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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Risks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_methods_to_prevent_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_methods_to_prevent_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Main methods to prevent risks</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_methods_to_prevent_risks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main methods to prevent risks subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_methods_to_prevent_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slow_programmable_freezing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slow_programmable_freezing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Slow programmable freezing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slow_programmable_freezing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vitrification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitrification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Vitrification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitrification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persufflation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persufflation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Persufflation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persufflation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freezable_tissues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freezable_tissues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Freezable tissues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Freezable_tissues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Freezable tissues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Freezable_tissues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Embryos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embryos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Embryos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embryos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ovarian_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ovarian_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ovarian tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ovarian_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oocytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oocytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Oocytes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oocytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Semen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testicular_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testicular_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Testicular tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testicular_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Moss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesenchymal_stromal_cells_(MSCs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesenchymal_stromal_cells_(MSCs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesenchymal_stromal_cells_(MSCs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Seed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation_of_microbiology_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_of_microbiology_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Preservation of microbiology cultures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Preservation_of_microbiology_cultures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Preservation of microbiology cultures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Preservation_of_microbiology_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freeze_tolerance_in_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freeze_tolerance_in_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Freeze tolerance in animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Freeze_tolerance_in_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Freeze tolerance in animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Freeze_tolerance_in_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Worms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Worms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropological_Perspective_on_Cryopreservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropological_Perspective_on_Cryopreservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Anthropological Perspective on Cryopreservation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anthropological_Perspective_on_Cryopreservation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Anthropological Perspective on Cryopreservation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Anthropological_Perspective_on_Cryopreservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Power_Imbalance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_Imbalance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Power Imbalance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_Imbalance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_Relative_to_the_Body_Politic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_Relative_to_the_Body_Politic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Issues Relative to the Body Politic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_Relative_to_the_Body_Politic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cryopreservation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%81%D8%B8_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="حفظ بالبرودة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حفظ بالبرودة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriogen_dondurma" title="Kriogen dondurma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kriogen dondurma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crioprotecci%C3%B3" title="Crioprotecció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crioprotecció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryoprezervace" title="Kryoprezervace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kryoprezervace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryokonservering" title="Cryokonservering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Cryokonservering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryokonservierung" title="Kryokonservierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kryokonservierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criopreservaci%C3%B3n" title="Criopreservación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Criopreservación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="سرماداری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرماداری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryoconservation" title="Cryoconservation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cryoconservation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criopreservaci%C3%B3n" title="Criopreservación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Criopreservación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krioprezervacija" title="Krioprezervacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krioprezervacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriopreservasi" title="Kriopreservasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kriopreservasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criopreservazione" title="Criopreservazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Criopreservazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הקפאה קריוגנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הקפאה קריוגנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krioawetan" title="Krioawetan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Krioawetan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criopreserba%C3%A7on" title="Criopreserbaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Criopreserbaçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryopreservatie" title="Cryopreservatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cryopreservatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B7%E5%87%8D%E4%BF%9D%E5%AD%98" title="冷凍保存 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="冷凍保存" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krioprezerwacja" title="Krioprezerwacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krioprezerwacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criopreserva%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Criopreservação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Criopreservação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криоконсервация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Криоконсервация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кріоконсервація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кріоконсервація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E4%BD%8E%E6%BA%AB%E4%BF%9D%E5%AD%98" title="深低溫保存 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="深低溫保存" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1144664#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Process to preserve biological matter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2012</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg/240px-Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg/360px-Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg/480px-Cryopreservation_USDA_Gene_Bank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>Cryogenically preserved samples being removed from a <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_storage_dewar" title="Cryogenic storage dewar">dewar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Cryopreservation</b> or <b>cryoconservation</b> is a process where biological material - <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissues</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> - are frozen to preserve the material for an extended period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At low temperatures (typically −80 °C (−112 °F) or −196 °C (−321 °F) using <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>) any cell <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation is an effective way to transport biological samples over long distances, store samples for prolonged periods of time, and create a bank of samples for users. Molecules, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Cryoprotectant" title="Cryoprotectant">cryoprotective agents</a> (CPAs), are added to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_shock" title="Osmotic shock">osmotic shock</a> and physical stresses cells undergo in the freezing process.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cryoprotective agents used in research are inspired by plants and animals in nature that have unique cold tolerance to survive harsh winters, including: trees,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wood frogs,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades.</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first human corpse to be frozen with the hope of future resurrection was <a href="/wiki/James_Bedford" title="James Bedford">James Bedford</a>'s, a few hours after his cancer-caused death in 1967.[15] Bedford's is the only <a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">cryonics</a> corpse frozen before 1974 still frozen today. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_cryopreservation">Natural cryopreservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Natural cryopreservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrades</a>, microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freezing</a> by replacing most of their internal water with a <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> called <a href="/wiki/Trehalose" title="Trehalose">trehalose</a>, preventing it from crystallization that otherwise damages <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects. Some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at intense concentrations. In addition to the water-bear, wood frogs can tolerate the freezing of their blood and other tissues. Urea is accumulated in tissues in preparation for overwintering, and liver glycogen is converted in large quantities to glucose in response to internal ice formation. Both urea and glucose act as "<a href="/wiki/Cryoprotectant" title="Cryoprotectant">cryoprotectants</a>" to limit the amount of ice that forms and to reduce <a href="/wiki/Osmotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmotic">osmotic</a> shrinkage of cells. Frogs can survive many freeze/thaw events during winter if no more than about 65% of the total body water freezes. Research exploring the phenomenon of "freezing frogs" has been performed primarily by the Canadian researcher, Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_B._Storey" title="Kenneth B. Storey">Kenneth B. Storey</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b>Freeze tolerance</b>, in which organisms survive the winter by freezing solid and ceasing life functions, is known in a few vertebrates: five species of frogs (<i><a href="/wiki/Rana_sylvatica" class="mw-redirect" title="Rana sylvatica">Rana sylvatica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudacris_triseriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudacris triseriata">Pseudacris triseriata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hyla_crucifer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyla crucifer">Hyla crucifer</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hyla_versicolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyla versicolor">Hyla versicolor</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hyla_chrysoscelis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyla chrysoscelis">Hyla chrysoscelis</a></i>), one of salamanders (<i><a href="/wiki/Salamandrella_keyserlingii" title="Salamandrella keyserlingii">Salamandrella keyserlingii</a></i>), one of snakes (<i><a href="/wiki/Thamnophis_sirtalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thamnophis sirtalis">Thamnophis sirtalis</a></i>) and three of turtles (<i><a href="/wiki/Chrysemys_picta" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysemys picta">Chrysemys picta</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Terrapene_carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrapene carolina">Terrapene carolina</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Terrapene_ornata" title="Terrapene ornata">Terrapene ornata</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-AJP1991_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJP1991-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Snapping turtles <i><a href="/wiki/Chelydra_serpentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelydra serpentina">Chelydra serpentina</a></i> and wall lizards <i><a href="/wiki/Podarcis_muralis" title="Podarcis muralis">Podarcis muralis</a></i> also survive nominal freezing but it has not been established to be adaptive for overwintering. In the case of <i>Rana sylvatica</i> one cryopreservant is ordinary glucose, which increases in concentration by approximately 19 mmol/L when the frogs are cooled slowly.<sup id="cite_ref-AJP1991_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJP1991-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cryonics#History" title="Cryonics">Cryonics § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg/220px-Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg/330px-Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg/440px-Petef%C3%A9szeksz%C3%B6vet-cs%C3%ADkok_fagyasztva_t%C3%A1rol%C3%A1sa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Tubes of biological samples being placed in <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One early theoretician of cryopreservation was <a href="/wiki/James_Lovelock" title="James Lovelock">James Lovelock</a>. In 1953, he suggested that damage to <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> during freezing was due to <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmotic</a> stress,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that increasing the salt concentration in a dehydrating cell might damage it.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-1950s, he experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallized into ice with no adverse effects; other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cryopreservation was applied to human materials beginning in 1954 with three pregnancies resulting from the insemination of previously frozen sperm.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fowl sperm was cryopreserved in 1957 by a team of scientists in the UK directed by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Polge" title="Christopher Polge">Christopher Polge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 1963, Peter Mazur, at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> in the U.S., demonstrated that lethal intracellular freezing could be avoided if cooling was slow enough to permit sufficient water to leave the cell during progressive freezing of the extracellular fluid. That rate differs between cells of differing size and water permeability: a typical cooling rate around 1 °C/minute is appropriate for many mammalian cells after treatment with cryoprotectants such as glycerol or dimethyl sulphoxide, but the rate is not a universal optimum.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 22, 1966, the first human cadaver was frozen—it had been embalmed for two months—by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing. The cadaver was that of an elderly woman from Los Angeles, whose name is unknown, and was soon thawed out and buried by relatives. The first human corpse to be frozen with the hope of future resurrection was <a href="/wiki/James_Bedford" title="James Bedford">James Bedford</a>'s, a few hours after his cancer-caused death in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bedford's is the only <a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">cryonics</a> corpse frozen before 1974 still frozen today.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risks">Risks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">Phenomena</a> which can cause damage to cells during cryopreservation mainly occur during the freezing stage, and include solution effects, <a href="/wiki/Extracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular">extracellular</a> ice formation, dehydration, and <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> ice formation. Many of these effects can be reduced by cryoprotectants. Once the preserved material has become frozen, it is relatively safe from further damage.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Solution effects</dt> <dd>As ice crystals grow in freezing water, <a href="/wiki/Solutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Solutes">solutes</a> are excluded, causing them to become concentrated in the remaining liquid water. High concentrations of some solutes can be very damaging.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Extracellular ice formation</dt> <dd>When tissues are cooled slowly, water migrates out of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a> forms in the extracellular space. Too much extracellular ice can cause mechanical damage to the cell membrane due to crushing.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Dehydration</dt> <dd>Migration of water, causing extracellular ice formation, can also cause cellular dehydration. The associated stresses on the cell can cause damage directly.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Intracellular ice formation</dt> <dd>While some <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissues</a> can tolerate some extracellular ice, any appreciable intracellular ice is almost always fatal to cells.</dd></dl> <p><span class="anchor" id="methods"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_methods_to_prevent_risks">Main methods to prevent risks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Main methods to prevent risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main techniques to prevent cryopreservation damages are a well-established combination of <i>controlled rate and slow freezing</i> and a newer flash-freezing process known as <i>vitrification</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slow_programmable_freezing">Slow programmable freezing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slow programmable freezing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG/220px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="419" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG/330px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG/440px-Liquid_nitrogen_tank.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="1983" /></a><figcaption>A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about −150 °C or −238 °F)</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Controlled-rate and slow freezing</i>, also known as <i>slow programmable freezing (SPF)</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a technique where cells are cooled to around -196 °C over the course of several hours. </p><p>Slow programmable freezing was developed during the early 1970s, and eventually resulted in the first human frozen <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> birth in 1984. Since then, machines that freeze biological samples using programmable sequences, or controlled rates, have been used for human, animal, and cell biology – "freezing down" a sample to better preserve it for eventual thawing, before it is frozen, or cryopreserved, in liquid nitrogen. Such machines are used for freezing oocytes, skin, blood products, embryos, sperm, stem cells, and general tissue preservation in hospitals, veterinary practices and research laboratories around the world. As an example, the number of live births from frozen embryos 'slow frozen' is estimated at some 300,000 to 400,000 or 20% of the estimated 3 million <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">in vitro fertilization</a> (IVF) births.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lethal intracellular freezing can be avoided if cooling is slow enough to permit sufficient water to leave the cell during progressive freezing of the extracellular fluid. To minimize the growth of extracellular ice crystals and recrystallization,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alginate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alginate">alginates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_alcohol" title="Polyvinyl alcohol">polyvinyl alcohol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">chitosan</a> can be used to impede ice crystal growth along with traditional small molecule cryoprotectants.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Bayesian_approach_to_optimizing_c_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Bayesian_approach_to_optimizing_c-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That rate differs between cells of differing size and water <a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">permeability</a>: a typical cooling rate of about 1 °C/minute is appropriate for many mammalian cells after treatment with cryoprotectants such as <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfoxide" title="Dimethyl sulfoxide">dimethyl sulfoxide</a> (DMSO), but the rate is not a universal optimum. The 1 °C / minute rate can be achieved by using devices such as a rate-controlled freezer or a benchtop portable freezing container.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several independent studies have provided evidence that frozen embryos stored using slow-freezing techniques may in some ways be 'better' than fresh in IVF. The studies indicate that using frozen embryos and eggs rather than fresh embryos and eggs reduced the risk of stillbirth and premature delivery though the exact reasons are still being explored. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vitrification">Vitrification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vitrification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a> is a flash-freezing (ultra-rapid cooling) process that helps to prevent the formation of ice crystals and helps prevent cryopreservation damage. </p><p>Researchers <a href="/wiki/Greg_Fahy" title="Greg Fahy">Greg Fahy</a> and William F. Rall helped to introduce vitrification to reproductive cryopreservation in the mid-1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-vitrification_origination_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vitrification_origination-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2000, researchers claim vitrification provides the benefits of cryopreservation without damage due to ice crystal formation.<sup id="cite_ref-cryonics_2000_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cryonics_2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation became more complex with the development of tissue engineering as both cells and biomaterials need to remain ice-free to preserve high cell viability and functions, integrity of constructs and structure of biomaterials. Vitrification of tissue engineered constructs was first reported by Lilia Kuleshova,<sup id="cite_ref-Kuleshova_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuleshova-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who also was the first scientist to achieve vitrification of <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocytes</a>, which resulted in live birth in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuleshova1999_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuleshova1999-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For clinical cryopreservation, vitrification usually requires the addition of cryoprotectants before cooling. Cryoprotectants are macromolecules added to the freezing medium to protect cells from the detrimental effects of intracellular ice crystal formation or from the solution effects, during the process of freezing and thawing. They permit a higher degree of cell survival during freezing, to lower the freezing point, to protect cell membrane from freeze-related injury. Cryoprotectants have high solubility, low toxicity at high concentrations, low molecular weight and the ability to interact with water via hydrogen bonding. </p><p>Instead of <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystallizing</a>, the syrupy solution becomes an <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous ice">amorphous ice</a>—it <i>vitrifies</i>. Rather than a phase change from liquid to solid by crystallization, the amorphous state is like a "solid liquid", and the transformation is over a small temperature range described as the "<a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a>" temperature. </p><p>Vitrification of water is promoted by rapid cooling, and can be achieved without cryoprotectants by an extremely rapid decrease of temperature (megakelvins per second). The rate that is required to attain glassy state in pure water was considered to be impossible until 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two conditions usually required to allow vitrification are an increase of viscosity and a decrease in the freezing temperature. Many solutes do both, but larger molecules generally have a larger effect, particularly on viscosity. Rapid cooling also promotes vitrification. </p><p>For established methods of cryopreservation, the solute must penetrate the cell membrane in order to achieve increased viscosity and decrease the freezing temperature inside the cell. Sugars do not readily permeate through the membrane. Those solutes that do, such as DMSO, a common cryoprotectant, are often toxic in intense concentration. One of the difficult compromises of vitrifying cryopreservation concerns limiting the damage produced by the cryoprotectant itself due to cryoprotectant toxicity. Mixtures of cryoprotectants and the use of ice blockers have enabled the <a href="/wiki/21st_Century_Medicine" title="21st Century Medicine">21st Century Medicine</a> company to vitrify a <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbit</a> <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a> to −135 °C with their proprietary vitrification mixture. Upon rewarming, the kidney was transplanted successfully into a rabbit, with complete functionality and viability, able to sustain the rabbit indefinitely as the sole functioning kidney.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, <a href="/wiki/FM-2030" title="FM-2030">FM-2030</a> became the first person to be successfully vitrified posthumously.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persufflation">Persufflation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Persufflation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blood can be replaced with inert <a href="/wiki/Noble_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble gases">noble gases</a> and/or metabolically vital gases like <a href="/wiki/Dioxygen_in_biological_reactions" title="Dioxygen in biological reactions">oxygen</a>, so that organs can cool more quickly and less antifreeze is needed. Since regions of tissue are separated by gas, small expansions do not accumulate, thereby protecting against shattering.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small company, Arigos Biomedical, "has already recovered pig hearts from the 120 degrees below zero",<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the definition of "recovered" is not clear. Pressures of 60 atm can help increase heat exchange rates.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gaseous oxygen perfusion/persufflation can enhance organ preservation relative to static cold storage or hypothermic machine perfusion, since the lower viscosity of gases, may help reach more regions of preserved organs and deliver more oxygen per gram tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22301419_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22301419-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Freezable_tissues">Freezable tissues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Freezable tissues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, cryopreservation is easier for thin samples and suspended cells, because these can be cooled more quickly and so require lesser doses of <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a> cryoprotectants. Therefore, cryopreservation of human <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">livers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">hearts</a> for storage and <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplant</a> is still impractical. </p><p>Nevertheless, suitable combinations of cryoprotectants and regimes of cooling and rinsing during warming often allow the successful cryopreservation of biological materials, particularly cell suspensions or thin tissue samples. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semen" title="Semen">Semen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">semen cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a> <ul><li>Special cells for transfusion like platelets (Thrombosomes by Cellphire)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">Stem cells</a>. It is optimal in high concentration of synthetic serum, stepwise equilibration and slow cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_Material&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetic Material (page does not exist)">Genetic Material</a> Additionally, cryopreservation is used for gene therapy treatments e. g. for cancer patients suffering from leukemia or lymphoma. The genetic materials used for gene therapy have to be modified in vivo or ex vivo. In order to do that they need to be kept viable during transport and storage. With cryopreservation they are brought to ultra-low temperatures and thawed when needed.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbilical_cord_blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbilical cord blood">Umbilical cord blood</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Cord_blood_bank#Collection_and_cryopreservation" title="Cord blood bank">Cord blood bank</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tissue samples like <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histological cross sections</a></li> <li>Eggs (<a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocytes</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">oocyte cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryos">Embryos</a> at cleavage stage (that are 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells) or at early blastocyst stage, in <a href="/wiki/Embryo_cryopreservation" title="Embryo cryopreservation">embryo cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovarian tissue">Ovarian tissue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_tissue_cryopreservation" title="Ovarian tissue cryopreservation">ovarian tissue cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> seeds, callus, shoots tips or dormant buds are cryopreserved for <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embryos">Embryos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Embryos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Embryo_cryopreservation" title="Embryo cryopreservation">Embryo cryopreservation</a></div> <p>Cryopreservation for embryos is used for embryo storage, e.g., when IVF has resulted in more embryos than is currently needed. </p><p>One pregnancy and resulting healthy birth has been reported from an embryo stored for 27 years, after the successful pregnancy of an embryo from the same batch three years earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many studies have evaluated the children born from frozen embryos, or "frosties". The result has been uniformly positive with no increase in birth defects or development abnormalities.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of more than 11,000 cryopreserved human embryos showed no significant effect of storage time on post-thaw survival for IVF or oocyte donation cycles, or for embryos frozen at the pronuclear or cleavage stages.<sup id="cite_ref-riggs_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riggs-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the duration of storage did not have any significant effect on clinical pregnancy, miscarriage, implantation, or live birth rate, whether from IVF or oocyte donation cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-riggs_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riggs-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, oocyte age, survival proportion, and number of transferred embryos are predictors of pregnancy outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-riggs_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riggs-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ovarian_tissue">Ovarian tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ovarian tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_tissue_cryopreservation" title="Ovarian tissue cryopreservation">Ovarian tissue cryopreservation</a></div> <p>Cryopreservation of ovarian tissue is of interest to women who want to preserve their reproductive function beyond the natural limit, or whose reproductive potential is threatened by cancer therapy,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example in hematologic malignancies or breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Oktay_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oktay-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The procedure is to take a part of the ovary and perform slow freezing before storing it in liquid nitrogen whilst therapy is undertaken. Tissue can then be thawed and implanted near the fallopian, either orthotopic (on the natural location) or heterotopic (on the abdominal wall),<sup id="cite_ref-Oktay_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oktay-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where it starts to produce new eggs, allowing normal conception to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ovarian tissue may also be transplanted into mice that are immunocompromised (<a href="/wiki/SCID_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="SCID mice">SCID mice</a>) to avoid <a href="/wiki/Graft_rejection" class="mw-redirect" title="Graft rejection">graft rejection</a>, and tissue can be harvested later when mature follicles have developed.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oocytes">Oocytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Oocytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">Oocyte cryopreservation</a></div> <p>Human oocyte cryopreservation is a new technology in which a woman's eggs (<a href="/wiki/Oocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oocytes">oocytes</a>) are extracted, frozen and stored. Later, when she is ready to become pregnant, the eggs can be thawed, fertilized, and transferred to the uterus as <a href="/wiki/Embryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryos">embryos</a>. Since 1999, when the birth of the first baby from an embryo-derived from vitrified-warmed woman's eggs was reported by Kuleshova and co-workers in the journal of Human Reproduction,<sup id="cite_ref-Kuleshova_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuleshova-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this concept has been recognized and widespread. This breakthrough in achieving vitrification of a woman's oocytes made an important advance in our knowledge and practice of the IVF process, as the clinical pregnancy rate is four times higher after oocyte vitrification than after slow freezing.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oocyte vitrification is vital for preserving fertility in young oncology patients and for individuals undergoing IVF who object, for either religious or ethical reasons, to the practice of freezing embryos. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semen">Semen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Semen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">Semen cryopreservation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Semen" title="Semen">Semen</a> can be used successfully almost indefinitely after cryopreservation. The longest reported successful storage is 22 years.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be used for <a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">sperm donation</a> where the recipient wants the treatment in a different time or place or as a means of preserving fertility for men undergoing <a href="/wiki/Vasectomy" title="Vasectomy">vasectomy</a> or treatments that may compromise their fertility, such as <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a> or surgery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testicular_tissue">Testicular tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Testicular tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation_of_testicular_tissue" title="Cryopreservation of testicular tissue">Cryopreservation of testicular tissue</a></div> <p>Cryopreservation of immature testicular tissue is a developing method to avail reproduction to young boys who need to have gonadotoxic therapy. Animal data are promising since healthy offspring have been obtained after transplantation of frozen testicular cell suspensions or tissue pieces. However, none of the fertility restoration options from frozen tissue, i.e. cell suspension transplantation, <a href="/wiki/Tissue_grafting" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue grafting">tissue grafting</a> and <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_maturation" title="In vitro maturation">in vitro maturation</a> has proved efficient and safe in humans as yet.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moss">Moss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Moss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG/200px-Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG/300px-Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG/400px-Ecotypes_of_Physcomitrella_patens.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>Four different <a href="/wiki/Ecotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecotypes">ecotypes</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></i> stored at the <a href="/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" title="International Moss Stock Center">International Moss Stock Center</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Cryopreservation of whole <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a>, has been developed by <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Reski" title="Ralf Reski">Ralf Reski</a> and coworkers<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is performed at the <a href="/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" title="International Moss Stock Center">International Moss Stock Center</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">biobank</a> collects, preserves, and distributes moss <a href="/wiki/Mutant" title="Mutant">mutants</a> and moss <a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">ecotypes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesenchymal_stromal_cells_(MSCs)"><span id="Mesenchymal_stromal_cells_.28MSCs.29"></span>Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>MSCs, when transfused immediately within a few hours post-thawing, may show reduced function or show decreased efficacy in treating diseases as compared to those MSCs which are in log phase of cell growth (fresh). As a result, cryopreserved MSCs should be brought back into the log phase of cell growth in <i>in vitro</i> culture before these are administered for clinical trials or experimental therapies. Re-culturing of MSCs will help in recovering from the shock the cells get during freezing and thawing. Various clinical trials on MSCs have failed which used cryopreserved products immediately post-thaw as compared to those clinical trials which used fresh MSCs.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seed">Seed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Seed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant cryopreservation is becoming vital for its biodiversity value. Seeds are often considered as an important delivery system of genetic information. Cryopreservation of <a href="/wiki/Recalcitrant_seed" title="Recalcitrant seed">recalcitrant seed</a> is the hardest due to intolerance to low temperature and low water content.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, plant vitrification solution can solve the problem and help recalcitrant seed (Nymphaea caerulea) cryopreserve.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preservation_of_microbiology_cultures">Preservation of microbiology cultures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Preservation of microbiology cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacteria and fungi can be kept short-term (months to about a year, depending) refrigerated, however, cell division and metabolism is not completely arrested and thus is not an optimal option for long-term storage (years) or to preserve cultures genetically or phenotypically, as cell divisions can lead to mutations or sub-culturing can cause phenotypic changes. A preferred option, species-dependent, is cryopreservation. Nematode worms are the only multicellular eukaryotes that have been shown to survive cryopreservation.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fungi, notably zygomycetes, ascomycetes, and higher basidiomycetes, regardless of sporulation, are able to be stored in liquid nitrogen or deep-frozen. Cryopreservation is a hallmark method for fungi that do not sporulate (otherwise other preservation methods for spores can be used at lower costs and ease), sporulate but have delicate spores (large or freeze-dry sensitive), are pathogenic (dangerous to keep metabolically active fungus) or are to be used for genetic stocks (ideally to have an identical composition as the original deposit). As with many other organisms, cryoprotectants like DMSO or glycerol (e.g. filamentous fungi 10% glycerol or yeast 20% glycerol) are used. Differences between choosing cryoprotectants are species (or class) dependent, but generally for fungi penetrating cryoprotectants like DMSO, glycerol or polyethylene glycol are most effective (other non-penetrating ones include sugars mannitol, sorbitol, dextran, etc.). Freeze-thaw repetition is not recommended as it can decrease viability. Back-up deep-freezers or liquid nitrogen storage sites are recommended. Multiple protocols for freezing are summarized below (each uses screw-cap polypropylene cryotubes):<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many common culturable laboratory strains are deep-frozen to preserve genetically and phenotypically stable, long-term stocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Vitt,_Laurie_J_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vitt,_Laurie_J-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sub-culturing and prolonged refrigerated samples may lead to loss of plasmid(s) or mutations. Common final glycerol percentages are 15, 20, and 25. From a fresh culture plate, one single colony of interest is chosen and liquid culture is made. From the liquid culture, the medium is directly mixed with an equal amount of glycerol; the colony should be checked for any defects like mutations. All antibiotics should be washed from the culture before long-term storage. Methods vary, but mixing can be done gently by inversion or rapidly by vortex and cooling can vary by either placing the cryotube directly at −50 to −95 °C, shock-freezing in liquid nitrogen or gradually cooling and then storing at −80 °C or cooler (liquid nitrogen or liquid nitrogen vapor). Recovery of bacteria can also vary, namely, if beads are stored within the tube then the few beads can be used to plate or the frozen stock can be scraped with a loop and then plated, however, since only little stock is needed the entire tube should never be completely thawed and repeated freeze-thaw should be avoided. 100% recovery is not feasible regardless of methodology.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Freeze_tolerance_in_animals">Freeze tolerance in animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Freeze tolerance in animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worms">Worms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Worms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The microscopic soil-dwelling <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> roundworms <i><a href="/wiki/Panagrolaimus_detritophagus" title="Panagrolaimus detritophagus">Panagrolaimus detritophagus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Plectus_parvus" title="Plectus parvus">Plectus parvus</a></i> are the only eukaryotic organisms that have been proven to be viable after cryopreservation for many years (30,000 to 40,000 years). In this case, the preservation was natural rather than artificial, due to <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>. They came alive when warmed up. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several animal species, including fish, amphibians, and reptiles have been shown to tolerate freezing. At least four species of frogs (<i><a href="/wiki/Spring_peeper" title="Spring peeper">Pseudacris crucifer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gray_treefrog" title="Gray treefrog">Hyla versicolor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_chorus_frog" title="Western chorus frog">Pseudacris triseriata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood_frog" title="Wood frog">Lithobates sylvaticus</a></i>) and several species of turtles (<i>Terrapene carolina</i>, hatchling <i>Chrysemys picta</i>), lizards, and snakes are freeze tolerant and have developed adaptations for surviving freezing. While some frogs hibernate underground or in water, body temperatures still drop to −5 to −7 °C, causing them to freeze. The <a href="/wiki/Wood_frog" title="Wood frog">wood frog</a> (<i>Lithobates sylvaticus</i>) can withstand repeated freezing, during which about 65% of its extracellular fluid is converted to ice.<sup id="cite_ref-Vitt,_Laurie_J_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vitt,_Laurie_J-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anthropological_Perspective_on_Cryopreservation">Anthropological Perspective on Cryopreservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Anthropological Perspective on Cryopreservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on a speculative science, <a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">cryonics</a> is controversial in scientific debate and can be better understood as an emergent <a href="/wiki/Death_ritual" class="mw-redirect" title="Death ritual">death ritual</a> along the social evolution of human culture and technology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Belief in an <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>, or second life, where the phenomenological body endures a transition or resurrection is recurrent across ancient tradition, religion and science fiction. However, the increasingly socialised language of <a href="/wiki/Cryotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryotechnology">cryotechnology</a> in health and wellness treatments, recontextualises waking of the un/dead into the biosocial sphere, framing mortality as something akin to illness which can be controlled or cured. Cryonics draws into question the boundaries of the sovereign self <sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_2017,_pp._59-66_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich_2017,_pp._59-66-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the individual body, challenging legal definitions of personhood.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These boundaries, however, are not universal and ideas which limit the self within the dichotomy of <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Cartesian dualism</a> are defined through Western philosophy and law. To understand the imprint of cryonics on the body politic <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is useful to apply the <a href="/wiki/Foucauldian" class="mw-redirect" title="Foucauldian">Foucauldian</a> definition of <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">biopower</a>. Ability to access and harness forms of cryotechnology (from cryostorage of food, blood or sperm) is historically bound to class, wealth and power. It is central to fertility, health and death and in this sense, cryonics is a mechanism in the ‘<a href="/wiki/Cold_chain" title="Cold chain">cold chain</a>’ <sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_2017,_pp._59-66_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich_2017,_pp._59-66-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> power structure with potential to produce, preserve, and/or restrict life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_Imbalance">Power Imbalance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Power Imbalance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cryopreservation requires substantial financial and medical resources in order for its potential success. Therefore, suggesting those able to access cryonics must descend from significant wealth or power. This modern form of <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">biopower</a> is integrated into society as a new method of dictating power over the individual or phenomenological body when determining life or death outcomes. Considering the cyclical nature of wealth and power in society already (systemically undercut by race, gender, class, and religion), it is likely that the use of cryonics in the future will have a self-perpetuating influence on these structures. Hence, there is further potential to amplify already existing power imbalances as implications from a legal, financial, and socio-cultural perspective will contribute to sustaining the cryonic practice, excluding most members of society in order to benefit an already dominant group. Ultimately, cryonics reinforces <a href="/wiki/Hegemonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemonic">hegemonic</a> inequalities already existing in society today in which few will benefit and calls into question the ethical ambiguity of individual bodily autonomy in the pursuit of self-preservation or survival. <sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Issues_Relative_to_the_Body_Politic">Issues Relative to the Body Politic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Issues Relative to the Body Politic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cryopreservation has long been an issue of the individual body against the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">body politic</a>. Those seeking to expand their lifespan in spite of death through preservation suffer from chronic, incurable, and/or degenerative conditions, having to overcome numerous legalities regarding body disposal, human tissue storage, the rights of minors, and in some cases medically <a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">assisted suicide</a><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_K._Donaldson" title="Thomas K. Donaldson">Thomas Donaldson</a>, suffering from a brain tumour, requested a medically assisted death.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the tumor, he was denied and his body was cryopreserved after the tumour had so devastated the surrounding brain tissue that Donaldson passed.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until 25 years later in 2018 that the first person, Norman Hardy, was successfully cryopreserved after being allowed a medically aided death.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, a fourteen-year-old girl won the legal right to have her corpse cryogenically frozen, becoming a landmark case in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that same year, it was confirmed by Cryonics UK that their youngest member was just 7 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldehyde-stabilized_cryopreservation" title="Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation">Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cells_Alive_System" title="Cells Alive System">Cells Alive System</a> freezers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_processor" title="Cryogenic processor">Cryogenic processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation_of_testicular_tissue" title="Cryopreservation of testicular tissue">Cryopreservation of testicular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryostasis_(clathrate_hydrates)" title="Cryostasis (clathrate hydrates)">Cryostasis (clathrate hydrates)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_freezing" title="Directional freezing">Directional freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-situ_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-situ conservation">Ex-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frozen_zoo" title="Frozen zoo">Frozen zoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cryopreservation" title="Plant cryopreservation">Plant cryopreservation</a> – Cryoconservation of plant <a href="/wiki/Genetic_resources" title="Genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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Cryonics suspension – debating life finitude, extending time capital and cancelling death. Journal of Comparative Research in Anthropology and Sociology, 7(2), 71–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doi.org-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohen, J. (2020). Frozen Bodies and Future Imaginaries: Assisted Dying, Cryonics, and a Good Death. Religions, 11(11), 584. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11110584">https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11110584</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Romain, T. (2010). Extreme Life Extension: Investing in Cryonics for the Long, Long Term. MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, 29(2), 194–215. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01459741003715391">https://doi.org/10.1080/01459741003715391</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conway, H. (2018). Frozen Corpses and Feuding Parents: Re JS (Disposal of Body) Modern Law Review, 81(1), 132–141. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2230.12319">https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2230.12319</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ungoed-Thomas, J., & Leake, J. (2016). Child of 7 signed up for body freezing. The Sunday Times, 1.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryopreservation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngelmannDullooAstorgaDussert2007" class="citation book cs1">Engelmann F, Dulloo ME, Astorga C, Dussert S, Anthony F, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071204082021/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=1244"><i>Conserving coffee genetic resources</i></a>. Bioversity International, CATIE, IRD. p. 61. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=1244">the original</a> on 2007-12-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conserving+coffee+genetic+resources&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Bioversity+International%2C+CATIE%2C+IRD&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioversityinternational.org%2FPublications%2Fpubfile.asp%3FID_PUB%3D1244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACryopreservation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanis2009" class="citation book cs1">Panis B (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/_migrated/uploads/tx_news/Cryopreservation_of_Musa_germplasm__2nd_edition_1383.pdf"><i>Cryopreservation of Musa germplasm: 2nd Edition</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Montpellier, France: Bioversity International. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-910810-86-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-910810-86-3"><bdi>978-2-910810-86-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryopreservation+of+Musa+germplasm%3A+2nd+Edition&rft.place=Montpellier%2C+France&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Bioversity+International&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-2-910810-86-3&rft.aulast=Panis&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioversityinternational.org%2Ffileadmin%2F_migrated%2Fuploads%2Ftx_news%2FCryopreservation_of_Musa_germplasm__2nd_edition_1383.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACryopreservation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReproTech_Limited2012" class="citation web cs1">ReproTech Limited (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120904082833/http://reprotech.com/cryostorage/fertility-preservation/about-fertility-preservation.html">"Fertility Preservation"</a>. ReproTech Limited. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reprotech.com/cryostorage/fertility-preservation/about-fertility-preservation.html">the original</a> on 2012-09-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fertility+Preservation&rft.pub=ReproTech+Limited&rft.date=2012&rft.au=ReproTech+Limited&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freprotech.com%2Fcryostorage%2Ffertility-preservation%2Fabout-fertility-preservation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACryopreservation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakasonePetersonJong2004" class="citation book cs1">Nakasone KK, Peterson SW, Jong SC (2004). "Preservation and distribution of fungal cultures.". <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biodiversityfung00fost"><i>Biodiversity of fungi: inventory and monitoring methods</i></a></span>. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biodiversityfung00fost/page/n44">37</a>–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780125095518" title="Special:BookSources/9780125095518"><bdi>9780125095518</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preservation+and+distribution+of+fungal+cultures.&rft.btitle=Biodiversity+of+fungi%3A+inventory+and+monitoring+methods.&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=37-47&rft.pub=Elsevier+Academic+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780125095518&rft.aulast=Nakasone&rft.aufirst=KK&rft.au=Peterson%2C+SW&rft.au=Jong%2C+SC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiodiversityfung00fost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACryopreservation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1995" class="citation book cs1">Perry SF (1995). "Freeze-drying and cryopreservation of bacteria". <i>Cryopreservation and Freeze-Drying Protocols</i>. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 38. Clifton, N.J. pp. 21–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1385%2F0-89603-296-5%3A21">10.1385/0-89603-296-5:21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89603-296-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89603-296-5"><bdi>0-89603-296-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7647859">7647859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freeze-drying+and+cryopreservation+of+bacteria&rft.btitle=Cryopreservation+and+Freeze-Drying+Protocols&rft.place=Clifton%2C+N.J.&rft.series=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=21-30&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7647859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1385%2F0-89603-296-5%3A21&rft.isbn=0-89603-296-5&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=SF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACryopreservation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Assisted_reproductive_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_infertility" title="Female infertility">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_infertility" title="Male infertility">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_clinic" title="Fertility clinic">Fertility clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_testing" title="Fertility testing">Fertility testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_tourism" title="Fertility tourism">Fertility tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_infertility_crisis" title="Male infertility crisis">Male infertility crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">Fertility medication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrogen antagonist">Estrogen antagonists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor" title="Aromatase inhibitor">aromatase inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomifene" title="Clomifene">clomifene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_agonist" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist">GnRH agonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin" title="Gonadotropin">Gonadotropins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menotropin" title="Menotropin">menotropins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin#Use_as_medication" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">In vitro fertilisation</a> (IVF)<br /> and expansions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_zona_hatching" title="Assisted zona hatching">Assisted zona hatching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autologous_endometrial_coculture" title="Autologous endometrial coculture">Autologous endometrial coculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic transfer">Cytoplasmic transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_transfer" title="Embryo transfer">Embryo transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational carrier">Gestational carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_maturation" title="In vitro maturation">In vitro maturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">Intracytoplasmic sperm injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_selection" title="Oocyte selection">Oocyte selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_ovarian_hyperstimulation" title="Controlled ovarian hyperstimulation">Ovarian hyperstimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">Partner-assisted reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaginal_oocyte_retrieval" title="Transvaginal oocyte retrieval">Transvaginal ovum retrieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygote_intrafallopian_transfer" title="Zygote intrafallopian transfer">Zygote intrafallopian transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulation_induction" title="Ovulation induction">Ovulation induction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cryopreservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_cryopreservation" title="Embryo cryopreservation">embryos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">oocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_tissue_cryopreservation" title="Ovarian tissue cryopreservation">ovarian tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">semen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete_intrafallopian_transfer" title="Gamete intrafallopian transfer">Gamete intrafallopian transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasectomy_reversal" title="Vasectomy reversal">Vasectomy reversal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_reduction" title="Selective reduction">Selective reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Donation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donor_registration" title="Donor registration">Donor registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Sibling_Registry" title="Donor Sibling Registry">Donor Sibling Registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_donation" title="Egg donation">Egg donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_donation" title="Embryo donation">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">Sperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_collection" title="Semen collection">Semen collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ova_bank" title="Ova bank">Ova bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_incest" title="Accidental incest">Accidental incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">Fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diagnosis_of_intersex" title="Genetic diagnosis of intersex">Genetic diagnosis of intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_response_to_assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Religious response to assisted reproductive technology">Religious response to ART</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_donation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial donation">Mitochondrial donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction_and_pregnancy_in_speculative_fiction" title="Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction">Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emerging_technologies" title="Template talk:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emerging_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_technology" title="Biomedical technology">Biomedical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_bioprinting" title="3D bioprinting">3D bioprinting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microgravity_bioprinting" title="Microgravity bioprinting">Microgravity bioprinting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldehyde-stabilized_cryopreservation" title="Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation">Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampakine" title="Ampakine">Ampakine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_organ" title="Artificial organ">Artificial organs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_printing" title="Organ printing">Organ printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_womb" title="Artificial womb">Womb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_transplant" title="Brain transplant">Brain transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_transplant" title="Head transplant">Head transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_brain" title="Isolated brain">Isolated brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence" title="Strategies for engineered negligible senescence">Strategies for engineered negligible senescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">Nanosensors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_culture" title="Organ culture">Organ culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_uterus" title="Engineered uterus">engineered uterus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regenerative_medicine" title="Regenerative medicine">Regenerative medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stem-cell_therapy" title="Stem-cell therapy">Stem-cell therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot-assisted_surgery" title="Robot-assisted surgery">Robot-assisted surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_genomics" title="Synthetic genomics">Synthetic genomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_tricorder" title="Medical tricorder">Tricorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virotherapy" title="Virotherapy">Virotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oncolytic_virus" title="Oncolytic virus">Oncolytic virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/884506/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kryokonservierung"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4344464-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85034422">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12247555z">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12247555z">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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