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id="toc-Physical_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Chemical separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unit_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unit_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Unit operations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unit_operations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Unit operations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Unit_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comminution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comminution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Comminution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comminution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sizing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sizing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sizing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sizing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concentration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Concentration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravity_concentration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravity_concentration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Gravity concentration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravity_concentration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Froth_flotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Froth_flotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Froth flotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Froth_flotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrostatic_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrostatic_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Electrostatic separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrostatic_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Magnetic separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automated_Ore_Sorting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automated_Ore_Sorting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Automated Ore Sorting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automated_Ore_Sorting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dewatering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dewatering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Dewatering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dewatering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Case examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Conferences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conferences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conferences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_Metallurgical_Conference_(EMC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Metallurgical_Conference_(EMC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>European Metallurgical Conference (EMC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Metallurgical_Conference_(EMC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86" title="معالجة المعادن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معالجة المعادن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maavarade_rikastamine" title="Maavarade rikastamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maavarade rikastamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Εμπλουτισμός των μεταλλευμάτων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εμπλουτισμός των μεταλλευμάτων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procesamiento_de_minerales" title="Procesamiento de minerales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Procesamiento de minerales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralurgia" title="Mineralurgia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mineralurgia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کانه‌آرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کانه‌آرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min%C3%A9ralurgie" title="Minéralurgie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Minéralurgie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procesamento_de_minerais" title="Procesamento de minerais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Procesamento de minerais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EB%AC%BC_%EA%B0%80%EA%B3%B5" title="광물 가공 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광물 가공" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8" title="खनिज प्रसाधन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खनिज प्रसाधन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oplemenjivanje_mineralnih_sirovina" title="Oplemenjivanje mineralnih sirovina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oplemenjivanje mineralnih sirovina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengolahan_mineral_bijih" title="Pengolahan mineral bijih – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengolahan mineral bijih" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അയിരുസംസ്കരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അയിരുസംസ്കരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertsveredeling" title="Ertsveredeling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ertsveredeling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E9%89%B1" title="選鉱 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="選鉱" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foydali_qazilmalarni_boyitish" title="Foydali qazilmalarni boyitish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Foydali qazilmalarni boyitish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przer%C3%B3bka_kopalin" title="Przeróbka kopalin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przeróbka kopalin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%85" title="Обогащение полезных ископаемых – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Обогащение полезных ископаемых" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikastus" title="Rikastus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rikastus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anrikning" title="Anrikning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anrikning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cevher_haz%C4%B1rlama" title="Cevher hazırlama – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cevher hazırlama" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Збагачення корисних копалин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Збагачення корисних копалин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuy%E1%BB%83n_kho%C3%A1ng" title="Tuyển khoáng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tuyển khoáng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%89%E7%9F%BF%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="选矿工程 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="选矿工程" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1995444#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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minerals from their ores</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mineral_processing" title="Special:EditPage/Mineral processing">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Mineral+processing%22">"Mineral processing"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Mineral+processing%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Mineral+processing%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Mineral+processing%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Mineral+processing%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Mineral+processing%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif/170px-Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif/255px-Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif/340px-Scheme_Jaw_Crusher.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crush#Verb" class="extiw" title="wikt:crush">Crushing</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">comminution</a>, one of the unit operations of mineral processing</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Mineral processing</b> is the process of separating commercially valuable <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> from their <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extractive metallurgy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the processes used in each instance, it is often referred to as <b>ore dressing</b> or <b>ore milling</b>. </p><p><b>Beneficiation</b> is any process that improves (benefits) the <a href="/wiki/Economic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic value">economic value</a> of the ore by removing the <a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a> <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, which results in a higher grade product (<a href="/wiki/Ore_concentrate" title="Ore concentrate">ore concentrate</a>) and a waste stream (<a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a>). There are many different types of beneficiation, with each step furthering the concentration of the original ore. Key is the concept of <a href="/wiki/Recovery_(mineral_processing)" title="Recovery (mineral processing)">recovery</a>, the mass (or equivalently molar) fraction of the valuable mineral (or metal) extracted from the ore and carried across to the concentrate. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg/170px-Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg/255px-Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg/340px-Geevor_waterwheel_stamps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4071" data-file-height="2694" /></a><figcaption>A set of <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a> stamps</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the advent of heavy machinery, raw ore was broken up using hammers wielded by hand, a process called "<i><a href="/wiki/Spalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalling">spalling</a></i>". Eventually, mechanical means were found to achieve this. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">stamp mills</a> were being used in central Asia in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> as early as 973. There is evidence the process was in use in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">early medieval period</a>. By the 11th century, stamp mills were in widespread use throughout the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a> and North Africa in the west to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A later example was the <a href="/wiki/Cornish_stamps" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornish stamps">Cornish stamps</a>, consisting of a series of iron hammers mounted in a vertical frame, raised by <a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">cams</a> on the shaft of a <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheel</a> and falling onto the ore under gravity. </p><p>Iron beneficiation has been evident since as early as 800 BC in China with the use of <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bloomery is the original form of smelting and allowed people to make fires hot enough to melt oxides into a liquid that separates from the iron. Although the bloomery was promptly phased out by the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>, it was still heavily relied on in Africa and Europe until the early part of the second millennium. The blast furnace was the next step in <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> iron which produced <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first blast furnaces in Europe appeared in the early 1200s around Sweden and Belgium, and not until the late 1400s in England. The pig iron poured from a blast furnace is high in carbon making it hard and brittle, making it hard to work with. In 1856 the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> was invented that turns the brittle pig iron into steel, a more malleable metal.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, many different technologies have been invented to replace the Bessemer process such as the <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen steelmaking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">direct reduced iron</a> (DRI).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For sulfide ores, a different process is taken for beneficiation. The ore needs to have the sulfur removed before smelting can begin. <a href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">Roasting</a> is the primary method of separating, where wood was placed on heaps of ore and set on fire to help with oxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>2 Cu<sub>2</sub>S + 3 <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O<sub>2</sub></a> → 2 Cu<sub>2</sub>O + 2 SO<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>The earliest practices of roasting were done outside, allowing large clouds of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> to blow over the land causing serious harm to surrounding ecosystems, both aquatic and terrestrial. The clouds of sulfur dioxide combined with local deforestation for wood needed for roasting compounded damages to the environment,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as seen in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Sudbury" title="Greater Sudbury">Sudbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inco_Superstack" title="Inco Superstack">Inco Superstack</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The simplest method of separating ore from the <i><a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a></i> consists of picking out the individual crystals of each. This is a very tedious process, particularly when the individual particles are small. Another comparatively simple method relies on the various minerals having different <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">densities</a>, causing them to collect in different places: metallic minerals (being heavier) will drop out of suspension more quickly than lighter ones, which will be carried further by a stream of water. The process of panning and sifting for gold uses both of these methods. Various devices known as 'bundles' were used to take advantage of this property.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2010)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> Later, more advanced machines were used such as the <a href="/wiki/Vanning" title="Vanning">Frue vanner</a>, invented in 1874. </p><p>Other equipment used historically includes the hutch, a trough used with some ore-dressing machines and the keeve or kieve, a large tub used for differential settlement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_separation">Types of separation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disaggregation">Disaggregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Disaggregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beneficiation can begin within the mine itself. Most mines will have a crusher within the mine itself where separation of ore and gangue minerals occurs and as a side effect becomes easier to transport. After the crusher the ore will go through a grinder or a mill to get the ore into fine particles. Dense media separation (DMS) is used to further separate the desired ore from rocks and gangue minerals. This will stratify the crushed aggregate by density making separation easier. Where the DMS occurs in the process can be important, the grinders or mills will process much less waste rock if the DMS occurs beforehand. This will lower wear on the equipment as well as operating costs since there is a lower volume being put through.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_separation">Physical separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Physical separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the milling stage the ore can be further separated from the rock. One way this can be achieved is by using the physical properties of the ore to separate it from the rest of the rock. Prior to any physical separation process, sizing of ore particles is important for effective separation. This is done by using either Industrial Screens or Classifiers.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These processes are <a href="/wiki/Gravity_separation" title="Gravity separation">gravity separation</a>, flotation, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_separation" title="Magnetic separation">magnetic separation</a>. Gravity separation uses centrifugal forces and specific gravity of ores and gangue to separate them.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic gangue from the desired ore, or conversely to remove a magnetic target ore from nonmagnetic gangue.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DMS is also considered a physical separation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_separation">Chemical separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chemical separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some ore physical properties can not be relied on for separation, therefore chemical processes are used to separate the ores from the rock. <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(metallurgy)" title="Leaching (metallurgy)">leaching</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">electrowinning</a> are the most common types of chemical separation. Froth flotation uses hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties to separate the ore from the gangue. Hydrophobic particles will rise to the top of the solution to be skimmed off.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes to pH in the solution can influence what particles will be hydrophilic. Leaching works by dissolving the desired ore into solution from the rock.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrowinning is not a primary method of separation, but is required to get the ore out of solution after leaching. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unit_operations">Unit operations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Unit operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mineral processing can involve four general types of unit operation: 1) <i><a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">Comminution</a></i> – particle size reduction; 2) <i>Sizing</i> – separation of particle sizes by <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_screening" title="Mechanical screening">screening</a> or classification; 3) <i>Concentration</i> by taking advantage of physical and surface chemical properties; and 4) <i><a href="/wiki/Dewatering" title="Dewatering">Dewatering</a></i> – solid/liquid separation. </p><p>In all of these processes, the most important considerations are the economics of the processes, which is dictated by the grade and recovery of the final product. To do this, the mineralogy of the ore needs to be considered as this dictates the amount of liberation required and the processes that can occur. The smaller the particles processes, the greater the theoretical grade and recovery of the final product. This, however, becomes difficult to do with fine particles since they prevent certain concentration processes from occurring. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comminution">Comminution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Comminution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">Comminution</a> is particle size reduction of materials. Comminution may be carried out on either dry materials or slurries. <a href="/wiki/Crusher" title="Crusher">Crushing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">grinding</a> are the two primary comminution processes. Crushing is normally carried out on run-of-mine<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ore, while grinding (normally carried out after crushing) may be conducted on dry or slurried material. In comminution, the size reduction of particles is done by three types of forces: compression, impact and attrition. Compression and impact forces are extensively used in crushing operations while attrition is the dominant force in grinding. The primarily used equipment in crushing are jaw crushers, gyratory crushers and cone crushers whereas rod mills and <a href="/wiki/Ball_mill" title="Ball mill">ball mills</a>, usually closed circuited with a classifier unit, are generally employed for grinding purposes in a mineral processing plant. Crushing is a dry process whereas grinding is generally performed wet and hence is more energy intensive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sizing">Sizing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sizing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif/lossy-page1-170px-THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif/lossy-page1-255px-THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif/lossy-page1-340px-THC_2003.902.122_Ore_Crushing_Machinery.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2332" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>Screening ore through a sieve, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1930</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sizer_2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sizer_2000.jpg/170px-Sizer_2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Sizer_2000.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Sizer 2000 for screening coarse to small particles</figcaption></figure> <p>Sizing is the general term for separation of particles according to their size. The simplest sizing process is screening, or passing the particles to be sized through a screen or number of screens. Screening equipment can include grizzlies,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bar screens, wedge wire screens, radial sieves, banana screens, multi-deck screens, vibratory screen, fine screens, flip flop screens, and wire mesh screens. Screens can be static (typically the case for very coarse material), or they can incorporate mechanisms to shake or vibrate the screen. Some considerations in this process include the screen material, the aperture size, shape and orientation, the amount of near sized particles, the addition of water, the amplitude and frequency of the vibrations, the angle of inclination, the presence of harmful materials, like steel and wood, and the size distribution of the particles. </p><p>Classification refers to sizing operations that exploit the differences in settling velocities exhibited by particles of different size. Classification equipment may include <a href="/wiki/Ore_sorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore sorting">ore sorters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas cyclone">gas cyclones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocyclone" title="Hydrocyclone">hydrocyclones</a>, rotating <a href="/wiki/Trommel" class="mw-redirect" title="Trommel">trommels</a>, rake classifiers or fluidized classifiers. </p><p>An important factor in both comminution and sizing operations is the determination of the particle size distribution of the materials being processed, commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Particle_size_analysis" title="Particle size analysis">particle size analysis</a>. Many techniques for analyzing particle size are used, and the techniques include both off-line analyses which require that a sample of the material be taken for analysis and on-line techniques that allow for analysis of the material as it flows through the process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentration">Concentration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Concentration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of ways to increase the concentration of the wanted minerals: in any particular case, the method chosen will depend on the relative physical and surface chemical properties of the mineral and the gangue. Concentration is defined as the number of moles of a solute in a volume of the solution. In case of mineral processing, concentration means the increase of the percentage of the valuable mineral in the concentrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravity_concentration">Gravity concentration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gravity concentration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gravity separation is the separation of two or more minerals of different <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a> by their relative movement in response to the force of gravity and one or more other forces (such as centrifugal forces, magnetic forces, buoyant forces), one of which is resistance to motion (drag force) by a viscous medium such as heavy media, water or, less commonly, air. </p><p>Gravity separation is one of the oldest technique in mineral processing but has seen a decline in its use since the introduction of methods like flotation, classification, magnetic separation and leaching. Gravity separation dates back to at least 3000 BC when Egyptians used the technique for separation of gold. </p><p>It is necessary to determine the suitability of a gravity concentration process before it is employed for concentration of an ore. The <i>concentration criterion</i> is commonly used for this purpose, designated <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CC}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CC}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/28a30bafd11d08b418d670d3cd37a49afaaf090b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.533ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle CC}"></span> in the following equation (where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle SG}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle SG}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6910f93458a60f1fb5457f21f7054c32fbc347d6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.326ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle SG}"></span> represents specific gravity): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CC={\frac {SG(heavy\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}{SG(light\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>y</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CC={\frac {SG(heavy\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}{SG(light\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ab204297679bad7d1b68fcbed93fb20656ba5fe4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:40.707ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle CC={\frac {SG(heavy\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}{SG(light\ mineral)-SG(fluid)}}}"></span></dd></dl> <ul><li>for CC > 2.5, suitable for separation of particles above 75 <a href="/wiki/Microns" class="mw-redirect" title="Microns">microns</a> in size</li> <li>for 1.75 < CC < 2.5, suitable for separation of particles above 150 microns in size</li> <li>for 1.50 < CC < 1.75, suitable for separation of particles above 1.7 mm in size</li> <li>for 1.25 < CC < 1.50, suitable for separation of particles above 6.35 mm in size</li> <li>for CC < 1.25, not suitable for any size</li></ul> <p>Although concentration criteria is a useful rule of thumb when predicting <a href="/wiki/Amenable_group" title="Amenable group">amenability</a> to gravity concentration, factors such as particle shape and relative concentration of heavy and light particles can dramatically affect separation efficiency in practice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classification">Classification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several methods that make use of the weight or density differences of particles:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Heavy media or dense media separation (these include baths, drums, larcodems, dyana whirlpool separators, and dense medium cyclones)</li> <li>Shaking tables, such as the <a href="/wiki/Wilfley_table" title="Wilfley table">Wilfley table</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_separator" title="Spiral separator">Spiral separators</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflux_classifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reflux classifier (page does not exist)">Reflux classifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jig_concentrators" title="Jig concentrators">Jig concentrators</a> are continuous processing gravity concentration devices using a pulsating fluidized bed (RMS-Ross Corp. circular jig plants)</li> <li>Centrifugal bowl concentrators, such as the <a href="/wiki/Knelson_concentrator" title="Knelson concentrator">Knelson concentrator</a></li> <li>Multi-gravity separators including Knelson, Mozley (multi or enhanced) gravity separator, Salter cyclones (multi-gravity separator) and the Kelsey jig)</li> <li>Inline pressure jigs</li> <li>Reichert cones</li> <li>Sluices</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elutriation" title="Elutriation">Elutriators</a></li> <li>Optima classifier- a water -only density separator. It is an engineered system that consists of feed preparation, beneficiation/separation and dewatering modules to ensure a high-quality product with the correct moisture content. Typical products consist of ash below 16% and a calorific value of at least 27-million joules per kilogram.</li></ul> <p>These processes can be classified as either density separation or gravity (weight) separation. In dense media separation a media is created with a density in between the density of the ore and gangue particles. When subjected to this media particles either float or sink depending on their density relative to the media. In this way the separation takes place purely on density differences and does not, in principle, relay on any other factors such as particle weight or shape. In practice, particle size and shape can affect separation efficiency. Dense medium separation can be performed using a variety of mediums. These include, organic liquids, aqueous solutions or suspensions of very fine particles in water or air. The organic liquids are typically not used due to their toxicity, difficulties in handling and relative cost. Industrially, the most common dense media is a suspension of fine magnetite and/or ferrosilicon particles. An aqueous solution as a dense medium is used in coal processing in the form of a belknap wash and suspensions in air are used in water-deficient areas, like areas of China, where sand is used to separate coal from the gangue minerals. </p><p>Gravity separation is also called relative gravity separation as it separates particles due to their relative response to a driving force. This is controlled by factors such as particle weight, size and shape. These processes can also be classified into multi-G and single G processes. The difference is the magnitude of the driving force for the separation. Multi-G processes allow the separation of very fine particles to occur (in the range of 5 to 50 micron) by increasing the driving force of separation in order to increase the rate at which particles separate. In general, single G process are only capable of processing particles that are greater than approximately 80 micron in diameter. </p><p>Of the gravity separation processes, the spiral concentrators and circular jigs are two of the most economical due to their simplicity and use of space. They operate by flowing film separation and can either use washwater or be washwater-less. The washwater spirals separate particles more easily but can have issues with entrainment of gangue with the concentrate produced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Froth_flotation">Froth flotation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Froth flotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/170px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/255px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/340px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Froth flotation cells used to concentrate copper and nickel sulfide minerals</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a> is an important concentration process. This process can be used to separate any two different particles and operated by the surface chemistry of the particles. In flotation, bubbles are introduced into a pulp and the bubbles rise through the pulp.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the process, hydrophobic particles become bound to the surface of the bubbles. The driving force for this attachment is the change in the surface free energy when the attachment occurs. These bubbles rise through the slurry and are collected from the surface. To enable these particles to attach, careful consideration of the chemistry of the pulp needs to be made. These considerations include the pH, Eh and the presence of flotation reagents. The pH is important as it changes the charge of the particles surface and the pH affects the chemisorption of collectors on the surface of the particles. </p><p>The addition of flotation reagents also affects the operation of these processes. The most important chemical that is added is the collector. This chemical binds to the surface of the particles as it is a <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a>. The main considerations in this chemical is the nature of the head group and the size of the hydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon tail needs to be short to maximize the selectivity of the desired mineral and the headgroup dictates which minerals it attaches to. </p><p>The frothers are another important chemical addition to the pulp or slurry as they enable stable bubbles to be formed. This is important because if the bubbles coalesce, minerals will fall off their surface. The bubbles however should not be too stable as this prevents easy transportation and dewatering of the concentrate formed. The mechanism of these frothers is not completely known and further research into their mechanisms is being performed. </p><p>Depressants and activators are used to selectively separate one mineral from another. Depressants inhibit the flotation of one mineral or minerals while activators enable the flotation of others. Examples of these include CN<sup>−</sup>, used to depress all sulfides but galena and this depressant is believed to operate by changing the solubility of chemisorbed and physisorbed collectors on sulfides. This theory originates from Russia. An example of an activator is Cu<sup>2+</sup> ions, used for the flotation of sphalerite. </p><p>There are a number of cells able to be used for the flotation of minerals. these include flotation columns and mechanical flotation cells. The flotation columns are used for finer minerals and typically have a higher grade and lower recovery of minerals than mechanical flotation cells. The cells in use at the moment can exceed 300 m<sup>3</sup>. This is done as they are cheaper per unit volume than smaller cells, but they are not able to be controlled as easily as smaller cells. </p><p>This process was invented in the 19th century in Australia. It was used to recover a <a href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">sphalerite</a> concentrate from tailings, produced using gravity concentration. Further improvements have come from Australia in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Jameson_Cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Jameson Cell">Jameson Cell</a>, developed at the University of Newcastle, Australia. This operated by the use of a plunging jet that generates fine bubbles. These fine bubbles have a higher kinetic energy and as such they can be used for the flotation of fine grained minerals, such as those produced by the IsaMill. </p><p>Staged flotation reactors (SFRs) split the flotation process into three defined stages per cell. They are becoming increasingly more common in use as they require much less energy, air and installation space. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrostatic_separation">Electrostatic separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Electrostatic separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two main types of <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_separator" title="Electrostatic separator">electrostatic separators</a>. These work in similar ways, but the forces applied to the particles are different and these forces are gravity and electrostatic attraction. The two types are electrodynamic separators (or high tension rollers) or electrostatic separators. In high tension rollers, particles are charged by a corona discharge. This charges the particles that subsequently travel on a drum. The conducting particles lose their charge to the drum and are removed from the drum with centripetal acceleration. Electrostatic plate separators work by passing a <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream of particles">stream of particles</a> past a charged anode. The conductors lose electrons to the plate and are pulled away from the other particles due to the induced attraction to the anode. These separators are used for particles between 75 and 250 micron and for efficient separation to occur, the particles need to be dry, have a close size distribution and uniform in shape. Of these considerations, one of the most important is the water content of the particles. This is important as a layer of moisture on the particles will render the non-conductors as conductors as the layer of the water is conductive. </p><p>Electrostatic plate separators are usually used for streams that have small conductors and coarse non-conductors. The high tension rollers are usually used for streams that have coarse conductors and fine non-conductors. </p><p>These separators are commonly used for separating <a href="/wiki/Mineral_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral sands">mineral sands</a>, an example of one of these mineral processing plants is the CRL processing plant at Pinkenba in Brisbane Queensland. In this plant, <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rutile" title="Rutile">rutile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">ilmenite</a> are separated from the silica gangue. In this plant, the separation is performed in a number of stages with roughers, cleaners, scavengers and recleaners. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_separation">Magnetic separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Magnetic separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Magnetic separation is a process in which magnetically susceptible material is extracted from a mixture using a magnetic force. This separation technique can be useful in mining iron as it is attracted to a magnet. In mines where <a href="/wiki/Wolframite" title="Wolframite">wolframite</a> was mixed with <a href="/wiki/Cassiterite" title="Cassiterite">cassiterite</a>, such as South Crofty and East Pool mine in Cornwall or with bismuth such as at the Shepherd and Murphy mine in Moina, Tasmania, magnetic separation was used to separate the ores. At these mines a device called a Wetherill's Magnetic Separator (invented by John Price Wetherill, 1844–1906)[1] was used. In this machine the raw ore, after calcination was fed onto a moving belt which passed underneath two pairs of electromagnets under which further belts ran at right angles to the feed belt. The first pair of electromagnets was weakly magnetised and served to draw off any iron ore present. The second pair were strongly magnetised and attracted the wolframite, which is weakly magnetic. These machines were capable of treating 10 tons of ore a day. This process of separating magnetic substances from the non-magnetic substances in a mixture with the help of a magnet is called magnetic separation.. </p><p>This process operates by moving particles in a magnetic field. The force experienced in the magnetic field is given by the equation f=m/k.H.dh/dx. with k=magnetic susceptibility, H-magnetic field strength, and dh/dx being the magnetic field gradient. As seen in this equation, the separation can be driven in two ways, either through a gradient in a magnetic field or the strength of a magnetic field. The different driving forces are used in the different concentrators. These can be either with water or without. Like the spirals, washwater aids in the separation of the particles while increases the entrainment of the gangue in the concentrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automated_Ore_Sorting">Automated Ore Sorting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Automated Ore Sorting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern, automated sorting applies optical sensors (visible spectrum, near infrared, X-ray, ultraviolet), that can be coupled with electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility sensors, to control the mechanical separation of ore into two or more categories on an individual rock by rock basis. Also new sensors have been developed which exploit material properties such as electrical conductivity, magnetization, molecular structure and thermal conductivity. Sensor based sorting has found application in the processing of nickel, gold, copper, coal and diamonds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dewatering">Dewatering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Dewatering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dewatering is an important process in mineral processing. The purpose of dewatering is to remove water absorbed by the particles which increases the pulp density. This is done for a number of reasons, specifically, to enable ore handling and concentrates to be transported easily, allow further processing to occur and to dispose of the gangue. The water extracted from the ore by dewatering is recirculated for plant operations after being sent to a water treatment plant. The main processes that are used in dewatering include dewatering screens, sedimentation, filtering, and thermal drying. These processes increase in difficulty and cost as the particle size decreases. </p><p>Dewatering screens operate by passing particles over a screen. The particles pass over the screen while the water passes through the apertures in the screen. This process is only viable for coarse ores that have a close size distribution as the apertures can allow small particles to pass through. </p><p>Sedimentation operates by passing water into a large thickener or clarifier. In these devices, the particles settle out of the slurry under the effects of gravity, or centripetal forces. These are limited by the surface chemistry of the particles and the size of the particles. To aid in the sedimentation process, flocculants and coagulants are added to reduce the repulsive forces between the particles. This repulsive force is due to the double layer formed on the surface of the particles. The flocculants work by binding multiple particles together while the coagulants work by reducing the thickness of the charged layer on the outside of the particle. After thickening, slurry is often stored in ponds or impoundments. Alternatively, it can pumped into a <a href="/wiki/Belt_press" title="Belt press">belt press</a> or membrane <a href="/wiki/Filter_press" title="Filter press">filter press</a> to recycle process water and create stackable, dry filter cake, or "tailings".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thermal drying is usually used for fine particles and to remove low water content in the particles. Some common processes include rotary dryers, fluidized beds, spray driers, hearth dryers and rotary tray dryers. This process is usually expensive to operate due to the fuel requirement of the dryers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_processes">Other processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Physical_plant" title="Physical plant">mechanical plants</a> also incorporate <a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">hydrometallurgical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pyrometallurgy" title="Pyrometallurgy">pyrometallurgical</a> processes as part of an extractive metallurgical operation. <a href="/wiki/Geometallurgy" title="Geometallurgy">Geometallurgy</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extractive metallurgy</a> that combines mineral processing with the geologic sciences. This includes the study of oil agglomeration<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of auxiliary <a href="/wiki/Materials_handling" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials handling">materials handling</a> operations are also considered a branch of mineral processing such as storage (as in bin design), conveying, sampling, weighing, slurry transport, and pneumatic transport. </p><p>The efficiency and efficacy of many processing techniques are influenced by upstream activities such as mining method and <a href="/wiki/Coal_Blending" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal Blending">blending</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitacre_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitacre-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_examples">Case examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Case examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the case of gold, after adsorbing onto carbon, it is put into a sodium hydroxide and cyanide solution. In the solution the gold is pulled out of the carbon and into the solution. The gold ions are removed from solution at steel wool cathodes from electrowinning. The gold then goes off to be smelted.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lithium is hard to separate from gangue due to similarities in the minerals. In order to separate the lithium both physical and chemical separation techniques are used. First froth flotation is used. Due to similarities in mineralogy there is not complete separation after flotation. The gangue that is found with lithium after the flotation are often iron bearing. The float concentrate goes through magnetic separation to remove the magnetic gangue from the nonmagnetic lithium.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conferences">Conferences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Conferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Metallurgical_Conference_(EMC)"><span id="European_Metallurgical_Conference_.28EMC.29"></span>European Metallurgical Conference (EMC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: European Metallurgical Conference (EMC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>EMC, the European Metallurgical Conference has developed to the most important networking business event dedicated to the non-ferrous metals industry in Europe. From the start of the conference sequence in 2001 at Friedrichshafen it was host to some of most relevant metallurgists from all countries of the world. The conference is held every two years by invitation of GDMB Society of Metallurgists and Miners and is particularly directed to metal producers, plant manufactures, equipment suppliers and service providers as well as members of universities and consultants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_preparation_plant" title="Coal preparation plant">Coal preparation plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensor-based_sorting" title="Sensor-based sorting">Sensor-based sorting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_tin-mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Dartmoor tin-mining">Dartmoor tin-mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_box" title="Rocker box">Rocker box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)" title="Refining (metallurgy)">Refining (metallurgy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taconite" title="Taconite">Taconite</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=mineral+processing+%7C+metallurgy+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fmineral-processing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wagner, Donald B. 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Elsevier Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802041-8"><bdi>978-0-12-802041-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Platinum-Nickel-Chromium+Deposits&rft.pub=Elsevier+Inc.&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-12-802041-8&rft.aulast=Haldar&rft.aufirst=S.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillsFinch2016" class="citation book cs1">Wills, Barry A.; Finch, James E. (2016). <i>Wills' mineral processing technology: an introduction to the practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery</i> (Eighth ed.). Amsterdam Boston, Mass Heidelberg: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097053-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097053-0"><bdi>978-0-08-097053-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wills%27+mineral+processing+technology%3A+an+introduction+to+the+practical+aspects+of+ore+treatment+and+mineral+recovery&rft.place=Amsterdam+Boston%2C+Mass+Heidelberg&rft.edition=Eighth&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097053-0&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=Barry+A.&rft.au=Finch%2C+James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalconer2003" class="citation journal cs1">Falconer, Andrew (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2003/812865.pdf">"Gravity Separation: Old Technique/New Methods"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Physical Separation in Science and Engineering</i>. <b>12</b>: 31–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1478647031000104293">10.1080/1478647031000104293</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Separation+in+Science+and+Engineering&rft.atitle=Gravity+Separation%3A+Old+Technique%2FNew+Methods&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=31-48&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1478647031000104293&rft.aulast=Falconer&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdownloads.hindawi.com%2Farchive%2F2003%2F812865.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Yu, Jianwen (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.minpro.2017.09.012">"Beneficiation of an iron ore fines by magnetization roasting and magnetic separation"</a>. <i>International Journal of Mineral Processing</i>. <b>168</b>: 102–108. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017IJMP..168..102Y">2017IJMP..168..102Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.minpro.2017.09.012">10.1016/j.minpro.2017.09.012</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Mineral+Processing&rft.atitle=Beneficiation+of+an+iron+ore+fines+by+magnetization+roasting+and+magnetic+separation&rft.volume=168&rft.pages=102-108&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.minpro.2017.09.012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017IJMP..168..102Y&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Jianwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.minpro.2017.09.012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpchem.com/bl/specchem/en-us/Pages/IntroductiontoMineralProcessing.aspx">"Introduction to Mineral Processing: Froth Flotation"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Mineral+Processing%3A+Froth+Flotation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpchem.com%2Fbl%2Fspecchem%2Fen-us%2FPages%2FIntroductiontoMineralProcessing.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamachandra_Rao2006" class="citation book cs1">Ramachandra Rao, S. (2006). "Physical and Physico-Chemical Processes". <i>Resource Recovery and Recycling from Metallurgical Wastes</i>. Waste Management Series. Vol. 7. pp. 35–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0713-2743%2806%2980088-7">10.1016/S0713-2743(06)80088-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080451312" title="Special:BookSources/9780080451312"><bdi>9780080451312</bdi></a> – via Enslevier.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Physical+and+Physico-Chemical+Processes&rft.btitle=Resource+Recovery+and+Recycling+from+Metallurgical+Wastes&rft.series=Waste+Management+Series&rft.pages=35-69&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0713-2743%2806%2980088-7&rft.isbn=9780080451312&rft.aulast=Ramachandra+Rao&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinalJuanRuizFerrando2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vinal, J.; Juan, E.; Ruiz, M.; Ferrando, E.; Cruells, M.; Roca, A.; Casado, J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X05002847">"Leaching of gold and palladium with aqueous ozone in dilute chloride media"</a>. <i>Hydrometallurgy</i>. <b>81</b> (2): 142–151. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006HydMe..81..142V">2006HydMe..81..142V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.hydromet.2005.12.004">10.1016/j.hydromet.2005.12.004</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrometallurgy&rft.atitle=Leaching+of+gold+and+palladium+with+aqueous+ozone+in+dilute+chloride+media&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=142-151&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.hydromet.2005.12.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006HydMe..81..142V&rft.aulast=Vinal&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Juan%2C+E.&rft.au=Ruiz%2C+M.&rft.au=Ferrando%2C+E.&rft.au=Cruells%2C+M.&rft.au=Roca%2C+A.&rft.au=Casado%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0304386X05002847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Run-of-mine: The raw mined material as it is delivered prior to treatment of any sort. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101029170449/http://www.maden.hacettepe.edu.tr/dmmrt/dmmrt1017.html">"Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms"</a>. Hacettepe University—Department of Mining Engineering. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maden.hacettepe.edu.tr/dmmrt/dmmrt1017.html">the original</a> on 2010-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Mining%2C+Mineral%2C+and+Related+Terms&rft.pub=Hacettepe+University%E2%80%94Department+of+Mining+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maden.hacettepe.edu.tr%2Fdmmrt%2Fdmmrt1017.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grizzly: a grid of iron bars that allows ore of the correct size to travel down the ore pass to the bottom of the mine, ready for hoisting to the surface. An active, articulating "grizzly" that is able to roll, scrub, clean, and discharge oversize rock and boulder of up to 4 ft (120 cm) minus in diameter while recovering all the 2-inch (51 mm) minus slurry material for further screening, separation, and recovery of target metals/minerals is the DEROCKER system (RMS-Ross Corporation) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geevor.com/index.php?object=255">"Geevor Tin Mine: Grizzly men"</a>. Geevor Tin Mine Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geevor+Tin+Mine%3A+Grizzly+men&rft.pub=Geevor+Tin+Mine+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geevor.com%2Findex.php%3Fobject%3D255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowrie,_Raymond_LSociety_for_Mining,_Metallurgy_and_Exploration2002" class="citation cs2">Lowrie, Raymond L; Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (2002), <i>SME mining reference handbook</i>, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87335-175-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87335-175-1"><bdi>978-0-87335-175-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SME+mining+reference+handbook&rft.pub=Society+for+Mining%2C+Metallurgy%2C+and+Exploration&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87335-175-1&rft.au=Lowrie%2C+Raymond+L&rft.au=Society+for+Mining%2C+Metallurgy+and+Exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span> - chapter 17 - Classification section by Paul D. Chamberlin</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140826135106/http://www.coppercountryexplorer.com/2007/09/mill-machines-the-wilfley-table/">"Mill Machines: The Wilfley table"</a>. Copper Country Explorer. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coppercountryexplorer.com/2007/09/mill-machines-the-wilfley-table/">the original</a> on 2014-08-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mill+Machines%3A+The+Wilfley+table&rft.pub=Copper+Country+Explorer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coppercountryexplorer.com%2F2007%2F09%2Fmill-machines-the-wilfley-table%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoquePengEvansDoroodchi2023" class="citation journal cs1">Hoque, Mohammad Mainul; Peng, Zhengbiao; Evans, Geoffrey; Doroodchi, Elham (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2023.108043">"Influence of bubble surface loading on particle-laden bubble rising dynamics in a fluid flow system"</a>. <i>Minerals Engineering</i>. <b>195</b>: 108043. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023MiEng.19508043H">2023MiEng.19508043H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2023.108043">10.1016/j.mineng.2023.108043</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minerals+Engineering&rft.atitle=Influence+of+bubble+surface+loading+on+particle-laden+bubble+rising+dynamics+in+a+fluid+flow+system&rft.volume=195&rft.pages=108043&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2023.108043&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023MiEng.19508043H&rft.aulast=Hoque&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Mainul&rft.au=Peng%2C+Zhengbiao&rft.au=Evans%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Doroodchi%2C+Elham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.mineng.2023.108043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190209123955/http://tonsperhour.com/wp-content/uploads/TPH_PG_2016_Eng.pdf">"Tons Per Hour Product Guide 2016"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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P.535-538.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Investigation of laws of selective flocculation of coals with syn-thetic latexes / P. V. Sergeev, V. S. Biletskyy // ICCS’97. 7–12 September 1997, Essen, Germany. V. 1. p. 503-506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.-W. Fan, R. Markuszewski, and T. D. Wheelock, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/33_4_LOS%20ANGELES_09-88_0756.pdf">"Oil Agglomeration of Coal in Salt Solutions: Effects of Hydrophobicity and Other Parameters on Coal Recovery"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170428022609/http://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/33_4_LOS%20ANGELES_09-88_0756.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-04-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beletskyi V., Shendrik T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N9HKBQAAQBAJ&dq=Biletskyi%2C+V.S.+Preparation+of+salty+coals+with+oil-agglomeration&pg=PA135"><i>Ennobling of salty coals by means of oil agglomeration</i></a> Technical and Geoinformational Systems in Mining. Proceedings of the School of underground mining, Dnipropetrovsk/Yalta, 2–8 October 2011. / CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK. A Balkema Book. 2011. p. 135-140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitacre-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whitacre_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitacre, J., Iorio, A., Schellenberg, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1405.0276">"Coal Blending: Business Value, Analysis, and Optimization"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFtadesseMakueiAlbijanicDyer2019" class="citation journal cs1">tadesse, Bogale; Makuei, Fidele; Albijanic, Boris; Dyer, Laurence (2019). "The beneficiation of lithium minerals from hard rock ores: A review". <i>Minerals Engineering</i>. <b>131</b>: 170–184. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019MiEng.131..170T">2019MiEng.131..170T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2018.11.023">10.1016/j.mineng.2018.11.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:105940721">105940721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minerals+Engineering&rft.atitle=The+beneficiation+of+lithium+minerals+from+hard+rock+ores%3A+A+review&rft.volume=131&rft.pages=170-184&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A105940721%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2018.11.023&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019MiEng.131..170T&rft.aulast=tadesse&rft.aufirst=Bogale&rft.au=Makuei%2C+Fidele&rft.au=Albijanic%2C+Boris&rft.au=Dyer%2C+Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dobby, G.S., and Finch, J.A., 1991, Column Flotation: A Selected Review, Part II, 4(7-11) 911-923</li> <li>Finch, J.A., 1995, Column Flotation: A Selected Review-Part IV: Novel Flotation Devices, Minerals Engineering, 8(6), 587-602</li> <li>Miettinen, T, Ralston, J., and Fornasiero, D., The Limits of Fine Particle Flotation, Minerals Engineering, 23, 420-437 (2010)</li> <li>Nguyen, A.V., Ralston, J., Schulze, H.S., 1988, On modelling of bubble–particle attachment probability in flotation, Int. J. Min. Proc., 53(4) 225-249</li> <li>Probstein, R. F. (2003) Physicochemical Hydrodynamics: An introduction, Hoboken, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 141–142.</li> <li>Ralston, J. Fornasiero, D., Hayes, R., 1999, Bubble Particle Attachment and Detachment in Flotation, Int. J. Min. Proc., 56(1-4) 133-164</li> <li>Wills, B.A., Finch, J. (2015): Wills' Mineral Processing Technology, An Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery; 8th Edition, 512 pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097053-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097053-0">978-0-08-097053-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Various articles in J. Day & R. F. Tylecote, <i>Metals in the Industrial Revolution</i> (Institute of Metals, London 1991).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineral_processing&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarterM._Grant_Norton2007" class="citation book cs1">Carter, C. Barry; M. Grant Norton (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aE_VQ8I24OoC&pg=PA347">"Beneficiation"</a>. <i>Ceramic materials: science and engineering</i>. <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-46270-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-46270-7"><bdi>978-0-387-46270-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77012326">77012326</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beneficiation&rft.btitle=Ceramic+materials%3A+science+and+engineering&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=347&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F77012326&rft.isbn=978-0-387-46270-7&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=C.+Barry&rft.au=M.+Grant+Norton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaE_VQ8I24OoC%26pg%3DPA347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithL._CollisP._G._Fookes2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Mick R.; L. Collis; P. G. Fookes (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cX4noMHuI6YC&pg=PA124">"Beneficiation"</a>. <i>Aggregates: Sand, Gravel and Crushed Rock Aggregates for Construction Purposes</i>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London" title="Geological Society of London">Geological Society</a>. pp. 124–129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86239-079-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-86239-079-7"><bdi>1-86239-079-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46600322">46600322</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beneficiation&rft.btitle=Aggregates%3A+Sand%2C+Gravel+and+Crushed+Rock+Aggregates+for+Construction+Purposes&rft.place=London&rft.pages=124-129&rft.pub=Geological+Society&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46600322&rft.isbn=1-86239-079-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Mick+R.&rft.au=L.+Collis&rft.au=P.+G.+Fookes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcX4noMHuI6YC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaartjes2007" class="citation web cs1">Baartjes, N. L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111002074405/http://www.saimm.co.za/events/0710diamonds/downloads/Baartjes%20SAIMM%20PAPER.pdf">"Diamonder Beneficiation: Structural Impediments And How To Unblock These In South Africa"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Diamonds Source to Use 2007</i>. The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saimm.co.za/events/0710diamonds/downloads/Baartjes%20SAIMM%20PAPER.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Diamonds+Source+to+Use+2007&rft.atitle=Diamonder+Beneficiation%3A+Structural+Impediments+And+How+To+Unblock+These+In+South+Africa&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baartjes&rft.aufirst=N.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saimm.co.za%2Fevents%2F0710diamonds%2Fdownloads%2FBaartjes%2520SAIMM%2520PAPER.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineral+processing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuptelyaS._A._MartynovV._P._ButuzovV._A._Khvan1977" class="citation journal cs1">Suptelya, V. V.; S. A. Martynov; V. P. Butuzov; V. A. Khvan (July 1977). "Beneficiation of synthetic diamonds by ultrasound". <i>Journal of Mining Science</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 439–441. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JMinS..13..439S">1977JMinS..13..439S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02498516">10.1007/BF02498516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129150818">129150818</a>.</cite><span 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mineral processing</a><br /><small>(by physical means)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_survey" title="Geological survey">Geological survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">Ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Mineral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">Base metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">Underground in hard rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground in soft rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">Scrap</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">Comminution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">Stamp mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrastra" title="Arrastra">Arrastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusher" title="Crusher">Crusher</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Autogenous_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">AG mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#SAG_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">SAG mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Pebble_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">Pebble mill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_mill" title="Ball mill">Ball mill</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Rod_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">Rod mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IsaMill" title="IsaMill">IsaMill</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sizing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ore_sorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore sorting">Ore sorting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanning" title="Vanning">Vanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocyclone" title="Hydrocyclone">Hydrocyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trommel_screen" title="Trommel screen">Trommel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">Cyclonic separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyratory_equipment" title="Gyratory equipment">Gyratory equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_screening" title="Mechanical screening">Mechanical screening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ore_concentrate" title="Ore concentrate">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_cell" title="Jameson cell">Jameson cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_panning" title="Gold panning">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jig_concentrators" title="Jig concentrators">Jig concentrators</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Gravity_concentration">Gravity Concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_separation" title="Magnetic separation">Magnetic separation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnetation_(iron_ore)" title="Magnetation (iron ore)">Magnetation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_box" title="Rocker box">Rocker box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drywasher" title="Drywasher">Dry washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddle_pit" title="Buddle pit">Buddle pit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrometallurgy" title="Pyrometallurgy">Pyrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by heat)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Iron smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_smelting" title="Zinc smelting">Zinc smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_smelting" title="Flash smelting">Flash smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISASMELT" title="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</a> furnace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory linings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)" title="Refining (metallurgy)">Refining</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">Cupellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkes_process" title="Parkes process">Parkes process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom-blown_oxygen_converter" title="Bottom-blown oxygen converter">Bottom-blown oxygen converter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(metallurgy)" title="Poling (metallurgy)">Poling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IsaKidd_refining_technology" title="IsaKidd refining technology">IsaKidd process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">Calcination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">Roasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquation" title="Liquation">Liquation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">Hydrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by aqueous solution)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(metallurgy)" title="Leaching (metallurgy)">Leaching</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lixiviant" title="Lixiviant">Lixiviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heap_leaching" title="Heap leaching">Heap leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_leaching" title="Dump leaching">Dump leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_leaching" title="Tank leaching">Tank leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_situ_leach" title="In situ leach">In situ leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newbery%E2%80%93Vautin_chlorination_process" title="Newbery–Vautin chlorination process">Gold chlorination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_cyanidation" title="Gold cyanidation">Gold cyanidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayer_process" title="Bayer process">Bayer process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">Amalgamation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patio_process" title="Patio process">Patio process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_amalgamation" title="Pan amalgamation">Pan amalgamation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrometallurgy" title="Electrometallurgy">Electrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by electricity)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Electrolysis" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">Electrowinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castner_process" title="Castner process">Castner process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downs_cell" title="Downs cell">Downs cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Co-products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">Gangue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">Slag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(waste)" title="Clinker (waste)">Clinker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chat_(mining)" title="Chat (mining)">Chat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauxite_tailings" class="mw-redirect" title="Bauxite tailings">Red mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_sand" title="Stamp sand">Stamp sand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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