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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>County</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-County-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Duchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habsburg_(1477–1795)_and_French_(1795–1815)_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habsburg_(1477–1795)_and_French_(1795–1815)_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Habsburg_(1477–1795)_and_French_(1795–1815)_rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Habsburg_(1477–1795)_and_French_(1795–1815)_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>French invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developing_independence_(1815–1890)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developing_independence_(1815–1890)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Developing independence (1815–1890)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Developing_independence_(1815–1890)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Developing independence (1815–1890) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Developing_independence_(1815–1890)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crisis_of_1867" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_of_1867"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Crisis of 1867</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis_of_1867-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>First World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Interwar period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history_(since_1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history_(since_1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern history (since 1945)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_history_(since_1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Luxembourg</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Luxemburg" title="Geskiedenis van Luxemburg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Luxemburg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%BA" title="تاريخ لوكسمبورغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ لوكسمبورغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="লুক্সেমবার্গের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লুক্সেমবার্গের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D1%8E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3" title="История на Люксембург – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Люксембург" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_Luxemburg" title="Història de Luxemburg – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Luxemburg" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Lucemburska" title="Dějiny Lucemburska – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Lucemburska" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxemburgs_historie" title="Luxemburgs historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Luxemburgs historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Luxemburgs" title="Geschichte Luxemburgs – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Luxemburgs" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Luxemburgo" title="Historia de Luxemburgo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Luxemburgo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Luksemburgo" title="Historio de Luksemburgo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Luksemburgo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxenburgoko_historia" title="Luxenburgoko historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Luxenburgoko historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="تاریخ لوکزامبورگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ لوکزامبورگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Luxembourg" title="Histoire du Luxembourg – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du Luxembourg" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Luxemburgo" title="Historia de Luxemburgo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Luxemburgo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լյուքսեմբուրգի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լյուքսեմբուրգի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Luksemburga" title="Povijest Luksemburga – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Luksemburga" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Luxemburgia" title="Historio di Luxemburgia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Luxemburgia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Lussemburgo" title="Storia del Lussemburgo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del Lussemburgo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92" title="היסטוריה של לוקסמבורג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של לוקסמבורג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ლუქსემბურგის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლუქსემბურგის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Luxemburg" title="Historia ya Luxemburg – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Luxemburg" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luksemburgas_v%C4%93sture" title="Luksemburgas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Luksemburgas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liuksemburgo_istorija" title="Liuksemburgo istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Liuksemburgo istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxemburg_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Luxemburg történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Luxemburg történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Историја на Луксембург – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Луксембург" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Luxemburg" title="Geschiedenis van Luxemburg – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Luxemburg" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%96%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ルクセンブルクの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ルクセンブルクの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourgs_historie" title="Luxembourgs historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Luxembourgs historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Luksemburga" title="Historia Luksemburga – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Luksemburga" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_de_Luxemburgo" title="História de Luxemburgo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História de Luxemburgo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Luxemburgului" title="Istoria Luxemburgului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Luxemburgului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Luxembourg" title="Category:History of Luxembourg">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Luxembourg</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lutzenburg Ducatus"><img alt="Lutzenburg Ducatus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg/150px-Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg/225px-Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg/300px-Blaeu_1645_-_Lutzenburg_Ducatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2966" data-file-height="2270" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_history">Early history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Luxembourg" title="Celtic Luxembourg">Celtic Luxembourg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ~51 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 58–50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Roman rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 90 AD–c.500 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(duchy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (duchy)">Duchy of Lorraine</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 959~</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/House_of_Luxembourg" title="House of Luxembourg">House of Luxembourg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Duchy of Luxembourg">Duchy of Luxembourg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1352-1482</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1482–1556</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1556–1714</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1684)" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1684)">Louis XIV's siege</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1684</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1714–95</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95)">Revolutionary siege</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1794–95</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1795–1815</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1798</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Developing_independence_(1815–1890)">19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1815</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1815–</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Dutch rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1815–30</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">Reign of Guillaume I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1815-40</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–31</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Personal union</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1839–90</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1839</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands" title="William II of the Netherlands">Reign of Guillaume II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1840–49</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_the_Netherlands" title="William III of the Netherlands">Reign of Guillaume III</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849-90</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Crisis" title="Luxembourg Crisis">Luxembourg Crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Full independence</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1890-</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)">20th and 21st centuries</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Adolphe,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Reign of Adolphe</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1890-1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/William_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Reign of Guillaume IV</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1905-12</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Marie-Ad%C3%A9la%C3%AFde,_Grand_Duchess_of_Luxembourg" title="Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg">Reign of Marie-Adélaïde</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1912-19</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> World War I:</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">German occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914-18</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Charlotte,_Grand_Duchess_of_Luxembourg" title="Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg">Reign of Charlotte</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919-1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">World War II</a>:</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II">German occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940-45</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_government-in-exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg government-in-exile">Government in exile</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940-45</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Holocaust</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jean,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Reign of Jean</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964-2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Reign of Henri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000-</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/16px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/24px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/32px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Luxembourg" title="Portal:Luxembourg">Luxembourg portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Luxembourg" title="Template:History of Luxembourg"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Luxembourg" title="Template talk:History of Luxembourg"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Luxembourg" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Luxembourg"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of Luxembourg</b> consists of the history of the country of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and its geographical area. </p><p>Although its <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> times, the history of Luxembourg proper is considered to begin in 963. Over the following five centuries, the powerful <a href="/wiki/House_of_Luxembourg" title="House of Luxembourg">House of Luxembourg</a> emerged, but its extinction put an end to the country's independence. After a brief period of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundian</a> rule, the country passed to the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> in 1477. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>, Luxembourg became a part of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a>, which passed to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty in 1713. After occupation by <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary France">Revolutionary France</a>, the 1815 <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Vienna Congress</a> transformed Luxembourg into a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy">Grand Duchy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. The treaty also resulted in the second <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Luxembourg" title="Partitions of Luxembourg">partitioning of Luxembourg</a>, the first being in 1658 and a third in 1839. Although these treaties greatly reduced Luxembourg's territory, the latter established its formal independence, which was confirmed after the <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Crisis" title="Luxembourg Crisis">Luxembourg Crisis</a> of 1867. </p><p>In the following decades, Luxembourg fell further into Germany's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>, particularly after the creation of a separate ruling house in 1890. It was occupied by Germany <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I">from 1914 until 1918</a> and again <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II">from 1940 until 1944</a>. Since the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, Luxembourg has become one of the world's richest countries, buoyed by political stability and <a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:center; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:70%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9" style="font-size:130%;">History of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#996600; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae"><span style="color: white;">Belgae</span></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cana–<br />nefates</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi"><span style="color: white;">Chamavi</span></a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes"><span style="color: white;">Tubantes</span></a> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a> <small>(55 BC–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span> AD)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a> <small>(83–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-top:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks"><span style="color: white;">Salian Franks</span></a> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><i>unpopulated</i><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Saxons#Netherlands" title="Saxons"><span style="color: white;">Saxons</span></a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a><br /><small> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th</span>–734)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frankish_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Kingdom">Frankish Kingdom</a> <small>(481–843)</small>—<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> <small>(800–843)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> <small>(511–687)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a> <small>(843–855)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West<br />Francia</a><br /><small>(843–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Kingdom of Lotharingia</a> <small>(855– 959)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Duchy of Lower Lorraine</a> <small>(959–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Friesland_(kleine_wapen).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/20px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/30px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/40px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="643" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Frisian_freedom" title="Frisian freedom">Frisian<br />Freedom</a><br /><small>(11–16th<br />century)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/20px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/30px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/40px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">County of<br />Holland</a><br /><small>(880–1432)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/20px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/30px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/40px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="494" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht"><span class="nowrap">Bishopric of</span><br />Utrecht</a><br /><small>(695–1456)</small> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/20px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/30px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/40px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="615" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of<br />Brabant</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1183–1430)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/20px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/30px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/40px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Duchy of<br />Guelders</a><br /><small>(1046–1543)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Flanders.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/20px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/30px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/40px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of<br />Flanders</a><br /><small>(862–1384)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/20px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/30px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/40px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /> <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">County of<br />Hainaut</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1071–1432)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Namur.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/20px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/30px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/40px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Namur" title="County of Namur">County of<br />Namur</a><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(981–1421)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/20px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/30px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/40px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">P.-Bish.<br />of Liège</a><br /><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(980–1794)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="419" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Duchy of Luxembourg">Duchy of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1059–1443)</small></span><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px">  </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a> <small>(1384–1482)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; border:solid 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> <small>(1482–1795)</small><br />(<a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> <small>after 1543</small>) </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Statenvlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/20px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/30px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/40px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a><br /><small>(1581–1795)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1556–1714)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/20px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/30px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/40px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1714–1795)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width:0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of Belgium">United States of Belgium</a><br /><small>(1790)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LuikVlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/20px-LuikVlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/30px-LuikVlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/40px-LuikVlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Republic of Liège">R. Liège</a><br /><small>(1789–'91)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; border:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> <small>(1795–1806)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a> <small>(1806–1810)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width:1px 1px 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br />associated with <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> <small>(1795–1804)</small><br />part of <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> <small>(1804–1815)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Princip. of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1813–1815)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="8" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1815–1830)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background: #f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Developing_independence_(1815–1890)">Gr D. L.</a><br /><small>(1815–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1839–)</small> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/20px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a> <small>(1830–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#caf5f7; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Gr D. of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><small>(1890–)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Luxembourg" title="Celtic Luxembourg">Celtic Luxembourg</a></div> <p>In the territory now covered by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a>, there is evidence of primitive inhabitants dating back to the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age over 35,000 years ago. The oldest artifacts from this period are decorated bones found at <a href="/wiki/Oetrange" title="Oetrange">Oetrange</a>. </p><p>However, the first real evidence of civilisation is from the Neolithic or 5th millennium BC, from which evidence of houses has been found. Traces have been found in the south of Luxembourg at <a href="/wiki/Grevenmacher" title="Grevenmacher">Grevenmacher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diekirch" title="Diekirch">Diekirch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspelt" title="Aspelt">Aspelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weiler-la-Tour" title="Weiler-la-Tour">Weiler-la-Tour</a>. The dwellings were made of a combination of tree trunks for the basic structure, mud-clad wickerwork walls, and roofs of thatched reeds or straw. Pottery from this period has been found near <a href="/wiki/Remerschen" title="Remerschen">Remerschen</a>. </p><p>While there is not much evidence of communities in Luxembourg at the beginning of the Bronze Age, a number of sites dating back to the period between the 13th and the 8th century BC provide evidence of dwellings and reveal artefacts such as pottery, knives and jewellery. The sites include <a href="/wiki/Nospelt" title="Nospelt">Nospelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalheim" title="Dalheim">Dalheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mompach" title="Mompach">Mompach</a> and Remerschen. </p><p>What is present-day Luxembourg, was inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> (from roughly 600 BC until 100 AD). The <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gaulish</a> tribe in what is present-day Luxembourg during and after the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_period" class="mw-redirect" title="La Tène period">La Tène period</a> was known as the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a>; they reached the height of prosperity in the 1st century BC. The Treveri constructed a number of <a href="/wiki/Oppida" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppida">oppida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> fortified settlements, near the <a href="/wiki/Moselle_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Moselle valley">Moselle valley</a> in what is now southern Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France. Most of the archaeological evidence from this period has been discovered in tombs, many closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Titelberg" title="Titelberg">Titelberg</a>, a 50 ha site which reveals much about the dwellings and handicrafts of the period. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Romans</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, completed their conquest and occupation in 53 BC. The first known reference to the territory of present-day Luxembourg was by Julius Caesar in his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentaries on the Gallic War</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Treveri were more co-operative with the Romans than most <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribes of Gaul">Gallic tribes</a>, and adapted readily to Roman civilization. Two revolts in the 1st century AD did not permanently damage their cordial relations with Rome. The land of the Treveri was at first part of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Celtica" title="Gallia Celtica">Gallia Celtica</a>, but with the reform of <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> in c. 90, was reassigned to <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>. </p><p>Gallia Belgica was infiltrated by the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406. The territory of what would become Luxembourg by the 480s, became part of <a href="/wiki/Merovingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian">Merovingia</a> <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> and eventually part of the core territory of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>. With the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> (843), it fell to <a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a>, and in 855, to <a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a>. With the latter's division in 959, it then fell to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Upper_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Upper Lorraine">Duchy of Upper Lorraine</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="County">County</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: County"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/County_of_Luxemburg" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Luxemburg">County of Luxemburg</a></div> <p>The history of Luxembourg properly began with the construction of Luxembourg Castle in the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. It was <a href="/wiki/Sigfried,_Count_of_the_Ardennes" title="Sigfried, Count of the Ardennes">Siegfried I</a>, count of <a href="/wiki/Ardennes" title="Ardennes">Ardennes</a> who traded some of his ancestral lands with the monks of the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_St._Maximin" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of St. Maximin">Abbey of St. Maximin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> in 963 for an ancient, supposedly Roman, fort named <i>Lucilinburhuc</i>, commonly translated as "little castle".<sup id="cite_ref-luxembourg_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luxembourg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians link the etymology of the word with <i>Letze</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-luxembourg_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luxembourg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning fortification, which may have referred to either the remains of a Roman watchtower or to a primitive refuge of the early Middle Ages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Duchy">Duchy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Duchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Duchy of Luxembourg">Duchy of Luxembourg</a></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, Luxembourg bore multiple names, depending on the author. These include <i>Lucilinburhuc</i>, <i>Lutzburg</i>, <i>Lützelburg</i>, <i>Luccelemburc</i>, and <i>Lichtburg</i>, among others. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Luxembourg" title="House of Luxembourg">Luxembourgish dynasty</a> produced several <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperors</a>, Kings of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">Archbishops</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>. </p><p>Around the fort of Luxembourg, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small but important state of great strategic value to France, Germany and the Netherlands. Luxembourg's fortress, located on a rocky outcrop known as the <a href="/wiki/Bock_(Luxembourg)" title="Bock (Luxembourg)">Bock</a>, was steadily enlarged and strengthened over the years by successive owners. Some of these included the <a href="/wiki/Bourbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbons">Bourbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollerns</a>, who made it one of the strongest fortresses on the European continent, the <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Luxembourg" title="Fortress of Luxembourg">Fortress of Luxembourg</a>. Its formidable defences and strategic location caused it to become known as the ‘<a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> of the North’. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habsburg_(1477–1795)_and_French_(1795–1815)_rule"><span id="Habsburg_.281477.E2.80.931795.29_and_French_.281795.E2.80.931815.29_rule"></span>Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></div> <p>In the 17th and 18th centuries, the electors of Brandenburg, later kings of Prussia (<a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Borussia</a>), advanced their claim to the Luxembourg patrimony as heirs-general to William of Thuringia and his wife Anna of Bohemia, the disputed dukes of Luxembourg in the 1460s. Anna was the eldest daughter of the last Luxembourg heiress. From 1609 onward, they had a territorial base in the vicinity, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Cleves" title="Duchy of Cleves">Duchy of Cleves</a>, the starting-point of the future <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Rhineland" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Rhineland">Prussian Rhineland</a>. This Brandenburger claim ultimately produced some results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813. </p><p>The first Hohenzollern claimant to descend from both Anna and her younger sister Elisabeth, was <a href="/wiki/John_George,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="John George, Elector of Brandenburg">John George, Elector of Brandenburg</a> (1525–98), his maternal grandmother having been <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jagiellon" title="Barbara Jagiellon">Barbara Jagiellon</a>. In the late 18th century, the younger line of <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a> (the princes who held sway in the neighbouring Dutch oligarchy) also became related to the Brandenburgers. </p><p>In 1598, the then possessor, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, bequeathed Luxembourg and the other Low Countries to his daughter, the Infanta <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia" title="Isabella Clara Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a> and her husband <a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria" title="Albert VII, Archduke of Austria">Albert VII, Archduke of Austria</a>. Albert was an heir and descendant of <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Austria_(d._1505)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505)">Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505)</a>, queen of Poland, the youngest granddaughter of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund of Luxembourg">Sigismund of Luxembourg</a>, the Holy Roman Emperor. Thus, Luxembourg returned to the heirs of the old Luxembourg dynasty of the line of Elisabeth. The Low Countries were a separate political entity during the couple's reign. After Albert's childless death in 1621, Luxembourg passed to his great-nephew and heir <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV of Spain</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance">Governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 17th century, the Duchy was a Spanish possession administered from Brussels by an appointee of the Spanish King, at the same time as the other territories that formed the Spanish Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They held the title of Governor-General or Lieutenant Governor and were frequently a relative of the King.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Governor-General was represented in Luxembourg by the Governor.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were surrounded by counsellors, who formed the Provincial Council, effectively the Duchy's government.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as there was no separation of powers, the Provincial Council was also the main court of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Duchy was composed of administrative units that were very different in nature: </p> <ul><li><i>seigneuries</i> (lordships), belonging to the nobility</li> <li>influential abbeys, whose many lands were exploited by the abbots</li> <li><i>prévôtés,</i> governed directly by the King's administration: <i>prévôts</i> and <i>sous-prévôts</i> (provosts and sub-provosts)</li> <li>towns, living according to the laws of their charter<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>From the 14th century, the inhabitants were represented by the Estates. This assembly comprised representatives of the three orders: </p> <ul><li>the nobility</li> <li>the clergy</li> <li>the towns<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>All the heads of noble families had the right to participate in sessions of the Estates, while the clergy were represented only by the heads of the largest abbeys: <a href="/wiki/St._Maximin%27s_Abbey,_Trier" title="St. Maximin's Abbey, Trier">St. Maximin's Abbey</a> of Trier, <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Echternach" title="Abbey of Echternach">Echternach Abbey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neum%C3%BCnster_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Neumünster Abbey">Münster Abbey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orval_Abbey" title="Orval Abbey">Orval Abbey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint-Hubert_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Hubert Abbey">Saint-Hubert Abbey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The secular clergy, the priests in the villages and towns, were therefore not included.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A certain number of towns were represented. For the German-speaking part of the Duchy, this was Luxembourg, Echternach, Diekirch, Grevenmacher and Remich.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Villages had no representation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_invasion">French invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: French invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1684)" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1684)">Siege of Luxembourg (1684)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95)">Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/For%C3%AAts" title="Forêts">Forêts</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1684)" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1684)">Luxembourg was invaded</a> by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> (husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV) in 1684, an action that caused alarm among France's neighbors and resulted in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Augsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Augsburg">League of Augsburg</a> in 1686. In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a>, France was forced to give up the duchy, which was returned to the Habsburgs by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ryswick" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Ryswick">Treaty of Ryswick</a> in 1697. </p><p>During this period of French rule, the defences of the fortress were strengthened by the famous <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> engineer <a href="/wiki/Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Vauban">Vauban</a>. The French king's great-grandson Louis (1710–74) was, from 1712, the first heir-general of Albert VII. Albert VII was a descendant of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through his mother's Danish great-great-grandmother, but was not the heir-general of that line. Louis was the first real claimant of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, the daughters of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Luxembourg" title="Elizabeth of Luxembourg">Elizabeth of Luxembourg</a>, the last Luxembourg empress. </p><p>Habsburg rule was confirmed in 1715 by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht_(1713)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht (1713)">Treaty of Utrecht</a>, and Luxembourg was integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a>. Emperor Joseph and his successor Emperor Charles VI were descendants of Spanish kings who were heirs of Albert VII. Joseph and Charles VI were also descendants of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through their mother, although they were heirs-general of neither line. Charles was the first ruler of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia. </p><p>Austrian rulers were ready to exchange Luxembourg and other territories in the Low Countries. Their purpose was to round out and enlarge their power base, which in geographical terms was centred around <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. Thus, Bavarian candidate(s) emerged to take over the Duchy of Luxembourg, but this plan led to nothing permanent. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> however, made a preliminary pact to make a neighbour of Luxembourg, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Theodore,_Elector_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine">Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine</a>, as Duke of Luxembourg and king in the Low Countries, in exchange for his possessions in Bavaria and Franconia. However, this scheme was aborted by <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>'s opposition. Charles Theodore, who would have become Duke of Luxembourg, was genealogically a junior descendant of both Anna and Elisabeth, but the main heir of neither. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a>, Luxembourg was conquered and annexed by <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary France">Revolutionary France</a>, becoming part of the <i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9partements_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Départements of France">département</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/For%C3%AAts" title="Forêts">Forêts</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1795. The annexation was formalised at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Campo Formio</a> in 1797. In 1798, Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion against the French but it was rapidly suppressed. This brief rebellion is called the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasant's War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developing_independence_(1815–1890)"><span id="Developing_independence_.281815.E2.80.931890.29"></span>Developing independence (1815–1890)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Developing independence (1815–1890)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Luxembourg" title="Partitions of Luxembourg">Partitions of Luxembourg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_question" title="Luxembourg question">Luxembourg question</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png/250px-LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png/375px-LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/LuxembourgPartitionsMap_english.png 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>The three <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Luxembourg" title="Partitions of Luxembourg">Partitions of Luxembourg</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Luxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1815)" title="Treaty of Paris (1815)">defeat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> in 1815. When the French departed, the Allies installed a provisional administration. Luxembourg initially came under the <i>Generalgouvernement Mittelrhein</i> in mid-1814, and then from June 1814 under the <i>Generalgouvernement Nieder- und Mittelrhein</i> (General Government Lower and Middle Rhine). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> of 1815, gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg. In 1813, the Prussians had already managed to wrest lands from Luxembourg, to strengthen the Prussian-possessed <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Julich" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Julich">Duchy of Julich</a>. The Bourbons of France held a strong claim to Luxembourg, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Francis of Austria</a>, on the other hand, had controlled the duchy until the revolutionary forces had joined it to the French republic. However, his Chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a>, was not enthusiastic about regaining Luxembourg and the Low Countries, as they were separated so far from the main body of the Austrian Empire. </p><p>Prussia and the Netherlands, both claiming Luxembourg, made an exchange deal: Prussia received the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Orange-Nassau" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Orange-Nassau">Principality of Orange-Nassau</a>, the ancestral Principality of the Prince of Orange in Central Germany; and the Prince of Orange in turn received Luxembourg. In 1815 Luxembourg joined the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> and 1842 the <a href="/wiki/German_Customs_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="German Customs Union">German Customs Union</a>. </p><p>Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size (as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of <a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">grand duchy</a> and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands. This was the first time that the duchy had a monarch who had no claim to the inheritance of the medieval patrimony. However, Luxembourg's military value to <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> prevented it from becoming a full part of the Dutch kingdom. The fortress, ancestral seat of the medieval Luxembourgers, was garrisoned by Prussian forces, following Napoleon's defeat, and Luxembourg became a member of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> with Prussia responsible for its defence, and a state under the suzerainty of the Netherlands at the same time. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg/250px-Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg/375px-Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg/500px-Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1830" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg city's fortifications</figcaption></figure><p> In July 1819, a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg — his journal offers some insights. <a href="/wiki/Norwich_Duff" title="Norwich Duff">Norwich Duff</a>, writes of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg (city)">its city</a> that </p><blockquote><p>"Luxembourg is considered one of the strongest fortifications in Europe, and … it appears so. It is situated in <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Holland</a> (then as now used by English speakers as shorthand for the Netherlands) but by treaty is <a href="/wiki/Fortified_town" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified town">garrisoned</a> by Prussians and 5,000 of their troops occupy it under a <a href="/wiki/William_I,_Elector_of_Hesse" title="William I, Elector of Hesse">Prince of Hesse</a>. The civil government is under the Dutch and the <a href="/wiki/Taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxes">duties</a> collected by them. The town is not very large but the streets are broader than [in] the French towns and clean and the houses are good.... [I] got the cheapest of <a href="/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing">hot baths</a> here at the principal house I ever had in my life: one franc."</p></blockquote> <p><span class="anchor" id="Units_of_measure"></span>In 1820, Luxembourg made use of the <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a> of measurement compulsory.<sup id="cite_ref-:ict9_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:ict9-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:esu7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:esu7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously, the country had using local units such as the "malter" (which was equivalent to 191 <a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">litres</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:ict9_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:ict9-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian revolution">Belgian revolution</a> against <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Dutch</a> rule. Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity, Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839. By the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London,_1839" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of London, 1839">Treaty of London</a> in 1839, the status of the grand duchy became fully sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. In turn, the predominantly <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Oil</a>-speaking geographically larger western part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_(province_of_Belgium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg (province of Belgium)">province de Luxembourg</a>. </p><p>This loss left the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a predominantly German state, although French cultural influence remained strong. The loss of Belgian markets also caused painful economic problems for the state. Recognising this, the grand duke integrated it into the German <i><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i> in 1842. Nevertheless, Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century. As a result of this, about one in five of the inhabitants <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg American">emigrated</a> to the United States between 1841 and 1891. </p><p>Beginning in the 1830s, Luxembourg came to develop its own national identity.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic Church helped provide a sense of a unique cultural identity, and as early as 1840, Luxembourg had been granted its own <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a>, and in 1870, a separate <a href="/wiki/Bishopric" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric">bishopric</a>. <a href="/wiki/Luxemburger_Wort" title="Luxemburger Wort">Luxemburger Wort</a>, which came to be the dominant national newspaper in Luxembourg, also had close links with the church. Patterns of language use further consolidated Luxembourgish nationality - while <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a> prevailed, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a> became a language used in local literature and newspapers, especially when domestic issues and folklore were discussed; French was considered a language of diplomacy and was used when discussing international matters.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crisis_of_1867">Crisis of 1867</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Crisis of 1867"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Crisis" title="Luxembourg Crisis">Luxembourg Crisis</a></div> <p>In 1867, Luxembourg's independence was confirmed, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany, or France. The <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg crisis">crisis</a> of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Weeks_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Weeks War">Seven Weeks War</a> in 1866. </p><p>William III, king of the Netherlands, and sovereign of Luxembourg, was willing to sell the grand duchy to France's Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> in order to retain <a href="/wiki/Limbourg" title="Limbourg">Limbourg</a> but backed out when Prussian chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, expressed opposition. The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867 in which the British served as mediators between the two rivals. Bismarck manipulated public opinion, resulting in the denial of sale to France. The issue was resolved by the second <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London,_1867" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of London, 1867">Treaty of London</a> which guaranteed the perpetual independence and <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutrality</a> of the state. The fortress walls were pulled down and the Prussian garrison was withdrawn.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>, the French writers <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, the Hungarian composer <a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>, and the English painter <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Mallord William Turner">Joseph Mallord William Turner</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Separation_and_the_World_Wars_(1890–1945)"><span id="Separation_and_the_World_Wars_.281890.E2.80.931945.29"></span>Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luxembourg remained a possession of the kings of the Netherlands until the death of <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_the_Netherlands" title="William III of the Netherlands">William III</a> in 1890, when the grand duchy passed to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Nassau-Weilburg" title="House of Nassau-Weilburg">House of Nassau-Weilburg</a> due to the 1783 <a href="/wiki/Nassau_Family_Pact" title="Nassau Family Pact">Nassau Family Pact</a>, under which those territories of the Nassau family in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> at the time of the pact (Luxembourg and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau" title="Duchy of Nassau">Nassau</a>) were bound by semi-<a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a>, which allowed <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> by females or through the female line only upon extinction of male members of the <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a>. When <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_the_Netherlands" title="William III of the Netherlands">William III</a> died leaving only his daughter <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmina_of_the_Netherlands" title="Wilhelmina of the Netherlands">Wilhelmina</a> as an heir, the crown of the Netherlands, not being bound by the family pact, passed to Wilhelmina. However, the crown of Luxembourg passed to a male of another branch of the House of Nassau: <a href="/wiki/Adolphe,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Adolphe</a>, the dispossessed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Nassau" title="House of Nassau">Duke of Nassau</a> and head of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Nassau-Weilburg" title="House of Nassau-Weilburg">branch of Nassau-Weilburg</a>. </p><p>By the beginning of the 20th century, Luxembourg had abandoned its cultural ties to Germany in favour of developing its own nationalism - writers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Ries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas Ries (page does not exist)">Nicolas Ries</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Ries" class="extiw" title="lb:Nicolas Ries">lb</a>]</span> elevated the status of Luxembourgish to a literary language, and nationalist organisations such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Letzeburger_Nationalunio%27n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Letzeburger Nationalunio'n (page does not exist)">Letzeburger Nationalunio'n</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letzeburger_Nationalunio%27n" class="extiw" title="lb:Letzeburger Nationalunio'n">lb</a>]</span> developed, espousing anti-German and anti-French sentiments.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luxembourgish was confirmed as an official and separate language by the <a href="/wiki/Education_Law_of_1912" title="Education Law of 1912">Education Law of 1912</a>, which established it as a mandatory school subject.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demographic patterns reversed, with more people immigrating to Luxembourg than emigrating from it, and the politics of Luxembourg had consolidated into three major parties - the socialists of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Socialist_Workers%27_Party" title="Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party">Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party</a>, the liberals of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_League_(Luxembourg)" title="Liberal League (Luxembourg)">Liberal League</a>, and the conservatives of the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_the_Right_(Luxembourg)" title="Party of the Right (Luxembourg)">Rietspartei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I">German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I</a></div> <p>The internationally recognised neutrality of Luxembourg from the 1867 revised Treaty of London was violated in 1914 when Luxembourg was occupied by German troops, although the government was left intact and Luxembourg was not incorporated into the German state.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the government officially maintained its neutrality in spite of German occupation, the population was sympathising with the Entente forces, and number of Luxembourgers joined the French army during as a result. The political neutrality that the government maintained during the occupation was cause of dissent and unrest; German occupation of Luxembourg caused widespread anti-German sentiment, and the monarchy was accused of collaborating with Germany, creating momentum in favour of its abolition.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, <a href="/wiki/Marie-Ad%C3%A9la%C3%AFde,_Grand_Duchess_of_Luxembourg" title="Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg">Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg</a> abdicated in favour of her sister, Charlotte. Shortly thereafter, in 1919, <a href="/wiki/1919_Luxembourg_referendum" title="1919 Luxembourg referendum">a referendum</a> was held wherein the public voted in favour of retaining the monarchy, which had become closely affiliated with the major political party, the Party of the Right, in turn having links to the Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first <a href="/wiki/Trades_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Trades union">trades union</a> in Luxembourg. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The end of the occupation in November 1918, squared with a time of uncertainty on the international and national levels. The victorious Allies disapproved of the choices made by the local élites, and some Belgian politicians even demanded the (re)integration of the country into a greater Belgium. Within Luxembourg, a strong minority asked for the creation of a republic. In the end, the grand duchy remained a monarchy but was led by a new head of state, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte,_Grand_Duchess_of_Luxembourg" title="Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg">Charlotte</a>. In 1921, it entered into <a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Luxembourg_Economic_Union" title="Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union">an economic and monetary union with Belgium</a>. During most of the 20th century, however, Germany remained its most important economic partner. </p><p>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> for men and women favored the Rechtspartei (<a href="/wiki/Party_of_the_Right_(Luxembourg)" title="Party of the Right (Luxembourg)">Party of the Right</a>) which played the dominant role in the government throughout the 20th century, with the exception of 1925–26 and 1974–79, when the two other important parties, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_League_(Luxembourg)" title="Liberal League (Luxembourg)">Liberal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Luxembourg)" title="Social Democratic Party (Luxembourg)">Social-Democratic</a> parties, formed a coalition. The success of the resulting party was due partly to the support of the church — the population was more than 90 percent Catholic — and of its newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/Luxemburger_Wort" title="Luxemburger Wort">Luxemburger Wort</a></i>. </p><p>On the international level, the interwar period was characterised by an attempt to put Luxembourg on the map. Especially under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bech" title="Joseph Bech">Joseph Bech</a>, head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, the country participated more actively in several international organisations, in order to ensure its autonomy. On 16 December 1920 Luxembourg became a member of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. On the economic level in the 1920s and the 1930s, the agricultural sector declined in favour of industry, but even more so for the service sector. The proportion of the active population in this last sector rose from 18 percent in 1907 to 31 percent in 1935. </p><p>In the 1930s, the internal situation deteriorated, as Luxembourgish politics were influenced by European left- and right-wing politics. The government tried to counter <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a>-led unrest in the industrial areas and continued friendly policies towards <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, which led to much criticism. The attempts to quell unrest peaked with the <i><a href="/wiki/Maulkuerfgesetz" title="Maulkuerfgesetz">Maulkuerfgesetz</a></i>, the "muzzle" Law, which was an attempt to outlaw the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Luxembourg" title="Communist Party of Luxembourg">Communist Party</a>. The law was turned down in a 1937 referendum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II">German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg in World War II</a></div> <p>Upon the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> in September 1939, the government of Luxembourg observed its neutrality and issued an official proclamation to that effect on 6 September 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 May 1940 an invasion by German armed forces swept away the Luxembourgish government and monarchy into exile. The German troops made up of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Panzer_Division_(Wehrmacht)" title="1st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)">1st</a>, <a href="/wiki/2nd_Panzer_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Panzer Division">2nd</a>, and <a href="/wiki/10th_Panzer_Division_(Wehrmacht)" title="10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)">10th Panzer Divisions</a> invaded at 04:35. They did not encounter any significant resistance save for some bridges destroyed and some land mines since the majority of the Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps stayed in their barracks. Luxembourgish police resisted the German troops, but to little avail and the capital city was occupied before noon. Total Luxembourgish casualties amounted to 75 police and soldiers captured, six police wounded, and one soldier wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Luxembourg royal family and their entourage received visas from Portuguese consul <a href="/wiki/Aristides_de_Sousa_Mendes" title="Aristides de Sousa Mendes">Aristides de Sousa Mendes</a> in Bordeaux. They crossed into Portugal and subsequently travelled to the United States in two groups: on the <a href="/wiki/USS_Trenton_(CL-11)" title="USS Trenton (CL-11)">USS <i>Trenton</i></a> from Lisbon to Baltimore in July 1940, and on the Pan American airliner<i> Yankee Clipper</i> in October 1940. Throughout the war, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Charlotte" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchess Charlotte">Grand Duchess Charlotte</a> broadcast via the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> to Luxembourg to give hope to the people. </p><p>Luxembourg remained <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II">under German military occupation</a> until August 1942, when <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> formally annexed it as part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gau_(German)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gau (German)">Gau</a></i> <i>Moselland</i>. The German authorities declared Luxembourgers to be German citizens and called up 13,000 for military service. 2,848 Luxembourgers eventually died fighting in the German army. Luxembourg was fully incorporated into the Third Reich in 1942, which the German government justified by ‘proclaiming’ that Luxembourgers were ethnically and linguistically German. </p><p>An estimated 3,500 <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Jews lived in Luxembourg</a> before the war; an estimated 1,000 to 2,500 were <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">murdered in the Holocaust</a>. </p><p>Luxembourgish opposition to this annexation took the form of passive resistance at first, as in the <i><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A9ngelskrich" class="extiw" title="lb:Spéngelskrich">Spéngelskrich</a></i> (lit. "War of the Pins"), and in refusal to speak German. As French was forbidden, many Luxembourgers resorted to resuscitating old Luxembourgish words, which led to a renaissance of the language. The Germans met opposition with <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_conscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced conscription">forced conscription</a> and, more drastically, with <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">internment</a>, deportation to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a> and execution. In October 1941, a census was administered, including questions on <i>jetzige Staatsangehörigkeit</i> (‘current citizenship’), <i>Muttersprache</i> (‘mother tongue’), and <i>Volkszugehörigkeit</i> (‘ethnicity’). An overwhelming majority of the population answered these questions with "Lëtzebuergesch", an act that showed the opposition to Luxembourg's incorporation into the Third Reich, while also emphasising that Luxembourg was not a part of the German nation.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This rebellion against Nazi authority is referred to today as <i>dräimol Lëtzebuergesch</i> (‘three times Luxembourgish’).<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced draft of the local population into the German army starting in 1942 resulted in the outbreak of numerous strikes, an event which is referred to today in collective terms as the <a href="/wiki/1942_Luxembourgish_general_strike" title="1942 Luxembourgish general strike">Generalstreik</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-horner_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Executions took place after the so-called <a href="/wiki/1942_Luxembourgish_general_strike" title="1942 Luxembourgish general strike">general strike</a> from 1 to 3 September 1942, which paralysed the administration, agriculture, industry and education in response to the declaration of <a href="/wiki/Forced_conscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced conscription">forced conscription</a> by the German administration on 30 August 1942. The Germans suppressed the strike violently. They executed 21 strikers and deported hundreds more to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>. The then civilian administrator of Luxembourg, <a href="/wiki/Gauleiter" title="Gauleiter">Gauleiter</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Simon" title="Gustav Simon">Gustav Simon</a>, had declared conscription necessary to support the German war effort. The general strike in Luxembourg remained one of the few mass strikes against the German war machine in Western Europe. </p><p>U.S. forces liberated most of the country in September 1944. They entered the capital city on 10 September 1944. During the <a href="/wiki/Ardennes_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardennes Offensive">Ardennes Offensive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a>) German troops took back most of northern Luxembourg for a few weeks. Allied forces finally expelled the Germans in January 1945. </p><p>Between December 1944 and February 1945, the recently liberated city of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg (city)">Luxembourg</a> was designated by the <a href="/wiki/OB_West" title="OB West">OB West</a> (German Army Command in the West) as the target for <a href="/wiki/V-3_cannon#Luxembourg_bombardment" title="V-3 cannon">V-3</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege gun">siege guns</a>, which were originally intended to bombard <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>. Two V-3 guns based at <a href="/wiki/Lampaden" title="Lampaden">Lampaden</a> fired a total of 183 rounds at Luxembourg. However, the V-3 was not very accurate. 142 rounds landed in Luxembourg, with 44 confirmed hits in the urban area, and the total casualties were 10 dead and 35 wounded. The bombardments ended with the American Army nearing Lampaden on 22 February 1945. </p><p>Altogether, of a pre-war population of 293,000, 5,259 Luxembourgers lost their lives during the hostilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history_(since_1945)"><span id="Modern_history_.28since_1945.29"></span>Modern history (since 1945)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern history (since 1945)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Luxembourg abandoned its politics of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutrality</a>, when it became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO) and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. It is a signatory of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome" title="Treaty of Rome">Treaty of Rome</a>, and constituted a monetary union with Belgium (<a href="/wiki/Benelux_Customs_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Benelux Customs Union">Benelux Customs Union</a> in 1948), and an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands, the so-called <a href="/wiki/BeNeLux" class="mw-redirect" title="BeNeLux">BeNeLux</a>. </p><p>Between 1945 and 2005, the economic structure of Luxembourg changed significantly. The crisis of the metallurgy sector, which began in the mid-1970s and lasted till the late 1980s, nearly pushed the country into economic recession, given the monolithic dominance of that sector. The Tripartite Coordination Committee, consisting of members of the government, management representatives, and trade union leaders, succeeded in preventing major social unrest during those years, thus creating the myth of a “Luxembourg model” characterised by social peace. Although in the early years of the 21st century Luxembourg enjoyed one of the highest GNI per capita in the world, this was mainly due to the strength of its financial sector, which gained importance at the end of the 1960s. Thirty-five years later, one-third of the tax proceeds originated from that sector. The harmonisation of the tax system across Europe could, however, seriously undermine the financial situation of the grand duchy. </p><p>Luxembourg has been one of the strongest advocates of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Robert Schuman</a>. It was one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952 and of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (EEC) (later the European Union) in 1957; in 1999 it joined the <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euro</a> currency area. </p><p>Encouraged by the contacts established with the Dutch and Belgian governments in exile, Luxembourg pursued a policy of presence in international organisations. In the context of the Cold War, Luxembourg clearly opted for the West, having joined NATO in 1949. Engagement in European reconstruction was rarely questioned subsequently, either by politicians or by the greater population. </p><p>Despite its small proportions, Luxembourg often played an intermediary role between larger countries. This role of mediator, especially between the two large and often bellicose nations of Germany and France, was considered one of the main characteristics of its national identity, allowing the Luxembourgers not to have to choose between one of these two neighbours. The country also hosted a large number of European institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a>. </p><p>Luxembourg's small size no longer seemed to be a challenge to the existence of the country, and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Banque_Centrale_du_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Banque Centrale du Luxembourg">Banque Centrale du Luxembourg</a> (1998) and of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Luxembourg" title="University of Luxembourg">University of Luxembourg</a> (2003) was evidence of the continuing desire to become a “real” nation. The decision in 1985 to declare <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgish language">Lëtzebuergesch (Luxembourgish)</a> the national language was also a step in the affirmation of the country's independence. In fact, the linguistic situation in Luxembourg was characterised by trilingualism: Lëtzebuergesch was the spoken vernacular language, German the written language, in which Luxembourgers were most fluent, and French the language of official letters and law. </p><p>In 1985, the country became victim to a <a href="/wiki/Bombers_Affair" title="Bombers Affair">mysterious bombing spree</a>, which was targeted mostly at electrical masts and other installations. </p><p>In 1995, Luxembourg provided the president of the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>, former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Santer" title="Jacques Santer">Jacques Santer</a>, who later had to resign in March 1999 over corruption accusations against other commission members.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jean-Claude_Juncker" title="Jean-Claude Juncker">Jean-Claude Juncker</a>, followed this European tradition. On 10 September 2004, Juncker became the president of the group of finance ministers from the 12 countries that share the euro, a role that led him to be dubbed "Mr Euro".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The present sovereign is Grand Duke <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Henri</a>. Henri's father, <a href="/wiki/Jean,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Jean</a>, succeeded his mother, Charlotte, on 12 November 1964. Jean's eldest son, Prince Henri, was appointed "Lieutenant Représentant" (Hereditary Grand Duke) on 4 March 1998. On 24 December 1999, Prime Minister Juncker announced Grand Duke Jean's decision to abdicate the throne on 7 October 2000, in favour of Prince <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" title="Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Henri</a> who assumed the title and constitutional duties of Grand Duke.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 10 July 2005, after threats of resignation by Prime Minister Juncker, the proposed <a href="/wiki/European_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="European Constitution">European Constitution</a> was approved by 56.52% of voters.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2013, Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker announced his resignation following a secret service scandal. He had been prime minister since 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2013, openly gay <a href="/wiki/Xavier_Bettel" title="Xavier Bettel">Xavier Bettel</a> was sworn in as the new prime minister to succeed Juncker. Bettel of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Luxembourg)" title="Democratic Party (Luxembourg)">Democratic Party</a> (DP), formed a coalition of Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens who won a combined majority of 32 out of 60 seats in Luxembourg's snap <a href="/wiki/2013_Luxembourg_general_election" title="2013 Luxembourg general election">election</a> on 20 October 2013. However, Juncker's <a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party" title="Christian Social People's Party">Christian Democrats</a> (CSV) remained the biggest party with 23 seats.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2014, European Parliament elected former Luxembourg prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker as the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_European_Commission" title="President of the European Commission">President of the European Commission</a> on 1 November 2014, succeeding Portugal's <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Barroso" title="José Manuel Barroso">Jose Manuel Barroso</a>, who had held the post since 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2018, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel was sworn in for a second term, following the narrow victory of his liberal-led coalition in 2018 parliamentary <a href="/wiki/2018_Luxembourg_general_election" title="2018 Luxembourg general election">election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2020, in accordange with its 2018 coalition accord, the <a href="/wiki/Bettel_II_Government" title="Bettel II Government">Bettel II Government</a> implemented <a href="/wiki/Free_public_transport" title="Free public transport">free public transport</a> across Luxembourg, making it the first country in the world to implement the measure nationwide. </p><p>In October 2023, the Christian Social People's Party (CSV) won the <a href="/wiki/2023_Luxembourg_general_election" title="2023 Luxembourg general election">general election</a>, meaning Prime Minister Xavier Bettel's ruling liberal coalition lost its clear majority.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2023, <a href="/wiki/Luc_Frieden" title="Luc Frieden">Luc Frieden</a>, leader of CSV, became new <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime minister of Luxembourg">Prime minister of Luxembourg</a>. He formed a coalition with the liberal Democratic Party (DP), meaning outgoing Prime Minister Xavier Bettel remained in government as foreign minister and deputy prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Luxembourg" title="List of monarchs of Luxembourg">List of monarchs of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Luxembourg" title="List of prime ministers of Luxembourg">List of prime ministers of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Luxembourg" title="Politics of Luxembourg">Politics of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Luxembourg" title="History of rail transport in Luxembourg">History of rail transport in Luxembourg</a>, 1846 to present day</li></ul> <p><b>General:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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.citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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London: Springer. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediasci00card_043/page/n153">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-1122-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-1122-1"><bdi>978-1-4471-1122-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Scientific+Units%2C+Weights+and+Measures.+Their+SI+Equivalences+and+Origins.&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4471-1122-1&rft.aulast=Cardarelli&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopaediasci00card_043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-horner-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horner_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornerWeber2008" class="citation journal cs1">Horner, Kristine; Weber, Jean Jacques (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rclp20">"The Language Situation in Luxembourg"</a>. <i>Current Issues in Language Planning</i>. <b>9</b> (1). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Prime+minister+of+Luxembourg+is+cast+as+first+%27Mr.+Euro%27&rft.date=2004-09-11&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=Carter&rft.au=Meller%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F09%2F11%2Fnews%2Fprime-minister-of-luxembourg-is-cast-as-first-mr-euro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalcentral.co.uk/features/twenty-years-of-rule-looking-back-at-the-accession-of-grand-duke-henri-of-luxembourg-150147/">"Twenty Years of Rule: Looking back at the accession of Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg"</a>. 7 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Twenty+Years+of+Rule%3A+Looking+back+at+the+accession+of+Grand+Duke+Henri+of+Luxembourg&rft.date=2020-10-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalcentral.co.uk%2Ffeatures%2Ftwenty-years-of-rule-looking-back-at-the-accession-of-grand-duke-henri-of-luxembourg-150147%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/eem/0433-referendum-on-the-european-constitution-in-luxembourg-10th-july-2005">"Referendum on the European Constitution in Luxembourg 10th july 2005"</a>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=POLITICO&rft.atitle=Luxembourg+PM+Bettel+faces+exit+after+election+defeat&rft.date=2023-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fluxembourg-election-prime-minister-xavier-bettel-exit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/luxembourgs-bettel-return-foreign-minister-new-government/">"Luxembourg's Bettel to return as foreign minister in new government"</a>. <i>POLITICO</i>. 15 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=POLITICO&rft.atitle=Luxembourg%27s+Bettel+to+return+as+foreign+minister+in+new+government&rft.date=2023-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fluxembourgs-bettel-return-foreign-minister-new-government%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Arblaster, Paul. <i>A History of the Low Countries</i> (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2005)</li> <li>Blom, J.C.H. <i>History of the Low Countries</i> (2006).</li> <li>Bodenstein, Felicity. "National Museums in Luxembourg." <i>Building National Museums in Europe 1750-2010</i> (Linköping University Electronic Press, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ep.liu.se/ecp/article.asp?issue=064&volume=&article=023">online</a>.</li> <li>Brühwiler, Ingrid, and Matias Gardin. "Fabricating National Unity in Torn Contexts: World War I in the Multilingual Countries of Switzerland and Luxembourg." in <i>Small Nations and Colonial Peripheries in World War I</i> (Brill, 2016) pp. 140–156.</li> <li>De Bres, Julia, Gabriel Rivera Cosme, and Angela Remesch. "Walking the tightrope of linguistic nationalism in a multilingual state: constructing language in political party programmes in Luxembourg." <i>Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development</i> 41.9 (2020): 779–793.</li> <li>de Vries, Johan. "Benelux, 1920-1970," in C. M. Cipolla, ed. <i>The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One</i> (1976) pp 1–71.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuong2021" class="citation journal cs1">Duong, Mei (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.57.6">"Development-Led or 'Preventive' Archaeology in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg"</a>. <i>Internet Archaeology</i> (57). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.57.6">10.11141/ia.57.6</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Development-Led+or+%27Preventive%27+Archaeology+in+the+Grand+Duchy+of+Luxembourg&rft.issue=57&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11141%2Fia.57.6&rft.aulast=Duong&rft.aufirst=Mei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11141%252Fia.57.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Luxembourg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fletcher, Willard Allen. “The German Administration in Luxemburg 1940-1942: Towards a ‘De Facto’ Annexation” <i>Historical Journal</i> 13#3 (1970), pp. 533–544. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637887">online</a></li> <li>Garcia, Nuria. "The paradox of contemporary linguistic nationalism: the case of Luxembourg." <i>Nations and Nationalism</i> 20.1 (2014): 113–132.</li> <li>Horner, Kristine, and Jean Jacques Weber. "The language situation in Luxembourg." <i>Current issues in language planning</i> 9.1 (2008): 69–128.</li> <li>Kossmann, E. H. <i>The Low Countries 1780–1940</i> (1978).</li> <li>Millim, Anne-Marie. "Schooling the gaze: Industry and nation-building in Luxembourgish landscape-writing, 1900–1940." <i>Journal of European Studies</i> 44.2 (2014): 151-169 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/440605.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Péporté, Pit. <i>Constructing the Middle Ages: historiography, collective memory and nation-building in Luxembourg</i> (Brill, 2011).</li> <li>Péporté, Pit; Kmec, Sonja; Majerus, Benoît and Margue, Michel <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/2052/1/Peport%c3%a9%20et%20al.%20-%202010%20-%20Inventing%20Luxembourg.%20Representations%20of%20the%20past%2c.pdf">Inventing Luxembourg. Representations of the Past, Space and Language from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170117024839/http://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/2052/1/Peport%c3%a9%20et%20al.%20-%202010%20-%20Inventing%20Luxembourg.%20Representations%20of%20the%20past%2c.pdf">Archived</a> 17 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Vol. 1 of the Collection ‘National Cultivation of Culture’, ed. Joep Leerssen (Leiden/Boston: Brill) (2010).</li> <li>Schreiber, Catherina. "Integrating the cosmopolitan and the local–The curricular construction of citizens in Luxembourg in the long 19th century." <i>Encounters in Theory and History of Education</i> 16 (2015): 165-182 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/encounters/article/download/5588/5720">online</a>.</li> <li>Thyssen, Geert. "The stranger within: Luxembourg’s early school system as a European prototype of nationally legitimized international blends (ca. 1794–1844)." <i>Paedagogica Historica</i> 49.5 (2013): 625–644.</li> <li>Zariz, Ruth. “The Jews of Luxembourg during the Second World War” <i>Holocaust & Genocide Studies</i> No 7 (1993). pp. 51–66.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Luxembourg&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.informationcentre22.com/2019/01/history-of-luxembourg.html">History Of Luxembourg</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Luxembourg" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Luxembourg">History of Luxembourg</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040404163133/http://www.igd-leo.lu/igd-leo/emigration/emigrationus.html">Luxembourg emigration in the 19th century</a> - Offers reasons why people left Luxembourg in the 19th century.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Luxembourg:_Primary_Documents">History of Luxembourg: Primary Documents</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hoeckmann.de/deutschland/luxemburgkarte.htm">Historical Map of Luxembourg 1789</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nat-military-museum.lu">National Museum of Military History</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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.navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Luxembourg_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Luxembourg_topics" title="Template:Luxembourg topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/For%C3%AAts" title="Forêts">Forêts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_and_the_Belgian_Revolution" title="Luxembourg and the Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">First Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1848_in_Luxembourg" title="Revolution of 1848 in Luxembourg">1848 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Crisis" title="Luxembourg Crisis">Luxembourg Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1867)" title="Treaty of London (1867)">Second Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Luxembourg" title="Partitions of Luxembourg">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_of_Luxembourg" title="Military occupations of Luxembourg">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Luxembourg" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Luxembourg">Orders, decorations, and medals of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Luxembourg" title="History of rail transport in Luxembourg">Railway history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Luxembourg" title="Geography of Luxembourg">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Luxembourg" title="Administrative divisions of Luxembourg">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Luxembourg" title="Districts of Luxembourg">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Luxembourg" title="Cantons of Luxembourg">Cantons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communes_of_Luxembourg" title="Communes of Luxembourg">Communes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_Luxembourg" title="List of towns in Luxembourg">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_City" title="Luxembourg City">Luxembourg City</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quarters_of_Luxembourg_City" title="Quarters of Luxembourg City">quarters</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Luxembourg" title="Extreme points of Luxembourg">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guttland" title="Guttland">Guttland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_Switzerland_(Luxembourg)" title="Little Switzerland (Luxembourg)">Little Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg plateau">Luxembourg plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Valley" title="Moselle Valley">Moselle Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lands" title="Red Lands">Red Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Seven_Castles" title="Valley of the Seven Castles">Valley of the Seven Castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89islek" title="Éislek">Éislek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Luxembourg" title="List of rivers of Luxembourg">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Luxembourg" title="Politics of Luxembourg">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Luxembourg)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)">Chamber of Deputies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35th_Chamber_of_Deputies" class="mw-redirect" title="35th Chamber of Deputies">Current members</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Government_of_Luxembourg" title="Council of Government of Luxembourg">Council of Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_of_Luxembourg" title="Council of State of Luxembourg">Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Assembly_(Luxembourg)" title="Consultative Assembly (Luxembourg)">Consultative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Luxembourg" title="List of diplomatic missions of Luxembourg">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Luxembourg" title="Elections in Luxembourg">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Luxembourg" title="Foreign relations of Luxembourg">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Monarchy of Luxembourg">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Luxembourg">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Luxembourg">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Ducal_Police" title="Grand Ducal Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Luxembourg" title="List of political parties in Luxembourg">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Luxembourg" title="List of prime ministers of Luxembourg">Prime Minister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Luxembourg" title="Economy of Luxembourg">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountancy_in_Luxembourg" title="Accountancy in Luxembourg">Accountancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Luxembourg_Economic_Union" title="Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union">Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Luxembourg" title="Electricity sector in Luxembourg">Electricity sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg%27s_euro_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg's euro coins">Euro coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RTL_Group" title="RTL Group">RTL Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Stock_Exchange" title="Luxembourg Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Luxembourg" title="Transport in Luxembourg">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Luxembourg" title="Category:Society of Luxembourg">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Luxembourg" title="Demographics of Luxembourg">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Category:Education in Luxembourg">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_on_euthanasia_and_assisted_suicide" title="Law on euthanasia and assisted suicide">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Luxembourg" title="Languages of Luxembourg">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgers" title="Luxembourgers">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_in_Luxembourg" title="Social welfare in Luxembourg">Social welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Luxembourg" title="Culture of Luxembourg">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_art" title="Luxembourgish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Luxembourg" title="Cinema of Luxembourg">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Luxembourg" title="Cuisine of Luxembourg">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_wine" title="Luxembourgish wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Luxembourg" title="Music of Luxembourg">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Luxembourg" title="National symbols of Luxembourg">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Luxembourg" title="List of newspapers in Luxembourg">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Luxembourg_(DRM)" title="Radio Luxembourg (DRM)">Radio Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RTL_(Luxembourgian_TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="RTL (Luxembourgian TV channel)">RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Luxembourg" title="Sport in Luxembourg">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Luxembourg" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Luxembourg">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Luxembourg" title="Outline of Luxembourg">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Luxembourg" title="Category:Luxembourg">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Luxembourg" title="Portal:Luxembourg">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Macedonia" title="History of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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