Superior,_Wisconsin" title="Superior, Wisconsin">Superior, Wisconsin</a>. Many people questioned why it was built to an American port rather than a Canadian one, but the federal government was more interested in the fact that oil exports completely erased the country's trade deficit. </p><p>In 1950 the federal government approved a western pipeline, and in 1953 the 1,200 km (750 mi) <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada#Crude_oil_arteries" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Transmountain Pipeline</a> was built from Edmonton to the port of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, with an extension to <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>. The IPL was extended via <a href="/wiki/Sarnia" title="Sarnia">Sarnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> by 1956 and became, at 3,100 km (1,900 mi), the world's longest oil pipeline at that time. Extensions were built to <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> and other refinery locations in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a> during the 1960s, which improved US energy security. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Oil_Policy_(1964)"><span id="National_Oil_Policy_.281964.29"></span>National Oil Policy (1964)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: National Oil Policy (1964)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oilrig-AB-north.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Oilrig-AB-north.JPG/200px-Oilrig-AB-north.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Oilrig-AB-north.JPG/300px-Oilrig-AB-north.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Oilrig-AB-north.JPG/400px-Oilrig-AB-north.JPG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Drilling rig in northern <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Alberta oil producers found that they were receiving better treatment from the US government than from the Canadian government. US energy policy during the Cold War gave preference to Canadian oil and treated Alberta as if it were a US state, as the location of Alberta's vast oil fields made them more secure from attack than the major US oil fields in Alaska, California and Texas. The Alberta producers asked the federal government for exclusive access to the Eastern Canadian oil market, although they calculated that they could not deliver Alberta oil to Montreal for less than the price of imported oil.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Montreal-area refineries and the Quebec government balked at this, resulting in the National Oil Policy of 1961. This drew a dividing line at the Ottawa River and gave Canadian producers exclusive rights to sell oil to the west of the line. Only the refineries east of the line could continue to process imported oil. </p><p>Not everyone was happy with the arrangement. The aim of the National Oil Policy was to promote the Alberta oil industry by securing for it a protected share of the domestic market. Under the policy, Canada was divided into two oil markets. The market east of the Ottawa Valley (the Borden Line) would use imported oil, while west of the Borden Line, consumers would use the more expensive Alberta supplies. For most of the 1961–1973 period, consumers to the west paid between $1.00 and $1.50 per barrel above the world price, which, just before the 1973 OPEC oil embargo and price increase, stood at around $3.00. They also paid proportionately higher prices at the pump than Canadians east of the Borden line. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_energy_companies">Government energy companies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Government energy companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1970, Quebec created a provincially owned petroleum company called SOQUIP. A year later, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Canada%27s_Economic_Prospects" title="Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects">Gordon Commission</a>'s nationalist flavour found practical expression with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Development_Corporation" title="Canada Development Corporation">Canada Development Corporation</a>, to "buy back" Canadian industries and resources with deals that included a takeover of the Western operations of France's Aquitaine and their conversion into Canterra Energy. Also in 1971, the federal government blocked a proposed purchase of Canadian-controlled Home Oil by American-based Ashland Oil. </p><p>The wave of direct action spread to Alberta when Premier <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lougheed" title="Peter Lougheed">Peter Lougheed</a> and his Conservatives won power in 1971, ending 36 years of <a href="/wiki/Social_Credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Credit">Social Credit</a> rule. Lougheed's elaborate election platform, titled New Directions, sounded themes common among OPEC countries by pledging to create provincial resources and oil growth companies, collect a greater share of energy revenues, and foster economic diversification to prepare for the day when petroleum reserves ran out. The idea of limited resources emerged from the realm of theory into hard facts of policy when the NEB rejected natural-gas export applications in 1970 and 1971, on grounds that there was no surplus and Canada needed the supplies. The strength of the new conservationist sentiment was underlined when the NEB held its position despite a 1971 declaration by the federal <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Canada" title="Natural Resources Canada">Department of Energy</a> that it thought Canada had a 392-year supply of <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> and enough oil for 923 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_crises_(1973_and_1979)"><span id="Energy_crises_.281973_and_1979.29"></span>Energy crises (1973 and 1979)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Energy crises (1973 and 1979)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1973, this situation changed abruptly. </p><p>The Canadian government had already begun to change its energy policy. Inflation had become a national problem and oil prices were rising, and on 4 September 1973 Pierre Trudeau asked the western provinces to agree to a voluntary freeze on oil prices. Nine days later, his government imposed a 40-cent tax on every barrel of exported Canadian oil. The tax equalled the difference between domestic and international oil prices, and the revenues were used to subsidize imports for eastern refiners. At a stroke, Ottawa began subsidizing eastern consumers while reducing the revenues available to producing provinces and the petroleum industry. Alberta premier Peter Lougheed soon announced that his government would revise its royalty policy in favour of a system linked to international oil prices. </p><p>Two days later, on 6 October, the Yom Kippur War broke out. OPEC used the conflict to double the posted price for a barrel of Saudi Arabian light oil, to US$5.14. Saudi and the other Arab states then imposed embargoes on countries supporting Israel, and oil prices rose to $12. </p><p>These events aggravated tensions among provincial, federal and industry leaders. The rest of the 1970s were marked by rapid-fire, escalating moves and counter-moves by Ottawa, Western provinces and even Newfoundland. The atmosphere was one of urgency, alarm and crisis, with global conflicts adding gravity to the federal-provincial quarrelling. </p><p>In 1979–1980, further crises in the Middle East led to panic-driven pricing. The <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> came first. War between that country and Iraq soon followed. Oil prices more than doubled, to US$36 per barrel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Energy_Program_(1980-1985)"><span id="National_Energy_Program_.281980-1985.29"></span>National Energy Program (1980-1985)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: National Energy Program (1980-1985)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Program" title="National Energy Program">National Energy Program</a></div> <p>Introduced by the Liberal government under <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Trudeau" title="Pierre Trudeau">Pierre Trudeau</a> on 28 October 1980, the controversial <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Program" title="National Energy Program">National Energy Program</a> (NEP) had three objectives: energy self-sufficiency; redistributing wealth from a non-sustainable resource to benefit the country as a whole; and increased ownership of the oil industry by Canadians.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As implemented, the NEP gave the Federal government control over petroleum prices, imposing a price ceiling and export duties. </p><p>The federal government had two major challenges in creating a truly national energy program. The first problem was that Canada is both an importer and an exporter of oil. It imports oil from offshore sources such as Venezuela and the Middle East into its Eastern provinces, while simultaneously exporting oil from its Western provinces into the United States. While it was popular in Eastern and Central Canada, the program incurred strong resentment in the province of Alberta<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where oil and gas production are concentrated. The second problem was that provincial governments, rather than the federal government, have constitutional jurisdiction over natural resources. The Government of Alberta actually owned most of the oil in Canada. This provoked a confrontation with the government of Alberta, since any reduction in oil prices came directly out of Alberta government revenues. The conflict was made worse by the fact that the Alberta government had constitutional mechanisms available to it by which it could remove oil from federal taxation and shift the costs of oil subsidies onto the federal government. This increased the federal government deficit. </p><p>The National Energy Program had a number of other flaws. It was based on a world price steadily increasing to $100 per barrel. The world oil price declined to as little as $10 per barrel in the years following. Since the federal government based its spending on the larger figure, the result was that it spent a great deal of money on subsidies that could not be recovered in taxes on production. Furthermore, due to proximity to the U.S. market companies had opportunities to make money by playing differentials in prices. For instance, refiners in Eastern Canada would import oil subsidized down to half the world price, refine it into products, and export the products to the U.S. at full world price. Airlines flying between Europe and the U.S. via the polar route would take off with as little fuel as possible, and stop briefly in Canada to fill up before continuing on to their destination. Trucking companies operating between locations in the Northern U.S. would detour their trucks through Canada to refuel. None of these transactions was illegal, or even unusual considering the integrated nature of the economies, but all had the effect of transferring billions of Canadian tax dollars to the balance sheets of (mostly foreign owned) companies. A third flaw was that the NEP assumed that future oil discoveries would be made in areas under federal jurisdiction, such as the Arctic and offshore. As it turned out, most of the major oil discoveries in Canada had already been made, and the subsidies given by the federal government to companies exploring in federal jurisdiction were not productive. All of these flaws resulted in large, and unexpected, increases in the federal budget deficit. </p><p>The final result of the NEP was that the federal government failed to keep fuel prices low while incurring financial losses. In the subsequent election in 1984, the governing Liberal party was defeated. The winning Progressive Conservative party dismantled the policy a year after its election. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petro-Canada">Petro-Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Petro-Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Petro-Canada" title="Petro-Canada">Petro-Canada</a></div> <p>In 1975 the Liberal government reacted to the 1973 oil crisis by creating a federally owned oil company, <a href="/wiki/Petro-Canada" title="Petro-Canada">Petro-Canada</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Crown_corporation" title="Crown corporation">Crown corporation</a> was originally developed to be an "eye on the petroleum industry" during a period of perceived <a href="/wiki/1973_energy_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="1973 energy crisis">energy crisis</a>. Initially, its assets consisted only of the federal government's share of the oil sands company <a href="/wiki/Syncrude" title="Syncrude">Syncrude</a> and the Arctic oil explorer <a href="/wiki/Panarctic_oils" class="mw-redirect" title="Panarctic oils">Panarctic Oils</a>. </p><p>However, the government quickly expanded it by buying the Canadian assets of foreign-owned oil companies, such as <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Richfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Richfield">Atlantic Richfield</a> in 1976, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Petroleums" title="Pacific Petroleums">Pacific Petroleums</a> in 1979, <a href="/wiki/Petrofina" title="Petrofina">Petrofina</a> in 1981, the refining and marketing assets of <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a> in 1983 and of <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Oil" title="Gulf Oil">Gulf Oil</a> in 1985. </p><p>Federal ownership brought Petro-Canada into conflict with the provincial governments which had control over the largest and lowest cost oil production in the country. They objected to federal intrusion into their constitutional jurisdiction, and tried to block federal incursions. For instance, when Petro-Canada attempted to buy <a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Oil</a> in 1978, the Alberta government surreptitiously got control of Husky stock through <a href="/wiki/Nova_Chemicals" title="Nova Chemicals">Alberta Gas Trunk Line</a>, and successfully blocked the takeover. In 1979 Petro-Canada acquired <a href="/wiki/Westcoast_Transmission_Co._Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Westcoast Transmission Co. Ltd.">Westcoast Transmission Co. Ltd.</a> and Pacific Petroleums Ltd., its parent company, as a fully integrated oil company for the then-record purchase price of $1.5 billion. </p><p>Petro-Canada overestimated the future price of oil, and consequently paid high prices for the oil assets it acquired, which subsequently fell considerably in value. Its assumption that big new oil discoveries would be made in the Arctic and off the Atlantic coast turned out to be incorrect. Petro-Canada has since abandoned all the wells Panarctic drilled, and the discoveries it did make off the Atlantic coast were fewer, more expensive, and took longer to develop than expected. <a href="/wiki/Hibernia_(oil_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibernia (oil field)">Hibernia</a> did not produce oil until 1997 and <a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_(oil_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Nova (oil field)">Terra Nova</a> until 2002. The government also expected Petro-Canada to force down what it considered the high price of gasoline to consumers, but Petro-Canada's oil production was more expensive and its oil refineries less efficient than those of the competing multi-national companies, and it found itself losing money on all aspects of the oil industry. </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada" title="Progressive Conservative Party of Canada">Conservatives</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberals</a> in power in 1984, they began to reverse the nationalization process. In 1991, they passed legislation allowing privatization and began selling shares to the public. The Liberals returned to power in 1993, but had lost interest in having a <a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">national oil company</a>, and continued the privatization process. In 1995 the federal government reduced its interest to 20 percent, and in 2004 sold the remaining shares. Petro-Canada has done better since privatization because <a href="/wiki/Oil_price_increases_since_2003" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil price increases since 2003">oil price increases since 2003</a> make its high-cost production profitable, and consolidation of its refining operations to fewer but larger refineries reduced its downstream costs even as prices increased. </p><p>On 23 March 2009, Petro-Canada and <a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a> announced they would merge to create Canada's largest oil company. At the time of the announcement, combined <a href="/wiki/Market_capitalization" title="Market capitalization">market capitalization</a> of the two corporations was $43 billion. The merged organization would operate under the Suncor name, but would use the Petro-Canada brand in its retail operations. The companies estimated that the merger would save $1.3 billion per year in capital and operating costs, and said that the larger company will have the financial resources to move ahead with the most promising oilsands projects.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-conventional_oil">Non-conventional oil</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Non-conventional oil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta,_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg/220px-Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg/330px-Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg/440px-Petroleum_resources_in_Alberta%2C_according_to_the_Argonne_National_Labs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>Petroleum resources in <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg/220px-Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg/330px-Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg/440px-Sulfur_pyramid_-8650842382_db6080560b_o.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>Sulfur blocks at <a href="/wiki/Syncrude" title="Syncrude">Syncrude</a> base plant</figcaption></figure> <p>Canada has oil sands deposits greater than the world's total supply of conventional oil at 270 billion m<sup>3</sup> (1,700 billion bbl) to 400 billion m<sup>3</sup> (2,500 billion bbl).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, 27.8 billion m<sup>3</sup> (175 billion bbl) are extractable at current prices using current technology, which makes Canada's proven oil reserves second only to Saudi Arabia. Production costs are considerably higher than in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, but this is offset by the fact that the geological and political risks are much lower than in most major oil-producing areas. Almost all of the Canadian oil sands are located in Alberta. The <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> are the only major oil sands deposits in the world which are shallow enough for surface mining. </p><p>Commercial production began in 1967 when <a href="/wiki/Great_Canadian_Oil_Sands" title="Great Canadian Oil Sands">Great Canadian Oil Sands</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Suncor" class="mw-redirect" title="Suncor">Suncor</a>) launched the world's first major oil sands mine. <a href="/wiki/Syncrude" title="Syncrude">Syncrude</a> opened the second major facility in 1978. The third, by <a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a>, started in 2003. The oil price increases of 2004-2007 made the oil sands much more profitable, and by 2007 over $100 billion worth of new mines and thermal projects were under construction or on the drawing boards. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> announced that in 2006 its Canadian oil sands operations were almost twice as profitable on a per-barrel basis as its international conventional oil operations and in July 2007, it announced it would start a massive $27 billion expansion of its oil sands plants in Alberta. </p><p>Cost of production in the oil sands, from raw oil sand to fractionate in the pipe feed, was $18 per barrel; now<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2020)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> with improvements it is in the 12–15-dollar range. Rapid price increases in recent years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2020)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> have greatly contributed to the profitability of an industry which has traditionally focused on reducing operating costs, and continues to do so. Environmental economists point out that the focus on operating costs does not sufficiently address environmental issues - for example, "ravaged landscapes, despoiled rivers, diseased denizens, and altered atmospheric chemistry."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oil sands operations differ from conventional oil in that the initial profitability is somewhat lower, but the geological and political risks are low, the reserves are vast, and the expected lifetime of production extends for generations rather than just a few years. Governments have an incentive to subsidize the start-up costs since they will recover their initial subsidies from tax revenues over a long period of time. From the standpoint of federal-provincial revenues, they also differ in that the federal government will receive larger higher share and higher return on its incentives than it would from conventional oil, while the provincial share, although substantial, will be proportionally smaller. Consequently, there has tended to be much less intergovernmental conflict and more agreement on how these projects should be handled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_gas">Natural gas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Natural gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">History of the petroleum industry in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(natural_gas)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (natural gas)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (natural gas)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(natural_gas_liquids)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (natural gas liquids)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (natural gas liquids)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_(2014).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg/220px-Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg/330px-Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg/440px-Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_%282014%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>Countries by <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves" title="List of countries by natural gas proven reserves">natural gas proven reserves</a> (2014), based on data from The World Factbook.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albertan_natural_gas">Albertan natural gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Albertan natural gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The natural gas industry in Alberta, dating back to 1883, faced political complexities in exporting gas compared to oil. Canadians historically regarded natural gas as a crucial resource, rooted in its importance for space heating. In the late 1940s, Alberta's Conservation Board addressed wasteful production practices, and the Dinning Commission supported prioritizing Albertans for gas supplies. Alberta then passed the Gas Resources Conservation Act, giving control over gas and export permits to the Oil and Gas Conservation Board. The federal government, aligning with Alberta's approach, treated natural gas as a Canadian resource, regulating exports through the Pipe Lines Act in 1949. It wasn't until the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988 that natural gas became freely traded between the US and Canada. As of 2016, Alberta, Canada's largest natural gas producer, consumed the most natural gas, attributing 40% to electricity generation.<sup id="cite_ref-neb-one.gc.ca_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neb-one.gc.ca-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Columbian_natural_gas">British Columbian natural gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: British Columbian natural gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The provincial government has stated "natural gas is a climate solution",<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under the LiveSmart BC initiative, natural gas furnaces and water heaters receive cash back thereby promoting the burning of fossil fuel in the province.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The province states that an important part of new natural gas production will come from the <a href="/wiki/Horn_River_Formation" title="Horn River Formation">Horn River basin</a> where about 500 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> will be released into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural gas production in BC tripled between 1990 and 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Total BC petroleum and natural gas emissions in 2014 were 50 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city of Vancouver in 2015 issued a report stating that for buildings, natural gas supplied 59% of all energy use, while electricity made up the remainder.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BC has committed to reducing greenhouse gases to 33 per cent below 2007 levels by 2020, however the province is far short of that goal, only achieving a 6.5% reduction as of 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the new Site C dam is expected to have a large initial electricity surplus, the former Liberal government of the province proposed to sell this power rather than using it to cut the 65 million m<sup>3</sup> (2.3 billion cu ft) per day of natural gas consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-neb-one.gc.ca_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neb-one.gc.ca-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electricity">Electricity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station,_British_Columbia,_Canada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg/300px-Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg/450px-Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg/600px-Arrow_Lakes_Generating_Station%2C_British_Columbia%2C_Canada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="1189" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arrow_Lakes" title="Arrow Lakes">Arrow Lakes</a> hydroelectric dam</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/300px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/450px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/600px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Bruce Nuclear Generating Station near <a href="/wiki/Kincardine,_Ontario" title="Kincardine, Ontario">Kincardine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Canada" title="Electricity sector in Canada">Electricity sector in Canada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of electricity in Canada began with a few trial installations of electric arc lights in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> in 1878 and 1879. A permanent arc lighting system was installed in Toronto in 1881 and used to illuminate a number of stores, including <a href="/wiki/Eaton%27s" title="Eaton's">Eaton's</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, arc lights were installed in several mills. By 1883 arc lights were installed in the streets of Toronto, Montreal and <a href="/wiki/Winnipeg" title="Winnipeg">Winnipeg</a>, and by 1890 numerous cities from <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador">St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador</a> to <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_British_Columbia" title="Victoria, British Columbia">Victoria, British Columbia</a> had arc lighting. </p><p>The first successful installations of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent light">incandescent lighting</a> systems began in Ontario and Quebec starting in 1882. In 1886 a small plant supplying incandescent lights was installed in the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Hill" title="Parliament Hill">Parliament Buildings</a> in Ottawa. These <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) systems could serve only a radius of 800 metres (2,600 ft) from the power plant. However, in 1888 the first permanent installation of a <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse</a> <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC) system was installed in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall,_Ontario" title="Cornwall, Ontario">Cornwall, Ontario</a>. </p><p>The competition between AC and DC came to a head during the development of the potential of <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> because AC systems could supply electricity over much longer distances than DC systems. This was enormously important to Canada, which had numerous potential <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> sites in remote locations. In 1897 a transmission system was built from the <a href="/wiki/Batiscan_River" title="Batiscan River">Batiscan River</a> 26 kilometres (16 mi) to <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>. In 1901 <a href="/wiki/Shawinigan_Falls" class="mw-redirect" title="Shawinigan Falls">Shawinigan Falls</a> was harnessed, and by 1903 a 50,000 volt power line carried electricity from it to Montreal.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_in_Ontario">Development in Ontario</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Development in Ontario"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electricity_policy_of_Ontario" title="Electricity policy of Ontario">Electricity policy of Ontario</a></div> <p>In 1906, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Beck" title="Adam Beck">Adam Beck</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> Legislature created the <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Hydro" title="Ontario Hydro">Hydro-Electric Power Commission</a> (HEPC) to build transmissions lines to supply municipal utilities with power generated at Niagara Falls by private companies. In 1910 the HEPC began building 110,000 volt electric power lines to supply electricity to numerous municipalities in southwestern Ontario. In 1922 it started building its own generating stations, and gradually it took over most power generation in Ontario. In 1926 it signed long-term contracts to buy electricity from power companies in Quebec, but these proved controversial when jurisdictional disputes impeded development of the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">St. Lawrence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_River" title="Ottawa River">Ottawa Rivers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> reduced demand. However, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> they proved an extremely important source of power for war production. </p><p>After WWII, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_Seaway" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence Seaway">Saint Lawrence Seaway</a> in conjunction with American power authorities allowed the development of the potential of the St. Lawrence River, and agreements with Quebec allowed Ontario to develop sites on the upper Ottawa River. However, hydroelectric capacity in Ontario was inadequate to meet growing demand, so coal burning power stations were built near <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario" title="Windsor, Ontario">Windsor</a> in the early 1950s. In the 1960s, Ontario turned to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>. In 1962 the HEPC and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_of_Canada_Limited" title="Atomic Energy of Canada Limited">Atomic Energy of Canada Limited</a> started operating a 25-megawatt <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Demonstrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Power Demonstrator">Nuclear Power Demonstrator</a>, and in 1968 they brought the 200-megawatt <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Point_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station">Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station</a> into service. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Pickering_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Pickering Nuclear Generating Station">Pickering Nuclear Generating Station</a> in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Bruce Nuclear Generating Station">Bruce Nuclear Generating Station</a> in 1977, and the <a href="/wiki/Darlington_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Darlington Nuclear Generating Station">Darlington Nuclear Generating Station</a> in 1989. In 1974, toward the beginning of this expansion, the HEPC was renamed <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Hydro" title="Ontario Hydro">Ontario Hydro</a>, which had long been its informal name.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, Pickering grew to eight 540 MW nuclear reactors, Bruce to eight 900+ MW reactors, and Darlington to four 935 MW units.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1990s, the enormous debt from building nuclear power stations, combined with lower than expected reliability and life span, became a political issue. The Ontario government decided to open the market to competition. In the meantime, the closure of many of Ontario's nuclear reactors for rehabilitation, combined with increasing demand resulted in a substantial increase in coal-fired power generation, with resulting increases in air pollution levels. In 2003 a new government came into power in Ontario and pledged to phase out coal as a generation source, leaving open the question of how Ontario was to meet future demand. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_in_Quebec">Development in Quebec</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Development in Quebec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg/300px-Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg/450px-Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg/600px-Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The Daniel-Johnson Dam, on the <a href="/wiki/Manicouagan_River" title="Manicouagan River">Manicouagan River</a>, was named after <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Johnson,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Johnson, Sr.">Daniel Johnson, Sr.</a>, the Quebec premier who died at the site, on 26 September 1968.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Hydro-Québec">Hydro-Québec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec%27s_electricity_transmission_system" title="Hydro-Québec's electricity transmission system">Hydro-Québec's electricity transmission system</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> government followed the example of Ontario in nationalizing its electrical sector, and in 1944 <a href="/wiki/Expropriate" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriate">expropriated</a> the assets of the monopoly <i>Montreal Light, Heat and Power Company</i> to create a new <a href="/wiki/Crown_corporation" title="Crown corporation">crown corporation</a> called <a href="/wiki/Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Hydro-Québec">Hydro-Québec</a>. In the post-war era, Hydro-Québec set about expanding and improving the reliability of the electric power grid, and demonstrated it could transmit electricity over long distances at extremely high voltages. Under <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Duplessis" title="Maurice Duplessis">Maurice Duplessis</a> the Quebec government preferred to leave electrification of rural areas to the Rural Electrification Agency., however after <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lesage" title="Jean Lesage">Jean Lesage</a> took power in 1960, Hydro-Québec gained exclusive rights to develop new hydroelectric projects, and in 1963 it began the gradual takeover of all private distributors in the province. Driven by rapidly growing demand, Hydro-Québec built three major hydroelectric complexes in rapid succession: <a href="/wiki/Manicouagan_Reservoir" title="Manicouagan Reservoir">Manicouagan-Outardes</a> on the <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4te-Nord" title="Côte-Nord">North Shore</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/James_Bay_Project" title="James Bay Project">James Bay Project</a> on <a href="/wiki/La_Grande_River" title="La Grande River">La Grande River</a>. This, combined with lower than projected demand, created a surplus of electricity in Quebec, so in 1997, Hydro-Québec began wholesale marketing of electricity to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_in_British_Columbia">Development in British Columbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Development in British Columbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/BC_Hydro" title="BC Hydro">BC Hydro</a></div> <p>The development of electric power in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> began with the installation of electric lights in <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_British_Columbia" title="Victoria, British Columbia">Victoria</a> in 1883. Created in 1897, the BC Electric Company built BC's first hydroelectric plant near Victoria the following year, and created subsidiaries to supply electricity to Victoria and <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, the province's two largest cities. BC Electric was taken over by Montreal-based <a href="/wiki/Power_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Power Corporation">Power Corporation</a> in 1928. Before and during World War II, BC Electric primarily supplied power to the main cities of Vancouver and Victoria, leaving other regions with spotty and unreliable supply. In 1938, the BC government created the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Utilities_Commission" title="British Columbia Utilities Commission">British Columbia Utilities Commission</a>, which limited BC Electric's profit margins. In 1945, the provincial government created a <a href="/wiki/Crown_corporation" title="Crown corporation">crown corporation</a>, the BC Power Commission (BCPC), to acquire small utilities and extended electrification to rural and isolated areas. BCPC grew to supply more than 200 small communities throughout the province. </p><p>The American and Canadian governments signed the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River_Treaty" title="Columbia River Treaty">Columbia River Treaty</a> in 1961 and ratified it in 1964, agreeing to share power from <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_dams_on_the_Columbia_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River">hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River</a>. To enable development of major hydroelectric sites on the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peace_River_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace River (Canada)">Peace</a> rivers, the BC government under Premier <a href="/wiki/W._A._C._Bennett" title="W. A. C. Bennett">W. A. C. Bennett</a> bought BC Electric in 1961, and the following year merged it with the BCPC to create the British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/BC_Hydro" title="BC Hydro">BC Hydro</a>. During the 60s and 70s, BC Hydro built some of the largest hydroelectric projects in the world, notably the <a href="/wiki/W._A._C._Bennett_Dam" title="W. A. C. Bennett Dam">W. A. C. Bennett Dam</a>. More than 80% of BC Hydro's electricity is produced by 61 dams at 43 locations on the Columbia and Peace rivers. Since that time the company's developments have been much smaller. During the 1980s BC Hydro changed its focus from building new hydroelectric plants to promoting <a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">energy conservation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010 the province enacted the Clean Energy Act which puts it on a path toward electricity self-sufficiency and energy conservation, while opening the door to energy exports, further investments in clean, renewable energy and a requirement that 93 percent of its electricity must come from clean or renewable sources.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the first application to build the <a href="/wiki/Site_C_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Site C Dam">Site C Dam</a> was denied by the BC Utilities Commission in 1983, BC Hydro began purchasing from <a href="/wiki/Independent_power_producers_in_British_Columbia" title="Independent power producers in British Columbia">independent power producers</a> which provide 20% of BC Hydro's supply. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_in_Alberta">Development in Alberta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Development in Alberta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With its earliest beginnings in the 1890s, Alberta's electricity system evolved as a combination of a municipally and privately owned and operated systems based on coal-fired generation supplemented with some hydro. Most major municipalities operated municipally owned distribution systems. </p><p>As of 2008, Alberta's electricity sector was the most <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">carbon-intensive</a> of all Canadian provinces and territories, with total emissions of 55.9 million tonnes of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent"><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> equivalent</a> in 2008, accounting for 47% of all Canadian emissions in the electricity and heat generation sector.<sup id="cite_ref-GHG2008_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GHG2008-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alberta_Power">Alberta Power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Alberta Power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 19 July 1911, Canadian Western Natural Gas, Light, Heat, and Power Company Limited was incorporated to provide natural gas from near Medicine Hat to other communities in southern Alberta. Electricity was also provided. </p><p>In 1954, International Utilities became the corporate owner of Canadian, Northwestern and Canadian Western Utilities. Canadian Utilities purchased the McMurray Light and Power Company Limited and Slave Lake Utilities. Northland Utilities Limited was added in 1961. In the early 1970s, Canadian Utilities became the corporate parent of Canadian Western, Northwestern, Northland, and Alberta Power Limited, which was the electrical operations of Canadian Utilities.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edmonton_Power">Edmonton Power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Edmonton Power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 23 October 1891 a group of entrepreneurs obtain a 10-year permit to build the Edmonton Electric Lighting and Power Company on the banks of the North Saskatchewan River. The Edmonton Electrical Lighting and Power Company became a municipally owned electric utility in 1902, then the Electrical Distribution and Power Plant departments combined to form Edmonton Power in 1970. Electrical generation capacity was also expanded in 1970 with the coal fired Clover Bar Generating Station construction. Within the next eight years, another three units are added, bringing the combined generating capacity of the Clover bar and Rossdale generating stations to 1050 megawatts by 1979. Expansion occurred again in 1989 with the first Genesee unit is operating at full load and in 1994 with a second Genesee unit to a total capacity of both units to 850 megawatts. Electricity generated at Genesee was made commercially available through the Alberta Interconnected Grid in the early 1990s. EPCOR was formed from the merger of Edmonton's municipal power and water utilities in 1996 and converted into a public company in 2006. Then EPCOR Utilities Inc. spun off its power generation business to create Capital Power Corporation in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alberta_Electrical_Distribution_System">Alberta Electrical Distribution System</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Alberta Electrical Distribution System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This electrical system changed in 1996, when Alberta began to restructure its electricity market away from traditional regulation to a <a href="/wiki/Electricity_policy_of_Alberta" title="Electricity policy of Alberta">market-based system</a>. The market now includes a host of buyers and sellers, and an increasingly diverse infrastructure. </p><p>Consumers range from residential buyers to huge industrial consumers mining the oil sands, operating pipelines and milling forest products. On the supply side, generators range from wind farms east of <a href="/wiki/Crowsnest_Pass" title="Crowsnest Pass">Crowsnest Pass</a> to oilsands plants and other petroleum processing facilities which generate marketable electricity surplus to their own needs, to coal-fired plants near Edmonton. Because of lower altitude, cooler temperatures, greater supplies of water for cooling and steam generation, and large near surface supplies of thermal coal, central Alberta is thermodynamically the best place in Alberta to generate hydrocarbon-fuelled electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Keeping_Electricity_Competitive_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeping_Electricity_Competitive-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The diversity of Alberta's electricity supply has increased substantially in recent years. To a large extent because of deregulation, the province has more technology, fuels, locations, ownership, and maintenance diversity than in the past and the rest of Canada. The system's reliability, its cost structure and Alberta's collective exposure to risk are now met by a complex system based on diverse power sources. However, overloaded power lines between northern Alberta and the south of the province are wasting enough electricity to power half the city of <a href="/wiki/Red_Deer,_Alberta" title="Red Deer, Alberta">Red Deer, Alberta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Keeping_Electricity_Competitive_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeping_Electricity_Competitive-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_power_and_Uranium">Nuclear power and Uranium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Nuclear power and Uranium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/220px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/330px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg/440px-Bruce-Nuclear-Szmurlo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Bruce Nuclear Generating Station">Bruce Nuclear Generating Station</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kincardine,_Ontario" title="Kincardine, Ontario">Kincardine</a>, is the world's largest nuclear station with an installed capacity of 7,276 MW (gross).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Canada" title="Nuclear power in Canada">Nuclear power in Canada</a></div> <p>Canada is a leader in the field of nuclear energy. Nuclear power in Canada is provided by <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors#Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">19</a> commercial reactors with a net capacity of 13.5 <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Gigawatts</a> (GWe), producing a total of 95.6 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt-hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt-hour">Terawatt-hours</a> (TWh) of electricity, which accounted for 16.6% of the nation's total electric energy generation in 2015. All but one of these reactors are located in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> where they produced 61% of the province's electricity in 2016 (91.7 TWh).<sup id="cite_ref-:7_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven smaller reactors are used for research and to produce radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>. </p><p>Canadian nuclear reactors are a type of <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">pressurized heavy-water reactor</a> (PHWR) of indigenous design, the <a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU reactor</a>. CANDU reactors have been exported to <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Rajasthan Atomic Power Station">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karachi_Nuclear_Power_Complex" title="Karachi Nuclear Power Complex">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embalse_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Embalse Nuclear Power Station">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolseong_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qinshan_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant">China</a>. </p><p>Uranium mining in Canada took off with the Great Bear Lake deposit furnishing some material for the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Today <a href="/wiki/Cameco" title="Cameco">Cameco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Areva_Resources_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Areva Resources Canada">Areva Resources Canada</a> are major produces of uranium for nuclear power. <a href="/wiki/Cameco" title="Cameco">Cameco</a> mines the world's largest high-grade uranium deposit at the <a href="/wiki/McArthur_River_uranium_mine" title="McArthur River uranium mine">McArthur River mine</a> in Northern <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/ZEEP" title="ZEEP">ZEEP</a> was Canada's first nuclear reactor built in 1945. Canada set up its <a href="/wiki/NRX" title="NRX">NRX</a> research reactor at <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River_Laboratories" title="Chalk River Laboratories">Chalk River Laboratories</a> in 1947. In 1962 the <a href="/wiki/NPD_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="NPD reactor">NPD reactor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rolphton,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolphton, Ontario">Rolphton, Ontario</a> was the first prototype power reactor in Canada. From this the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council of Canada">NRC</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_of_Canada_Limited" title="Atomic Energy of Canada Limited">AECL</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> reactor. Ontario Hydro's first production power reactor was constructed at the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Point" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas Point">Douglas Point</a> in 1956. Eighteen reactors were then built in the following four decades in Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tidalenergyturbine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tidalenergyturbine.jpg/220px-Tidalenergyturbine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tidalenergyturbine.jpg/330px-Tidalenergyturbine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tidalenergyturbine.jpg/440px-Tidalenergyturbine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>The Race Rocks Tidal Current Generator before installation</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renewable_energy_and_carbon_neutral_energy">Renewable energy and carbon neutral energy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Renewable energy and carbon neutral energy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Canada" title="Renewable energy in Canada">Renewable energy in Canada</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg/250px-Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg/375px-Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg/500px-Magrath-Wind-Farm-Szmurlo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Canada generates a significant part of its electricity from hydroelectric dams, but has otherwise limited renewable energy generation, although <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Canada" title="Wind power in Canada">wind power</a> is growing quickly. The first commercial wind farm in Canada was built in Alberta in 1993. A 20 megawatt tidal plant sits at <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Royal,_Nova_Scotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia">Annapolis, Nova Scotia</a>, and uses the daily tides of the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a>. </p><p>The first commercial solar project was built in <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mills" title="Stone Mills">Stone Mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> in 2009.<a href="/w/index.php?title=Skypower_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skypower Ltd (page does not exist)">Skypower Ltd</a>, used over 120,000 thin film photovoltaic solar panels, for a total of 9,1 megawatt, creating clean <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> for 1000 homes annually. </p><p>Politicians have been willing to subsidize renewable methods using taxpayer funds to increase the amount and percentage of Canada's electricity generated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_conservation_in_Canada">Energy conservation in Canada</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Energy conservation in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the 1973 Oil Crisis, energy conservation became practical with smaller cars and insulated homes. Appliances were improved to use less energy. In the recent years, this successfully lead to both a reduction in energy use and CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the adaptation of new technologies in civil engineering also caused new issues, such as the <a href="/wiki/Urea-formaldehyde" title="Urea-formaldehyde">Urea-formaldehyde</a> insulation disaster and the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Leaky_condo_crisis" title="Leaky condo crisis">Leaky condo crisis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=languageinstinct.blogspot.com&rft.atitle=Language+Matters%3A+Keeping+Electricity+Competitive&rft.date=2008-09-12&rft.aulast=Mckenzie-brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguageinstinct.blogspot.com%2F2008%2F09%2Fkeeping-electricity-competitive.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnergy+policy+of+Canada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706164322/http://www.albertamsa.ca/files/The_Battery_and_the_Charger.pdf">"The battery and the charger"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>albertamsa.ca</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albertamsa.ca/files/The_Battery_and_the_Charger.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=albertamsa.ca&rft.atitle=The+battery+and+the+charger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albertamsa.ca%2Ffiles%2FThe_Battery_and_the_Charger.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnergy+policy+of+Canada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieso.ca/power-data/supply-overview/transmission-connected-generation">"IESO Supply Overview"</a>. <i>www.ieso.ca</i>. <a href="/wiki/Independent_Electricity_System_Operator" title="Independent Electricity System Operator">Independent Electricity System Operator</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ieso.ca&rft.atitle=IESO+Supply+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieso.ca%2Fpower-data%2Fsupply-overview%2Ftransmission-connected-generation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnergy+policy+of+Canada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/showTable.cfm?type=CP&sector=com&juris=ca&rn=1&page=4&CFID=34878564&CFTOKEN=a1d958bc131f5638-F6570DF8-FF1A-28EE-DC92595A91203479">"Energy Use Database Table - Commercial Sector"</a>. Natural Resources Canada. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Use+Database+Table+-+Commercial+Sector&rft.pub=Natural+Resources+Canada&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foee.nrcan.gc.ca%2Fcorporate%2Fstatistics%2Fneud%2Fdpa%2FshowTable.cfm%3Ftype%3DCP%26sector%3Dcom%26juris%3Dca%26rn%3D1%26page%3D4%26CFID%3D34878564%26CFTOKEN%3Da1d958bc131f5638-F6570DF8-FF1A-28EE-DC92595A91203479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnergy+policy+of+Canada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/showTable.cfm?type=CP&sector=res&juris=ca&rn=1&page=4&CFID=34878564&CFTOKEN=a1d958bc131f5638-F6570DF8-FF1A-28EE-DC92595A91203479">"Energy Use Database Table - Residential Sector"</a>. Natural Resources Canada. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Use+Database+Table+-+Residential+Sector&rft.pub=Natural+Resources+Canada&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foee.nrcan.gc.ca%2Fcorporate%2Fstatistics%2Fneud%2Fdpa%2FshowTable.cfm%3Ftype%3DCP%26sector%3Dres%26juris%3Dca%26rn%3D1%26page%3D4%26CFID%3D34878564%26CFTOKEN%3Da1d958bc131f5638-F6570DF8-FF1A-28EE-DC92595A91203479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnergy+policy+of+Canada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Canada&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Froschauer, Karl. <i>White Gold: Hydroelectric Power in Canada</i> <a href="/wiki/UBC_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="UBC Press">UBC Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0709-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0709-8">978-0-7748-0709-8</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070811211628/http://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/es/es/EnergyChronology/index_e.cfm"><i>An Energy history of Canada</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180131024054/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2004/canada.pdf"><i>Energy Policies of IEA Countries -- Canada</i></a> (2004) <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>/<a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">IEA</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-10801-7" title="Special:BookSources/92-64-10801-7">92-64-10801-7</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112100546/http://www.cna.ca/wp-content/uploads/NUclearFactbook2011.pdf"><i>2011 Canadian Nuclear Factbook</i></a> (2011) <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Nuclear_Association" title="Canadian Nuclear Association">Canadian Nuclear Association</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy_policy_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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id="Energy_policy_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Energy policy of North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Cuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Cuba (page does not exist)">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_Dominican_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the Dominican Republic (page does not exist)">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Haiti (page does not exist)">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Puerto_Rico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Puerto Rico (page does not exist)">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_policy_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy policy of the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Canada" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Canada_topics" title="Template:Canada topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Canada_topics" title="Template talk:Canada topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Canada_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Canada topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Canada" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Canada" title="List of years in Canada">Year list</a></b> <br />(<b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Canadian_history" title="Timeline of Canadian history">timeline</a>)</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the indigenous peoples of Canada">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France (1534–1763)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1763%E2%80%931867)" title="History of Canada (1763–1867)">British Canada (1763–1867)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Confederation_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931914)" title="Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)">Post-Confederation (1867–1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_the_world_wars_and_interwar_period" title="Canada in the world wars and interwar period">World wars and interwar period (1914–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1945%E2%80%931960)" title="History of Canada (1945–1960)">1945–1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1960%E2%80%931981)" title="History of Canada (1960–1981)">1960–1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1982%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Canada (1982–present)">since 1982</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Canada#History_of_Canada" title="Outline of Canada">Topics</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Canada" title="Constitutional history of Canada">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada_and_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada">Crown and Indigenous people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Canada" title="Economic history of Canada">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Canada" title="Name of Canada">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_colonies_and_territories_in_Canada" title="Former colonies and territories in Canada">Former colonies and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_Canada" title="History of immigration to Canada">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canadian_foreign_policy" title="History of Canadian foreign policy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada" title="Military history of Canada">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_Canada" title="History of monarchy in Canada">Monarchical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada" title="National Historic Sites of Canada">National Historic Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persons_of_National_Historic_Significance" title="Persons of National Historic Significance">Persons of significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Canada" title="Territorial evolution of Canada">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">Provinces<br />and territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Provinces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Canada" title="Geography of Canada">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Canada" title="List of regions of Canada">Regions</a></b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(west to east)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Canadian Prairies</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Shield" title="Canadian Shield">Canadian Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Canada" title="Central Canada">Central Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">The Maritimes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Canada#Geography_of_Canada" title="Outline of Canada">Topics</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Canada" title="List of cities in Canada">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Canada" title="List of earthquakes in Canada">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Canada" title="List of islands of Canada">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_peaks_of_Canada" title="Mountain peaks of Canada">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Canada" title="National parks of Canada">National Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Canada" title="List of rivers of Canada">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Canada" title="Wildlife of Canada">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Canada" title="Volcanism of Canada">Volcanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Constitution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Monarch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Governor General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament</a> (<a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Canada" title="Senate of Canada">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada" title="House of Commons of Canada">House of Commons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="List of prime ministers of Canada">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_system_of_Canada" title="Court system of Canada">Courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces" title="Canadian Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_peacekeeping" title="Canadian peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_government_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal government in Canada">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Canada" title="Foreign relations of Canada">Foreign relations</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Politics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><b><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Canada" title="Politics of Canada">Politics</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Canada" title="Elections in Canada">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Canada" title="Human rights in Canada">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Canada" title="LGBTQ rights in Canada">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism_in_Canada" title="Multiculturalism in Canada">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Canada" title="Cannabis in Canada">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearms_regulation_in_Canada" title="Firearms regulation in Canada">Firearms regulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Canada" title="Economy of Canada">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Canada" title="Agriculture in Canada">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming_in_Canada" title="Dairy farming in Canada">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Canada" title="Floriculture in Canada">Floriculture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Canada" title="Banking in Canada">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">Dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Canada" title="List of companies of Canada">Companies</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Canada" title="Fishing industry in Canada">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Canada" title="Oil reserves in Canada">Oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="Petroleum industry in Canada">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_Stock_Exchange" title="Toronto Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Canada" title="Taxation in Canada">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Canada" title="Tourism in Canada">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Canada" title="Transportation in Canada">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Canada" title="Science and technology in Canada">Science and tech</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Canada" title="Demographics of Canada">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadians" title="Canadians">Canadians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Ethnicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_Canada" title="Disability in Canada">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada" title="Immigration to Canada">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Canadian_census" title="2021 Canadian census">2021 Census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_of_Canada" title="Population of Canada">Population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_census_metropolitan_areas_and_agglomerations_in_Canada" title="List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada">Metropolitan areas and agglomerations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_population_centres_in_Canada" title="List of the largest population centres in Canada">Population centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_municipalities_in_Canada_by_population" title="List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population">Municipalities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Canada" title="Higher education in Canada">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Canada" title="Healthcare in Canada">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Canada" title="Abortion in Canada">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Canada" title="Euthanasia in Canada">Euthanasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Canada" title="Law enforcement in Canada">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Canada" title="Crime in Canada">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Canada" title="Corruption in Canada">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Canada" title="Terrorism in Canada">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Canada" title="Poverty in Canada">Poverty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Canada" title="Homelessness in Canada">Homelessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_Canada" title="Social programs in Canada">Social programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_values" title="Canadian values">Values</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Canada" title="Culture of Canada">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Canada" title="Architecture of Canada">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_art" title="Canadian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Canada" title="Cinema of Canada">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_cuisine" title="Canadian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_folklore" title="Canadian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Canada" title="Public holidays in Canada">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_identity" title="Canadian identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions,_innovations,_and_discoveries" title="List of Canadian inventions, 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