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id="toc-1927–1937:_Nanjing_decade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1927–1937:_Nanjing_decade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>1927–1937: Nanjing decade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1927–1937:_Nanjing_decade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1937–1945:_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1937–1945:_Second_Sino-Japanese_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1937–1945:_Second_Sino-Japanese_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1945–1949:_Defeat_in_the_Chinese_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1945–1949:_Defeat_in_the_Chinese_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>1945–1949: Defeat in the Chinese Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1945–1949:_Defeat_in_the_Chinese_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Foreign relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-League_of_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#League_of_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>League of Nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-League_of_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>United Nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Administrative divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Nobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_Force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_Force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Air Force</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_Force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Transportation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Republic of China (1912–1949)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 66 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-66" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">66 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="جمهورية الصين (1912–1949) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جمهورية الصين (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_China_(1912-1949)" title="República de China (1912-1949) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="República de China (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_Respublikas%C4%B1_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Çin Respublikası (1912–1949) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çin Respublikası (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-ho%C3%A2_B%C3%AEn-kok_(1912%E2%80%931949_n%C3%AE)" title="Tiong-hoâ Bîn-kok (1912–1949 nî) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-hoâ Bîn-kok (1912–1949 nî)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Кітайская Рэспубліка (1912—1949) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кітайская Рэспубліка (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_(1912_%E2%80%93_1949)" title="Република Китай (1912 – 1949) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Република Китай (1912 – 1949)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Sina_(1912-1949)" title="Republik Sina (1912-1949) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Republik Sina (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_la_Xina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="República de la Xina (1912–1949) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="República de la Xina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnsk%C3%A1_republika_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Čínská republika (1912–1949) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čínská republika (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republikken_Kina_(1912-1949)" title="Republikken Kina (1912-1949) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Republikken Kina (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republik China (1912–1949) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Republik China (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiina_Vabariik_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Hiina Vabariik (1912–1949) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiina Vabariik (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_(1912%E2%80%9349)" title="Δημοκρατία της Κίνας (1912–49) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δημοκρατία της Κίνας (1912–49)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_China_(1912-1949)" title="República de China (1912-1949) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="República de China (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respubliko_%C4%88inio_(1912-1949)" title="Respubliko Ĉinio (1912-1949) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Respubliko Ĉinio (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinako_Errepublika_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Txinako Errepublika (1912–1949) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinako Errepublika (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B4%DB%B9%E2%80%93%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B1%DB%B2)" title="جمهوری چین (۱۹۴۹–۱۹۱۲) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جمهوری چین (۱۹۴۹–۱۹۱۲)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_de_Chine_(1912-1949)" title="République de Chine (1912-1949) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="République de Chine (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_da_China_(1912-1949)" title="República da China (1912-1949) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="República da China (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-f%C3%A0_M%C3%ACn-koet_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Chûng-fà Mìn-koet (1912–1949) – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-fà Mìn-koet (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%ED%99%94%EB%AF%BC%EA%B5%AD_%EB%8C%80%EB%A5%99_%EC%8B%9C%EA%B8%B0" title="중화민국 대륙 시기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중화민국 대륙 시기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepupalika_o_Kina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Lepupalika o Kina (1912–1949) – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Lepupalika o Kina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_Kina_(1912._%E2%80%93_1949.)" title="Republika Kina (1912. – 1949.) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Republika Kina (1912. – 1949.)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republiko_Chinia_(1912-1949)" title="Republiko Chinia (1912-1949) – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Republiko Chinia (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Tiongkok_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republik Tiongkok (1912–1949) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Republik Tiongkok (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD%C3%B0veldi%C3%B0_K%C3%ADna_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Lýðveldið Kína (1912–1949) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lýðveldið Kína (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repubblica_di_Cina_(1912-1949)" title="Repubblica di Cina (1912-1949) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Repubblica di Cina (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="הרפובליקה הסינית (1912–1949) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרפובליקה הסינית (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Къытай Республика – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Къытай Республика" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="ჩინეთის რესპუბლიკა (1912–1949) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინეთის რესპუბლიკა (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Қытай Республикасы (1912—1949) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қытай Республикасы (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komara_%C3%87%C3%AEn%C3%AA_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Komara Çînê (1912–1949) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Komara Çînê (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_de_Cina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republica de Cina (1912–1949) – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Republica de Cina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%99_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="ສາທາລະນະລັດຈີນ (1912–1949) – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສາທາລະນະລັດຈີນ (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABnas_Republika_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Ķīnas Republika (1912—1949) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīnas Republika (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1912-1949)" title="Република Кина (1912-1949) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Република Кина (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republik China (1912–1949) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Republik China (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%B9%B3%CC%86ng-hu%C3%A0_M%C3%ACng-gu%C3%B3k_(1912_ni%C3%A8ng%E2%80%931949_ni%C3%A8ng)" title="Dṳ̆ng-huà Mìng-guók (1912 nièng–1949 nièng) – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dṳ̆ng-huà Mìng-guók (1912 nièng–1949 nièng)" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Дундад Иргэн Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дундад Иргэн Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%99%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6_(%E1%81%81%E1%81%89%E1%81%81%E1%81%82%E2%80%93%E1%81%81%E1%81%89%E1%81%84%E1%81%89)" title="တရုတ်သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ (၁၉၁၂–၁၉၄၉) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ်သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ (၁၉၁၂–၁၉၄၉)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republiek_China_(1912-1949)" title="Republiek China (1912-1949) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Republiek China (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD_(1912%E5%B9%B4-1949%E5%B9%B4)" title="中華民国 (1912年-1949年) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中華民国 (1912年-1949年)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republikken_Kina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republikken Kina (1912–1949) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Republikken Kina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="جمہوریہ چین (1912–1949) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جمہوریہ چین (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B4%DB%B9-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B1%DB%B2%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87)" title="د چين جمهوريت (۱۹۴۹-۱۹۱۲ز کلونه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چين جمهوريت (۱۹۴۹-۱۹۱۲ز کلونه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Chin_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Historia Chin (1912–1949) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Chin (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_da_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="República da China (1912–1949) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="República da China (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_Chinez%C4%83_(1912-1949)" title="Republica Chineză (1912-1949) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Republica Chineză (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Китайская республика (1912—1949) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Китайская республика (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_o_Cheenae_(1912%E2%80%9349)" title="Republic o Cheenae (1912–49) – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Republic o Cheenae (1912–49)" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_e_Kin%C3%ABs_(1912-1949)" title="Republika e Kinës (1912-1949) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Republika e Kinës (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Republic of China (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86_(1912%D8%A1%E2%80%931949%D8%A1)" title="جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء) – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnska_republika_(1912_%E2%80%93_1949)" title="Čínska republika (1912 – 1949) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čínska republika (1912 – 1949)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Република Кина (1912—1949) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Република Кина (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_Kina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republika Kina (1912–1949) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Republika Kina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinan_tasavalta_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Kiinan tasavalta (1912–1949) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinan tasavalta (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republiken_Kina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republiken Kina (1912–1949) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Republiken Kina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_ng_Tsina_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republika ng Tsina (1912–1949) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Republika ng Tsina (1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99_(%E0%B8%84.%E0%B8%A8._1912%E2%80%931949)" title="สาธารณรัฐจีน (ค.ศ. 1912–1949) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณรัฐจีน (ค.ศ. 1912–1949)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_Cumhuriyeti_(1912-1949)" title="Çin Cumhuriyeti (1912-1949) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin Cumhuriyeti (1912-1949)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_(1912%E2%80%941949)" title="Республіка Китай (1912—1949) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Республіка Китай (1912—1949)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-1949)">Republic of China (1912-1949)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Republic of China prior to its relocation to Taiwan</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Republic of China after its 1949 retreat, see <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. For the Japanese puppet state from 1940 to 1945, see <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Republic of China</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span></li><li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Chunghwa Minkuo</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a>)</li><li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá Mínguó</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1912–1949</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931928).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Flag of Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Top: <a href="/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Flag</a><br /><span class="nowrap">(1912–1928)</span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li><li>Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">Flag</a> <span class="nowrap">(1928–1949)</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/90px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/135px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/180px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="506" /></a></span> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/80px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/120px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/160px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Top: <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem" title="Twelve Symbols national emblem">National Emblem</a> <span class="nowrap">(1913–1928)</span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li><li>Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Blue_Sky_with_a_White_Sun" title="Blue Sky with a White Sun">Emblem</a> <span class="nowrap">(1928–1949)</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Various</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Song of Five Races Under One Union">Song of Five Races Under One Union</a>" (1912–1913)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="五族共和歌_(Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union).flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_to_the_Auspicious_Cloud" title="Song to the Auspicious Cloud">Song to the Auspicious Cloud</a>" (1913–1915)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="27" data-mwtitle="Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe" title="China Heroically Stands in the Universe">China Heroically Stands in the Universe</a>" (1915–1921)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="43" data-mwtitle="中國雄立宇宙間_(China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe).flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_to_the_Auspicious_Cloud" title="Song to the Auspicious Cloud">Song to the Auspicious Cloud</a>" (Modified; 1921–1928)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="42" data-mwtitle="Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-卿雲歌-Modified_from_1921-1928_(Beiyang_government)_Anthem.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASong-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASong-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Anthem of the Republic of China">National Anthem of the Republic of China</a>" <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="87" data-mwtitle="National-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/National-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/National-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg/National-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational-Anthem-of-the-Republic-of-China-1942-recording.ogg&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> </li></ul> </div><div class="ib-country-anthem"><b><a href="/wiki/Flag_anthem" title="Flag anthem">Flag anthem</a>:</b> <br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國國旗歌</span></span><br />"<a href="/wiki/National_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China">National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China</a>"<br />(1937–1949)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="72" data-mwtitle="National_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China中華民國國旗歌_(演奏版).oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/National_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/National_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga/National_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track 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type="text/vtt" srclang="ja" label="日本語 ‪(ja)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Flag_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%97%97%E6%AD%8C_%28%E6%BC%94%E5%A5%8F%E7%89%88%29.oga&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>National seal:</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國之璽</span></span><br />"<a href="/wiki/National_seals_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National seals of the Republic of China">Seal of the Republic of China</a>" (1929–1949)<br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg/85px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg/128px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg/170px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_(orthographic_projection,_historical).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Land controlled by the Republic of China (late 1945) shown in dark green; land claimed (until early 1946) but not controlled shown in light green.[a]"><img alt="Land controlled by the Republic of China (late 1945) shown in dark green; land claimed (until early 1946) but not controlled shown in light green.[a]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg/250px-Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg/375px-Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg/500px-Republic_of_China_%28orthographic_projection%2C_historical%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="536" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Land controlled by the Republic of China (late 1945) shown in dark green; land claimed (until early 1946) but not controlled shown in light green.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> (1912–1928)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> (<i>de facto</i>, 1912,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1927–1937, 1946–1949;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>de jure</i>, 1927–1949<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<i>de facto</i>, 1937–1938)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> (<i>de facto</i>, 1938–1946)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="ib-country-lang">Recognised national languages</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Others</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Official_script" title="Official script">Official script</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (August 2024)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)#Dubious" title="Talk:Republic of China (1912–1949)">discuss</a></i>]</sup></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan alphabet">Tibetan alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_alphabets" title="Uyghur alphabets">Uyghur alphabets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>See <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional government</a> (1912)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> (1912–1928)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> (1925–1948)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a> (1948–1949)</li></ul></div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Details</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary republic</a> (1912–1914, 1916–1923, 1926–1927) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federal</a> <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential</a> republic (1914–1916, 1923-1924) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Federal presidential republic under a chief executive (1924–1926) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Federal presidential republic under a <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a> (1927–1928, Beiyang) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> provisional government under a military dictatorship (1925–1928, Nationalist) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Tridemist</a> <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">directorial</a> republic (1928–1947) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Dominant-party_system" title="Dominant-party system">dominant-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Unitary_parliamentary_republic" title="Unitary parliamentary republic">parliamentary republic</a> (1947–1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="List of presidents of the Republic of China">President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912 (first, <i>provisional</i>) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1948–1949 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1949–1950 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a> (<i>acting</i>)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vice Presidents of the Republic of China">Vice President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912–1916 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1948–1954 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_premiers_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="List of premiers of the Republic of China">Premier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1949 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Republic_of_China)" title="National Assembly (Republic of China)">National Assembly</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Control_Yuan" title="Control Yuan">Control Yuan</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 October 1911 – 12 February 1912</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Proclamation of the Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 January 1912</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> in Beijing </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1912–1928</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Admitted to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 January 1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1926–1928</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1927–1948</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1927–1936, 1945–1949</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7 July 1937–<span class="nowrap">2 September 1945</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Admission to the United Nations</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 October 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">Adoption of the Constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 December 1947</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 October 1949</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Government retreat to Taipei</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7 December 1949 (relocated)<sup id="cite_ref-existence_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existence-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">ROC loses the last major holding outside Taiwan</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 May 1950</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1912</th><td class="infobox-data">11,364,389 km<sup>2</sup> (4,387,815 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1946</th><td class="infobox-data">9,665,354 km<sup>2</sup> (3,731,814 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1949 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">541,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Dragon_(coin)" title="Silver Dragon (coin)">Silver Dragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">tael</a> (to 1935)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_customs_gold_unit" title="Chinese customs gold unit">Customs gold unit</a> (1930–1948 in mainland)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gold_yuan" title="Chinese gold yuan">Gold yuan</a> (1948–1949; mainland)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Taiwan_dollar" title="Old Taiwan dollar">Old Taiwan dollar</a> (1946–1949; Taiwan)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+5:30 to +8:30</span> (<a href="/wiki/Historical_time_zones_of_China" title="Historical time zones of China">Kunlun to Changbai Standard Times</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><b>1912:</b><br />Qing dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="625" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)"><b>1916:</b><br />Empire of China</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule"><b>1945:</b><br />Japanese Taiwan & Penghu</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia"><b>1921:</b><br />Bogd Khanate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1320" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><b>1949:</b><br />People's Republic of China</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China (1949–present)</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the<br />Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/225px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span style="font-size:105%;">1912–1949</span><br />Mainland rule</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Gov't</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government (China)">Nationalist Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1945–present</span><br />Taiwan</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_28_incident" title="February 28 incident">February 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Exodus to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Republic of China in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Lily_student_movement" title="Wild Lily student movement">Wild Lily student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Xinhai_Revolution_and_Republic_of_China" title="100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China">100th anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 Ma–Xi meeting">2015 Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Summer_Universiade" title="2017 Summer Universiade">2017 Summer Universiade</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">History of</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">the PRC</a><br />(1949–present)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a><br />(geographical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taipei" title="History of Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kaohsiung" title="History of Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kuomintang" title="History of the Kuomintang">the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">the Taiwan issue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Republic of China</b> (<b>ROC</b>) began as a sovereign state in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a><sup id="cite_ref-existence_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existence-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 1 January 1912 following the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a>, which overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and ended China's <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">imperial history</a>. From 1927, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) <a href="/wiki/Northern_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern expedition">reunified the country</a> and ruled it as a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a>") and made <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> the national capital. In 1949, <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">the KMT-led government</a> was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and lost control of the mainland to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP). The CCP <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">established the People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) while the ROC was forced to <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">retreat to Taiwan</a> and retains control over the "<a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Area" title="Taiwan Area">Taiwan Area</a>"; the <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">political status of Taiwan</a> remains in dispute to this day. </p><p>The Republic of China was officially proclaimed on 1 January 1912 by the revolutionaries and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, the first provisional president of the new republic, following the success of the Xinhai revolution. <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, who had reigned as the Xuantong Emperor of the Qing dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">abdicated</a> on 12 February 1912. Sun Yat-sen, the ROC's founder and provisional president, served only briefly before handing over the presidency to <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>. Yuan quickly became authoritarian and used his military power to control the administration, which consequently became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>" (or the <b>First Republic of China</b>). Yuan even attempted to replace the Republic with <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">his own imperial dynasty</a> until <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">popular unrest</a> forced him to back down. When Yuan died in 1916, the country fragmented between the various local commanders of the Beiyang Army. This began the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a> defined by decentralized conflicts between rival cliques. The most powerful of these cliques, notably the <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian cliques</a>, at times used their control of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> to assert claims to govern the entire Republic. </p><p>Meanwhile, the nationalist KMT under Sun's leadership attempted <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">multiple times</a> to establish a rival national government in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>. Sun was finally able to take Guangzhou with the help of weapons, funding, and advisors from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. As a condition of Soviet support, the KMT formed the "<a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a>" with the Chinese Communist Party. CCP members joined the KMT and the two parties cooperated to build a revolutionary base in Canton. Sun planned to use this base to launch a military campaign northwards and reunify the rest of China. Sun's death in 1925 precipitated a power struggle that eventually resulted in the rise of General <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Chairman of the Kuomintang">KMT chairmanship</a>. Thanks to strategic alliances with warlords and help from Soviet military advisors, Chiang was able to lead a successful "<a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>" from 1926 to 1928. By 1927, Chiang felt secure enough to end the alliance with the Soviet Union and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">purged the Communists</a> from the KMT. In 1928, the last major independent warlord <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">pledged allegiance</a> to the KMT's <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> in Nanjing. China was then nominally reunified in 1928 by the <a href="/wiki/Nanking" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking">Nanking</a>-based government led by Chiang Kai-shek, who after the Northern Expedition ruled the country as a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> under the Kuomintang, and subsequently received <a href="/wiki/International_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="International recognition">international recognition</a> as the representative legitimate from China. The <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> can also be referred as the <b>Second Republic of China</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there was relative prosperity during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">following ten years</a> under Chiang Kai-shek, the ROC continued to be destabilized by the Chinese Civil War, revolts by the KMT's warlord allies, and steady territorial encroachments by Japan. Although heavily damaged by the purge, the CCP gradually rebuilt its strength by focusing on organizing peasants in the countryside. Warlords who resented Chiang's attempts to take away their autonomy and incorporate their military units into the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> repeatedly led devastating uprisings, most significantly the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a>. In 1931, the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a>. They continued a series of smaller territorial encroachments until 1937, when they launched a <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">full-scale invasion</a> of China. </p><p><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> devastated China, leading to enormous loss of life and material destruction. The war between China and Japan continued until the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> at the end of World War II in 1945, which led to Taiwan being placed under Chinese administration. In the aftermath of World War II, civil war resumed between the areas liberated by the KMT and those liberated by the CCP. The CCP's <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> began to gain upper hand in 1948 over a larger and better-armed <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Republic of China Armed Forces</a> due to better military tactics and internal corruption of the ROC leadership. In 1949, the ROC repeatedly moved its capital to avoid the Communist advance—first to Guangzhou, followed by <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, and lastly to <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>. In October 1949, the CCP <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">established the People's Republic of China</a>. Remnants of the ROC government would hang on in mainland China until late 1951. The KMT dominated ROC politics for 72 years and ruled the island of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> for around 54 years until they lost the <a href="/wiki/2000_Taiwanese_presidential_election" title="2000 Taiwanese presidential election">presidential election in 2000</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a> (DPP). </p><p>The ROC was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (including its <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">Security Council</a> seat) where it maintained until 1971, when the PRC took over its membership in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758</a>. It was also a member of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Postal_Union" title="Universal Postal Union">Universal Postal Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a>. With a <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">population</a> of 541 million in 1949, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">world's most populous country</a>. Covering 11.4 million square kilometres (4.4 million square miles) of claimed territory,<sup id="cite_ref-Area_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Area-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it <i>de jure</i> consisted of 35 <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_China" title="Provinces of China">provinces</a>, 1 <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China#defunct_SARs" title="Special administrative regions of China">special administrative region</a>, 2 regions, 12 <a href="/wiki/Special_municipality_(Republic_of_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Special municipality (Republic of China)">special municipalities</a>, 14 leagues, and 4 special banners. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">China and the United Nations</a></div> <p>The Republic of China's first president, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, chose <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá Mínguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國</span>; 'Chinese People's State') as the country's official Chinese name. The name was derived from the language of the <a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a>'s 1905 party manifesto, which proclaimed that the four goals of the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese revolution</a> were "to expel the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> rulers, revive China (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_China#Zhongguo_and_Zhonghua" title="Names of China"><i>Zhōnghuá</i></a>), establish a people's state (<i>mínguó</i>), and distribute land equally among the people."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chinahistvol1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinahistvol1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 15 July 1916, in his welcoming speech to the Cantonese delegates in Shanghai, Sun explained why the term <i><span lang="zh-Latn">mínguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">民國</span>; 'people's country') was chosen over the Japanese-derived <i><span lang="zh-Latn">gònghéguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">共和國</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HHG_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HHG-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He associated the label <i><span lang="zh-Latn">gònghé</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">共和</span>) with the limiting and authoritarianism-prone Euro-American models of representative republicanism. What he strived for was a more grass-roots model, which he termed <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhíjiē <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People#Mínquán_or_Governance_Rights" title="Three Principles of the People">mínquán</a></span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">直接民權</span>; '<a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct people's rights</a>'), and which he thought would allow more checks and balances by the people. Later on 20 October 1923, at a national conference for youths in Guangzhou, to explain the core idea behind <i><span lang="zh-Latn">mínguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">民國</span>; 'people's country'), he pithily compared the phrase "Empire of China" (<span lang="zh-Hant">中華帝國</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá Dìguó</span></i>; 'Chinese Emperor's Country') to "Republic of China" (<span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá Mínguó</span></i>; 'Chinese People's Country') in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Parallelism_(grammar)" title="Parallelism (grammar)">parallelism</a>: an emperor's country is ruled by only one emperor (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">帝國是以皇帝一人為主</span></span>), a people's country is ruled by all <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">four hundred million people</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">民國是以<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E8%90%AC%E8%90%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:四萬萬">四萬萬</a>人為主</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-HHG_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HHG-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the "<a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>" (from 1912 to 1928), and the "<a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a>" (from 1928 to 1949) used the name "Republic of China" as their official name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2018_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2018-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chinese, the official name was often shortened to <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">中國</span>; 'Middle Country'), <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Mínguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">民國</span>; 'People's Country'), or <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">中華</span>; 'Middle <i><a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a>').<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-溫躍寬1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-溫躍寬1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>The choice of the term <i><span lang="zh-Latn">mínguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">民國</span>; 'people's country'; "republic") in 1912, as well as its similar semantic formation to <i><span lang="zh-Latn">dìguó</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">帝國</span>; 'emperor's country'; "empire"), may have influenced the choice of the Korean term <i>minguk</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">민국/民國</span></span>) by the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea">Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea</a> (founded in 1919 within the Republic of China), which replaced <i><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Daehan Jeguk</a></i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">대한제국/大韓帝國</span></span>) with <i>Daehan Minguk</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">대한민국/大韓民國</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-lee2013_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">中華民國</span></span>) and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Korea">Republic of Korea</a> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">大韓民國</span></span>) are unique in the choice of the term <span lang="zh-Hant">民國</span> ('people's country') as an equivalent to "republic" in other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-lee2013_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The country was in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> known at the time as "the Republic of China" or simply "China". </p><p>In China today, the period from 1912 to 1949 is often called the "Republican Era" (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">民国时期</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">民國時期</span>), because from the Chinese government's perspective the ROC ceased to exist in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Taiwan, these years are called the "Mainland period" (<span lang="zh-Hant">大陸時期</span>; <span lang="zh-Hans">大陆时期</span>), since it was when the ROC was based on the mainland.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Republic_of_China_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Republic of China history">Timeline of Republic of China history</a>.</div> <p>A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang uprising">Wuchang uprising</a> on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and ending over two thousand years of <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">imperial rule</a> in China.<sup id="cite_ref-cuhk_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuhk-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From its founding until 1949, the republic was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–1928), a <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese invasion</a> (1937–1945), and a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">full-scale civil war</a> (1927–1949), with central authority strongest during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Decade" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Decade">Nanjing Decade</a> (1927–1937), when most of China came under the control of the authoritarian, <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> military dictatorship of the nationalist <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> party (KMT).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither the Nanjing government nor the earlier <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> succeeded in consolidating governance in rural China.<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 71">: 71 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1945, at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> surrendered control of Taiwan and its <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands of the Republic of China">island groups</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>; and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_(1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Revolution (1949)">communist takeover</a> of mainland China in 1949, after the Chinese Civil War, left the ruling Kuomintang with control over only <a href="/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Free area of the Republic of China">Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands</a>. With the loss of the mainland, the ROC government retreated to <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and the KMT declared <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional capital">provisional capital</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbctimeline-retreat_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbctimeline-retreat-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the CCP took over all of mainland China<sup id="cite_ref-temporary-capital_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-temporary-capital-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1912–1916:_Founding"><span id="1912.E2.80.931916:_Founding"></span>1912–1916: Founding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1912–1916: Founding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China during World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_republic_forever.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing depicting two lions looking up in front of two flags. The flag on the left is red and blue with a white sun; while the one on the right is made of five vertical stripes (black, white, blue, yellow and red). Two circular pictures of two Chinese men stand in front of each flag." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Chinese_republic_forever.jpg/220px-Chinese_republic_forever.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Chinese_republic_forever.jpg/330px-Chinese_republic_forever.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Chinese_republic_forever.jpg/440px-Chinese_republic_forever.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Yuan Shikai (<i>left</i>) and Sun Yat-sen (<i>right</i>) with flags representing the early republic</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1912, after over two thousand years of dynastic rule, a republic was established to replace the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">monarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cuhk_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuhk-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> that preceded the republic had experienced instability throughout the 19th century and suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-depstate-chineserev_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-depstate-chineserev-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged the monarchy's existence until 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese Republic grew out of the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> against the Qing government, on 10 October 1911, which is now celebrated annually as the ROC's <a href="/wiki/National_day" title="National day">national day</a>, also known as "<a href="/wiki/Double_Ten_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Ten Day">Double Ten Day</a>". Sun Yat-sen had been actively promoting revolution from his bases in exile.<sup id="cite_ref-eb-sun_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-sun-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then returned and on 29 December, Sun Yat-sen was elected president by the Nanjing assembly,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which consisted of representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sun's new government lacked military strength. As a compromise, he negotiated with <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> the commander of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, promising Yuan the presidency of the republic if he were to remove the Qing emperor by force. Yuan agreed to the deal.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 12 February 1912, regent <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Longyu" title="Empress Dowager Longyu">Empress Dowager Longyu</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">abdication decree</a> on behalf of Puyi, ending several millennia of monarchical rule.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1913, elections were held for provincial assemblies, which would then chose delegates for a new National Assembly. The Kuomintang emerged as the formal political party that replaced the revolutionary organization <a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a>, and at the 1913 elections, it won the largest share of seats in both houses of the National Assembly and in some provincial assemblies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord199392–93_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord199392–93-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a> led the Kuomintang Party to electoral victories by fashioning his party's program to appeal to the gentry, landowners, and merchants. Song was assassinated on 20 March 1913, at the behest of Yuan Shikai.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yuan was elected president of the ROC in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-depstate-chineserev_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-depstate-chineserev-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ruled by military power and ignored the republican institutions established by his predecessor, threatening to execute Senate members who disagreed with his decisions. He soon dissolved the ruling <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) party, banned "secret organizations" (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the provisional constitution. Ultimately, Yuan declared himself <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%9316)" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of China (1915–16)">Emperor of China</a> in 1915.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new ruler of China tried to increase centralization by abolishing the provincial system; however, this move angered the gentry along with the provincial governors, who were usually military men.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1916–1927:_Warlord_Era"><span id="1916.E2.80.931927:_Warlord_Era"></span>1916–1927: Warlord Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1916–1927: Warlord Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre_of_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai massacre of 1927">Shanghai massacre of 1927</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Uprising">Nanchang Uprising</a></div> <p>Yuan's changes to government caused many provinces to <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">declare independence</a> and become <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">warlord</a> states. Increasingly unpopular and deserted by his supporters, Yuan abdicated in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China then declined into a period of warlordism. Sun, having been forced into exile, returned to <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> in the south in 1917 and 1922, with the help of warlords, and set up successive rival governments to the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> in Beijing, having re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun's dream was to unify China by launching an expedition against the north. However, he lacked the military support and funding to turn it into a reality.<sup id="cite_ref-pak-chinesehist_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pak-chinesehist-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the Beiyang government struggled to hold onto power, and an open and wide-ranging debate evolved regarding how China should confront the West. In 1919, a student protest against the government's weak response to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, considered unfair by Chinese intellectuals, led to the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="May Fourth movement">May Fourth movement</a>, whose demonstrations were against the danger of spreading Western influence replacing Chinese culture. It was in this intellectual climate that <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> thought began to spread. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Sun's death in March 1925, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> became the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>. In 1926, Chiang led the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> with the intention of defeating the Beiyang warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the CCP. However, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisers, being convinced that they wanted to get rid of the KMT and take control.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang decided to purge the Communists, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre_of_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai massacre of 1927">massacring thousands in Shanghai</a>. At the same time, other violent conflicts were taking place in China: in the South, where the CCP had superior numbers, Nationalist supporters were being massacred.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1927–1937:_Nanjing_decade"><span id="1927.E2.80.931937:_Nanjing_decade"></span>1927–1937: Nanjing decade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1927–1937: Nanjing decade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_Campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement Campaigns">Encirclement Campaigns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg/220px-Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg/330px-Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg/440px-Chinese_civil_war_map_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="870" /></a><figcaption>Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Chinese warlord coalitions</a> during the "Nanjing Decade"</figcaption></figure> <p>Chiang Kai-shek pushed the CCP into the interior and established a government, with Nanjing as its capital, in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanking_zh:南京市_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanking_zh:南京市-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1928, Chiang's army overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ah-nanjing_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ah-nanjing-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sun Yat-sen envisioned three phases for the KMT rebuilding of China – military rule and violent reunification; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_the_Founding_of_the_National_Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Outline of the Founding of the National Government (page does not exist)">political tutelage</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BB%BA%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E7%B6%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:國民政府建國大綱">zh</a>]</span>; and finally a constitutional democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, after seizing power and reunifying China by force, the "tutelage" phase started with the promulgation of a provisional constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to distant themselves from the Soviets, the Chinese government sought <a href="/wiki/China-Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China-Nazi Germany relations">assistance from Germany</a>. </p><p> According to Lloyd Eastman, Chiang Kai-shek was influenced by European fascist movements, and he launched the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Shirts_Society" title="Blue Shirts Society">Blue shirts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Life_Movement" title="New Life Movement">New Life Movement</a> in imitation of them, in an effort to counter the growth of Mao's communism as well as resist both Western and Japanese imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Stanley Payne</a>, however, Chiang's KMT was "normally classified as a multi-class populist or 'nation-building' party but not a fitting candidate for fascism (except by old-line Communists)." He also stated that, "Lloyd Eastman has called the Blue Shirts, whose members admired European fascism and were influenced by it, a Chinese fascist organization. This is probably an exaggeration. The Blue Shirts certainly exhibited some of the characteristics of fascism, as did many nationalist organizations around the world, but it is not clear that the group possessed the full qualities of an intrinsic fascist movement....The Blue Shirts probably had some affinity with and for fascism, a common feature of nationalisms in crisis during the 1930s, but it is doubtful that they represented any clear-cut Asian variant of fascism."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="box-Over-quotation plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Quotations" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">too many or overly lengthy quotations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit">summarize the quotations</a>. Consider transferring direct quotations to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Republic of China (1912–1949)">Wikiquote</a> or excerpts to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Republic of China (1912–1949)">Wikisource</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Still other historians have noted that Chiang and the KMT's exact ideology itself was very complex and oscillated over time, with different factions of his government cooperating with both the Soviets and Germans as they saw fit, and that Chiang eventually became disillusioned with the Blue Shirts, which officially disbanded by 1938,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> something Payne also mentions as "possibly because of competition with the KMT itself."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have also noted that in contrast to older historians from decades ago, Chiang's efforts have been increasingly seen by newer Western and Chinese historians alike as an arguably necessary if austere part of the complicated nation-building process in China during his time, especially given the wide range of both domestic and foreign challenges it faced on many different concurrent fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several major government institutions were founded during this period, including the <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Bank of the Republic of China">Central Bank of China</a>. In 1932, China sent its first team to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_at_the_1932_Summer_Olympics" title="Republic of China at the 1932 Summer Olympics">Olympic Games</a>. Campaigns were mounted and laws passed to promote the rights of women. In the 1931 Civil Code, women were given equal inheritance rights, banned forced marriage and gave women the right to control their own money and initiate divorce.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No nationally unified women's movement could organize until China was unified under the Kuomintang Government in Nanjing in 1928; women's suffrage was finally included in the new Constitution of 1936, although the constitution was not implemented until 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addressing social problems, especially in remote villages, was aided by improved communications. The <a href="/wiki/Rural_Reconstruction_Movement" title="Rural Reconstruction Movement">Rural Reconstruction Movement</a> was one of many that took advantage of the new freedom to raise social consciousness.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Nationalist government published a draft constitution on 5 May 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continual wars plagued the government. Those in the western border regions included the <a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Invasion_of_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang</a>. Large areas of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> remained under the semi-autonomous rule of local warlords such as <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>, provincial military leaders, or warlord coalitions.<sup id="cite_ref-ah-nanjing_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ah-nanjing-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist rule was strongest in the eastern regions around the capital Nanjing. The <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> in 1930, the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a> in 1931, and the Red Army's <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a> in 1934 led to more power for the central government, but there continued to be foot-dragging and even outright defiance, as in the <a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian Rebellion</a> of 1933–1934.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Reformers and critics pushed for democracy and human rights, but the task seemed difficult if not impossible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption and lack of direction hindered reforms. Chiang told the State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1937–1945:_Second_Sino-Japanese_War"><span id="1937.E2.80.931945:_Second_Sino-Japanese_War"></span>1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burma_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Campaign">Burma Campaign</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif/lossy-page1-220px-%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif/lossy-page1-330px-%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif/lossy-page1-440px-%22China-First_to_Fight_-_NARA_-_513567.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2012" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>China had been at war with Japan since 1931.</figcaption></figure> <p>Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese desires on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">the seizure of Manchuria</a> in September 1931, and established the former emperor <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> as head of the puppet state of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of Japanese defiance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Japanese began to push south of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a> into northern China and the coastal provinces. Chinese fury against Japan was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanjing government, which at the time was more preoccupied with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than with resisting the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external danger" was forcefully brought home in December 1936, when <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> was kidnapped by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> and forced to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second United Front (China)">Second United Front</a>, an event now known as the <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Chinese resistance stiffened after 7 July 1937, when a clash occurred between Chinese and Japanese troops outside <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge" title="Marco Polo Bridge">Marco Polo Bridge</a>. This skirmish led to open, although undeclared, warfare between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">three-month battle</a> during which Japan suffered extensive casualties in both its army and navy. Nanjing fell in December 1937, which was followed by mass murders and rapes known as the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>. The national capital was briefly at <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, then removed in an epic retreat to Chongqing, the seat of government until 1945. In 1940, the Japanese set up the collaborationist <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a>, with its capital in Nanjing, which proclaimed itself the legitimate "Republic of China" in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek's government, although its claims were significantly hampered due to its being a <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> controlling limited amounts of territory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1938_June_Yellow_River.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/220px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/330px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/440px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Army">Chinese Nationalist Army</a> soldiers during the <a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">1938 Yellow River flood</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The United Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP had salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP, despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions and the rich <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> River valley in central China. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the <a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">areas not under Japanese control</a>. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms and the land- and tax-reform measures favoring the peasants and, the spread of their organizational network, while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was infiltrated politically by Japanese politicians in Manchukuo using facilities such as the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Imperial_Palace_of_Manchukuo" title="Museum of the Imperial Palace of Manchukuo">Manchukuo Imperial Palace</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After its entry into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> during World War II, the United States became increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, it embarked in late 1941 on a program of massive military and financial aid to the hard-pressed <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government">Nationalist Government</a>. In January 1943, both the United States and the United Kingdom led the way in revising their <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a> with China from the past.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a few months a new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the stationing of American troops in China as part of the common war effort against Japan. The United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile the rival Kuomintang and Communists, to make for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. In December 1943, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Acts</a> of the 1880s, and subsequent laws, enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration into the United States were repealed. The wartime policy of the United States was meant to help China become a strong ally and a stabilizing force in postwar East Asia. During the war, China was one of the Big Four Allies, and later one of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>, which was a precursor to China having a permanent seat on the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1945, with American help, Nationalist troops moved to take the Japanese surrender in North China. The Soviet Union—encouraged to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invade Manchuria</a> to hasten the end of the war and allowed a Soviet sphere of influence there as agreed to at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> in February 1945—dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war, in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Kuomintang government. However, the Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to arm themselves with equipment surrendered by the withdrawing Japanese army.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1945–1949:_Defeat_in_the_Chinese_Civil_War"><span id="1945.E2.80.931949:_Defeat_in_the_Chinese_Civil_War"></span>1945–1949: Defeat in the Chinese Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1945–1949: Defeat in the Chinese Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China retreat to Taiwan">Republic of China retreat to Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait Relations">Cross-Strait Relations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></div> <p>In 1945, after the end of the war, the Nationalist Government moved back to Nanjing. The Republic of China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all-out civil war. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese-occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of a protracted war were staggering. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation, and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and unsettled conditions in many parts of the country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 25 October 1945, following the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a>, the administration of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan (island)">Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penghu_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Penghu Islands">Penghu Islands</a> were handed over from Japan to China.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the end of the war, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Marines">United States Marines</a> were used to hold Beijing and <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Kuomintang forces in north and northeast China. To further this end, on 30 September 1945 the <a href="/wiki/1st_Marine_Division_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Marine Division (United States)">1st Marine Division</a>, charged with maintaining security in the areas of the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Shandong Peninsula</a> and the eastern <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, arrived in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Jessup_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jessup-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1946, through the mediation of the United States, a military truce between the Kuomintang and the Communists was arranged, but battles soon resumed. Public opinion of the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government was incited by the Communists during the nationwide student protest against the mishandling of the <a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Shen Chong rape case</a> in early 1947 and during another national protest against monetary reforms later that year. The United States—realizing that no American efforts short of large-scale armed intervention could stop the coming war—withdrew Gen. <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">George Marshall's American mission</a>. Thereafter, the Chinese Civil War became more widespread; battles raged not only for territories but also for the allegiance of sections of the population. The United States aided the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/250px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/375px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/500px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing they next moved to Guangzhou, then to <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xichang" title="Xichang">Xichang</a> before arriving in Taipei.</figcaption></figure> <p>Belatedly, the Republic of China government sought to enlist popular support through internal reforms. However, the effort was in vain, because of rampant government corruption and the accompanying political and economic chaos. By late 1948 the Kuomintang position was bleak. The demoralized and undisciplined <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> proved to be no match for the Communists' motivated and disciplined <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>. The Communists were well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the long war with Japan and in-fighting among various generals. They were also losing the propaganda war to the Communists, with a population weary of Kuomintang corruption and yearning for peace.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and its name changed back to Beijing. Following the capture of Nanjing on 23 April, major cities passed from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance, through November. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on 1 October 1949, Communists led by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. Chiang Kai-shek declared <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> in May 1949, whilst a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from mainland China to Taiwan. There remained in China itself only isolated pockets of resistance. On 7 December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the civil war resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949, including deaths from forced conscription and massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the history of Republic of China after 1949, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)">History of Taiwan (1945–present)</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government of the Republic of China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warlord_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Warlord era">Warlord era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reorganized_National_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China">Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China</a></div> <p>The first Republic of China national government was established on 1 January 1912, in Nanjing, with a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">constitution</a> stating <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>, which state that "[the ROC] shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people."<sup id="cite_ref-yb-2008_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yb-2008-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sun Yat-sen was the provisional president. Delegates from the provinces sent to confirm the government's authority formed the first parliament in 1913. The power of this government was limited, with generals controlling both the central and northern <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of the Republic of China">provinces of China</a>, and short-lived. The number of acts passed by the government was few and included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives. The parliament's authority soon became nominal: violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half-hearted motions of censure. Kuomintang members of parliament who gave up their membership in the KMT were offered 1,000 <a href="/wiki/British_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="British pound">pounds</a>. Yuan maintained power locally by sending generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power passed to military leaders, leading to the warlord period. The impotent government still had its use; when <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, to liquidate German holdings in China.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress, held in Nanjing, passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Government Act. This act stipulated that the Nationalist Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by the KMT Central Committee. Under the Nationalist Government were seven ministries—Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce, in addition to institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Supreme Court of the Republic of China">Supreme Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_Yuan" title="Control Yuan">Control Yuan</a>, and the General Academy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China,_1930_(2675972715).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/220px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/330px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/440px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1451" /></a><figcaption>Nationalist government of Nanjing, which nominally ruled over all of China during 1930s</figcaption></figure> <p>With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Nationalist Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches, or <i>yuan</i>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Executive_Yuan" title="Executive Yuan">Executive Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Yuan" title="Judicial Yuan">Judicial Yuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Examination_Yuan" title="Examination Yuan">Examination Yuan</a> as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first chairman, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of "political tutelage", that the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the Nationalist Government in the execution of important national affairs, and that the Political Council has the power to interpret or amend the Organic Law.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after the Second Sino-Japanese War, a long-delayed constitutional convention was summoned to meet in Nanjing in May 1946. Amidst heated debate, this convention adopted many constitutional amendments demanded by several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into the Constitution. This Constitution was promulgated on 25 December 1946 and came into effect on 25 December 1947. Under it, the Central Government was divided into the presidency and the five yuans, each responsible for a part of the government. None was responsible to the other except for certain obligations such as the president appointing the head of the Executive Yuan. Ultimately, the president and the yuans reported to the National Assembly, which represented the will of the citizens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Under the new constitution the first elections for the National Assembly occurred in January 1948, and the assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It elected the president of the republic on 21 March 1948, formally bringing an end to the KMT party rule started in 1928, although the president was a member of the KMT. These elections, though praised by at least one US observer, were poorly received by the Communist Party, which would soon start an open, armed insurrection.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Foreign relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations of Taiwan</a></div> <p>Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, including Australia, Canada, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cuba_(1902%E2%80%9359)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Cuba (1902–59)">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Spain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>. The Republic of China was able to maintain most of these diplomatic ties, at least initially following the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang Kai-shek had vowed to quickly return and "liberate" the mainland,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an assurance that became a cornerstone of the ROC's post 1949 foreign policy. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_at_the_Olympics" title="Republic of China at the Olympics">Republic of China at the Olympics</a></div> <p>The ROC did try to participate in a variety of entities for the international community including the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> along with its successor the United Nations<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was hoped by the government that participating in the Olympic Games this could give more legitimacy to the country in the eyes of the international community and "sports could also cultivate modern citizens and a strong nation". The Republic of China sent athletes to the <a href="/wiki/1924_Summer_Olympics" title="1924 Summer Olympics">1924 Summer Olympics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics" title="1932 Summer Olympics">1932 Summer Olympics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" title="1936 Summer Olympics">1936 Summer Olympics</a> in Berlin and the <a href="/wiki/1948_Summer_Olympics" title="1948 Summer Olympics">1948 Summer Olympics</a> but no athletes won any medals. For 1928 a single athlete was sent. Although athletes were sent to the 1924 games they did not participate in the games.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="League_of_Nations">League of Nations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: League of Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Republic of China was a member of the League of Nations and participated until it was dissolved. Those in the country's foreign relations were among the most stable of those working in the government in terms of composition. The ROC was a non-permanent member of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League Council</a> for the League of Nations being a non-permanent member of the League Council from: 1921–1923, 1926–1928, 1931–1932, 1934, and 1936. Although the ROC lobbied to be a permanent member of the League Council it never became one. At the League of Nations, China wanted to see the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaties</a> revised. The ROC thought that by being in the League they could improve their international standing.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter of the United Nations</a>, the Republic of China was entitled to a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">permanent seat on the UN Security Council</a> (UNSC).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though multiple objections were raised that the seat belonged to the lawful government of China, which had to many become the PRC even arguably prior to the official conclusion of the Chinese Civil War,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ROC retained the permanent seat reserved for China on the UNSC until 1971 when it was supplanted by the PRC.<sup id="cite_ref-Pakistan_Horizon_1971_pp._75-79_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pakistan_Horizon_1971_pp._75-79-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Administrative divisions of the Republic of China (1912–1949)">Administrative divisions of the Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_map_of_Asia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rand McNally map of the Republic of China in 1914, after Mongolia declared its independence"><img alt="Rand McNally map of the Republic of China in 1914, after Mongolia declared its independence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/1914_map_of_Asia.jpg/180px-1914_map_of_Asia.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/1914_map_of_Asia.jpg/270px-1914_map_of_Asia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/1914_map_of_Asia.jpg/360px-1914_map_of_Asia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3693" data-file-height="2722" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rand_McNally" title="Rand McNally">Rand McNally</a> map of the Republic of China in 1914, after <a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Mongolia</a> declared its independence</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_(disputed_territories).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the first-level administrative divisions of the Republic of China in law (1945)"><img alt="Map of the first-level administrative divisions of the Republic of China in law (1945)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg/180px-Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg/270px-Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg/360px-Republic_of_China_edcp_location_map_%28disputed_territories%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the first-level administrative divisions of the Republic of China in law (1945)</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Provinces and Equivalents of the Republic of China (1945)<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr bgcolor="#cccccc"> <th>Name</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese">Traditional<br />Chinese</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a></th> <th>Abbreviation</th> <th>Capital</th> <th>Chinese</th> <th>Modern equivalent (if applicable) </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" align="center" style="background: #ffff99;"><b>Provinces</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andong_Province" title="Andong Province">Andong</a></td> <td>安東</td> <td>Āndōng</td> <td>安 ān</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tonghua" title="Tonghua">Tonghua</a></td> <td>通化</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a></td> <td>安徽</td> <td>Ānhuī</td> <td>皖 wǎn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hefei" title="Hefei">Hefei</a></td> <td>合肥</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chahar_Province" title="Chahar Province">Chahar</a></td> <td>察哈爾</td> <td>Cháhār</td> <td>察 chá</td> <td>Zhangyuan (<a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou" title="Zhangjiakou">Zhangjiakou</a>)</td> <td>張垣(張家口)</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chekiang_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Chekiang Province, Republic of China">Zhejiang</a></td> <td>浙江</td> <td>Zhèjiāng</td> <td>浙 zhè</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a></td> <td>杭州</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fuchien_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Fuchien Province, Republic of China">Fujian</a></td> <td>福建</td> <td>Fújiàn</td> <td>閩 mǐn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou" title="Fuzhou">Fuzhou</a></td> <td>福州</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a></td> <td>河北</td> <td>Héběi</td> <td>冀 jì</td> <td>Qingyuan (<a href="/wiki/Baoding" title="Baoding">Baoding</a>)</td> <td>清苑(保定)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a></td> <td>黑龍江</td> <td>Hēilóngjiāng</td> <td>黑 hēi</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bei%27an" title="Bei'an">Bei'an</a></td> <td>北安</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hejiang_Province" title="Hejiang Province">Hejiang</a></td> <td>合江</td> <td>Héjiāng</td> <td>合 hé</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiamusi" title="Jiamusi">Jiamusi</a></td> <td>佳木斯</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a></td> <td>河南</td> <td>Hénán</td> <td>豫 yù</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a></td> <td>開封</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a></td> <td>湖北</td> <td>Húběi</td> <td>鄂 è</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wuchang,_Hubei" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang, Hubei">Wuchang</a></td> <td>武昌</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a></td> <td>湖南</td> <td>Húnán</td> <td>湘 xiāng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a></td> <td>長沙</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xing%27an_Province" title="Xing'an Province">Xing'an</a></td> <td>興安</td> <td>Xīng'ān</td> <td>興 xīng</td> <td>Hailar (<a href="/wiki/Hulunbuir" title="Hulunbuir">Hulunbuir</a>)</td> <td>海拉爾(呼倫貝爾)</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jehol (<a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe</a>)</td> <td>熱河</td> <td>Rèhé</td> <td>熱 rè</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chengde" title="Chengde">Chengde</a></td> <td>承德</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a></td> <td>甘肅</td> <td>Gānsù</td> <td>隴 lǒng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lanzhou" title="Lanzhou">Lanzhou</a></td> <td>蘭州</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a></td> <td>江蘇</td> <td>Jiāngsū</td> <td>蘇 sū</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhenjiang" title="Zhenjiang">Zhenjiang</a></td> <td>鎮江</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a></td> <td>江西</td> <td>Jiāngxī</td> <td>贛 gàn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Nanchang</a></td> <td>南昌</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a></td> <td>吉林</td> <td>Jílín</td> <td>吉 jí</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jilin_City" title="Jilin City">Jilin</a></td> <td>吉林</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a></td> <td>廣東</td> <td>Guǎngdōng</td> <td>粵 yuè</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></td> <td>廣州</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a></td> <td>廣西</td> <td>Guǎngxī</td> <td>桂 guì</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guilin" title="Guilin">Guilin</a></td> <td>桂林</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a></td> <td>貴州</td> <td>Guìzhōu</td> <td>黔 qián</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guiyang" title="Guiyang">Guiyang</a></td> <td>貴陽</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Liaobei" title="Liaobei">Liaobei</a></td> <td>遼北</td> <td>Liáoběi</td> <td>洮 táo</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shuangliao" title="Shuangliao">Liaoyuan</a></td> <td>遼源</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a></td> <td>遼寧</td> <td>Liáoníng</td> <td>遼 liáo</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a></td> <td>瀋陽</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a></td> <td>寧夏</td> <td>Níngxià</td> <td>寧 níng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yinchuan" title="Yinchuan">Yinchuan</a></td> <td>銀川</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nenjiang_Province" title="Nenjiang Province">Nenjiang</a></td> <td>嫩江</td> <td>Nènjiāng</td> <td>嫩 nèn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qiqihar" title="Qiqihar">Qiqihar</a></td> <td>齊齊哈爾</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a></td> <td>山西</td> <td>Shānxī</td> <td>晉 jìn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a></td> <td>太原</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a></td> <td>山東</td> <td>Shāndōng</td> <td>魯 lǔ</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a></td> <td>濟南</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a></td> <td>陝西</td> <td>Shǎnxī</td> <td>陝 shǎn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a></td> <td>西安</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xikang" title="Xikang">Xikang</a></td> <td>西康</td> <td>Xīkāng</td> <td>康 kāng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kangding" title="Kangding">Kangding</a></td> <td>康定</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Xinjiang Province, Republic of China">Xinjiang</a></td> <td>新疆</td> <td>Xīnjiāng</td> <td>新 xīn</td> <td>Dihua (<a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi" title="Ürümqi">Ürümqi</a>)</td> <td>迪化(烏魯木齊)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan" title="Suiyuan">Suiyuan</a></td> <td>綏遠</td> <td>Suīyuǎn</td> <td>綏 suī</td> <td>Guisui (<a href="/wiki/Hohhot" title="Hohhot">Hohhot</a>)</td> <td>歸綏(呼和浩特)</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Songjiang_Province" title="Songjiang Province">Songjiang</a></td> <td>松江</td> <td>Sōngjiāng</td> <td>松 sōng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mudanjiang" title="Mudanjiang">Mudanjiang</a></td> <td>牡丹江</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a></td> <td>四川</td> <td>Sìchuān</td> <td>蜀 shǔ</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a></td> <td>成都</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Province" title="Taiwan Province">Taiwan</a></td> <td>臺灣</td> <td>Táiwān</td> <td>臺 tái</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a></td> <td>臺北</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a></td> <td>青海</td> <td>Qīnghǎi</td> <td>青 qīng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xining" title="Xining">Xining</a></td> <td>西寧</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Yunnan Province, Republic of China">Yunnan</a></td> <td>雲南</td> <td>Yúnnán</td> <td>滇 diān</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a></td> <td>昆明</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" align="center" style="background: #ffff99;"><b>Special Administrative Region</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a></td> <td>海南</td> <td>Hǎinán</td> <td>瓊 qióng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Haikou" title="Haikou">Haikou</a></td> <td>海口</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" align="center" style="background: #ffff99;"><b>Regions</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mongolia Area (<a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>)</td> <td>蒙古</td> <td>Ménggǔ</td> <td>蒙 méng</td> <td>Kulun (now <a href="/wiki/Ulaanbaatar" title="Ulaanbaatar">Ulaanbaatar</a>)</td> <td>庫倫</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Area_(administrative_division)" title="Tibet Area (administrative division)">Tibet Area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a>)</td> <td>西藏</td> <td>Xīzàng</td> <td>藏 zàng</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a></td> <td>拉薩</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" align="center" style="background: #ffff99;"><b>Special Municipalities</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a></td> <td>南京</td> <td>Nánjīng</td> <td>京 jīng</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Qinhuai_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinhuai District">Qinhuai District</a>)</td> <td>秦淮區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Shanghai</td> <td>上海</td> <td>Shànghǎi</td> <td>滬 hù</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Huangpu_District,_Shanghai" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangpu District, Shanghai">Huangpu District</a>)</td> <td>黄浦區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a></td> <td>哈爾濱</td> <td>Hā'ěrbīn</td> <td>哈 hā</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Nangang_District,_Harbin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nangang District, Harbin">Nangang District</a>)</td> <td>南崗區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a></td> <td>瀋陽</td> <td>Shěnyáng</td> <td>瀋 shěn</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Shenhe_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenhe District">Shenhe District</a>)</td> <td>瀋河區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dalian" title="Dalian">Dalian</a></td> <td>大連</td> <td>Dàlián</td> <td>連 lián</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Xigang_District,_Dalian" class="mw-redirect" title="Xigang District, Dalian">Xigang District</a>)</td> <td>西崗區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beijing (while capital)</td> <td>北平</td> <td>Běipíng</td> <td>平 píng</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Xicheng_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicheng District">Xicheng District</a>)</td> <td>西城區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a></td> <td>天津</td> <td>Tiānjīn</td> <td>津 jīn</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Heping_District,_Tianjin" class="mw-redirect" title="Heping District, Tianjin">Heping District</a>)</td> <td>和平區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a></td> <td>重慶</td> <td>Chóngqìng</td> <td>渝 yú</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Yuzhong_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuzhong District">Yuzhong District</a>)</td> <td>渝中區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hankou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Hankou District">Hankou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a></td> <td>漢口</td> <td>Hànkǒu</td> <td>漢 hàn</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Jiang%27an_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiang'an District">Jiang'an District</a>)</td> <td>江岸區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></td> <td>廣州</td> <td>Guǎngzhōu</td> <td>穗 suì</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Yuexiu_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuexiu District">Yuexiu District</a>)</td> <td>越秀區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a></td> <td>西安</td> <td>Xī'ān</td> <td>安 ān</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Weiyang_District,_Xi%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Weiyang District, Xi'an">Weiyang District</a>)</td> <td>未央區</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a></td> <td>青島</td> <td>Qīngdǎo</td> <td>膠 jiāo</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Shinan_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinan District">Shinan District</a>)</td> <td>市南區</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matsu_Islands" title="Matsu Islands">Matsu Islands</a> retained by the ROC. Provincial government suspended in 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, Liaoning, and <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now mostly part of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The province was abolished in 1950 and incorporated into Heilongjiang province.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of Inner Mongolia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taiwan was only under ROC control after the surrender of Japan. Government suspended since 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now part of the State of <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and the Russian republic of <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a>. As the successor of the Qing dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government of the Republic of China</a> claimed <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a> before 1946, and for a short time under the Beiyang government <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">occupied it</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> <a href="/wiki/1945_Mongolian_independence_referendum" title="1945 Mongolian independence referendum">officially recognized Mongolia's independence</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship</a> due to pressure from the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-Japan_Contemporary_Chinese_Society_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Japan_Contemporary_Chinese_Society-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobility">Nobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility" title="Chinese nobility">Chinese nobility</a></div> <p>The Republic of China retained hereditary nobility like the Han Chinese nobles <a href="/wiki/Duke_Yansheng" title="Duke Yansheng">Duke Yansheng</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Celestial_Masters" title="List of Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a> chiefdoms like the <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Mangshi" title="Chiefdom of Mangshi">Chiefdom of Mangshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Yongning" title="Chiefdom of Yongning">Chiefdom of Yongning</a>, who continued possessing their titles in the Republic of China from the previous dynasties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Military conscription was practiced in the Republic of China starting in March 1936 after a 1933 law was passed. All males between 18 and 45 were required to register for as citizen-soldiers where they would learn how to use weapons, build fortifications, execute basic orders, conduct reconnaissance and do liaison work. Able-bodied men from 20 to 25 were required to serve in the military for 3 years before becoming reservists which they would remain as until they were 45. Those being exempt from serving in the military were: only sons, high school graduates and above, students who were in high school or above, could not meet physical standards, "suffered from incurable diseases" and had special governmental appointments. One could also get a deferment if they were civil servants, "could not recover from any disease within months", teachers, "those who were not clear of suspicion for criminal offenses" or where half the sons in a given family were active duty soldiers. Those barred from military service were people who were serving a life sentence or "deprived of political rights".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Army">Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">Republic of China Army</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg/200px-Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg/300px-Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg/400px-Beiyang_Army_troops_crossing_the_Gong_An_street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="758" /></a><figcaption>Beiyang Army troops in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> <p>The Republic of China's military initially consisted of the decentralized forces of the former Qing dynasty, with the most modern and organized being the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, before it split into <a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">factions</a> that <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">attacked each other</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schillinger2016_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schillinger2016-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Second Revolution in 1913, as the president of the republic, Yuan Shikai used the Beiyang Army to defeat provincial forces opposed to him and to extend his control over north China and other provinces as far south as the Yangtze River. This also led to the expansion of the size of the Beiyang Army, and an effort was made by Yuan to reduce provincial armies in areas he controlled,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993177–178_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993177–178-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993173–174_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993173–174-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though they were not completely disbanded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993186_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993186-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yuan ended the Qing practice of frequently rotating officers among command positions in the Beiyang divisions, which led to the subordinates developing personal loyalty to their commanders, whose units became their power base. He maintained control over the Beiyang Army by providing the division commanders with the patronage of the presidency, and had them keep each other in check. Yuan was unable to completely reorganize the fragmented command structure of China's military to be more of a bureaucratic institution under the direct control of the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993207–208_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993207–208-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Yuan's death in 1916, the Beiyang Army split among different factions led by his generals that rivaled each other. Though they continued to control the central government in Beijing, they were unable to take over the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993247–250_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993247–250-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The southern warlords had their own armies but they were also divided by conflicts among themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the breakdown of centralized leadership, some military schools established during the Qing dynasty continued to function during the warlord era, including the <a href="/wiki/Baoding_Military_Academy" title="Baoding Military Academy">Baoding Military Academy</a>, which graduated the majority of officers that served in warlord armies and many that later became Nationalist officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201827–28_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201827–28-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sun Yat-sen created a new government in 1917 as an alternative to the Beiyang, but he did not have the military power to control the southern warlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the National Revolutionary Army was established by Sun in 1924 in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> with the goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang, with Soviet advisors and equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201829–30_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201829–30-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To avoid the problems of warlord armies, the NRA was under the political and ideological control of a party, the KMT, and included party representatives in its ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201831–33_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201831–33-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Sun's death in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek led the Nationalist Army in its first campaign against less organized warlord forces from 1926 to 1928, becoming known as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201835–36_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201835–36-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the success of the Northern Expedition the National Revolutionary Army was seen as China's national army, despite warlords still controlling parts of the country. During the next decade the army was increased in size from 250,000 to around two million, organized into 200 divisions. In the 1930s a small number of these divisions received training from German instructors, as well as modern uniforms and weapons, as part of the process of creating a professional army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201839–42_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201839–42-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a> had been established by Sun Yat-sen with Soviet assistance to provide officers for the KMT army,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201829–30_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201829–30-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1928 it was moved to Nanjing to become the Central Military Academy, where its size and training program was expanded by the Germans. But these <a href="/wiki/List_of_German-trained_divisions_of_the_National_Revolutionary_Army" title="List of German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army">German-trained forces</a> represented a small part of the total KMT army,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201839–42_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201839–42-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> numbering about 40 divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry19963–4_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry19963–4-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg/200px-Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg/300px-Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg/400px-Cecil_Beaton_Photographs-_General_IB2789C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>NRA troops in 1944</figcaption></figure> <p>When the war between Japan and China broke out in 1937, Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best divisions to central China, where they took heavy losses during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a> and the following retreat. Half of the officers that graduated from the Central Military Academy were killed in the first few months of fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201846–49_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201846–49-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1941, the Chinese Nationalist Army had 3.8 million troops in 246 front-line divisions and 70 reserve divisions, though the majority of the divisions were under-strength and the troops were poorly trained. Many of these divisions were still more loyal to warlords than to Chiang Kai-shek. The U.S. also provided military assistance to China, planning to equip 30 divisions, but the prioritization of the European theater and the logistical difficulties of getting the supplies to China prevented these plans from being fully carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry19963–4_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry19963–4-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry19968_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry19968-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a> in 1938, the Chinese Army tried to avoid direct large scale fighting with the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201846–49_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201846–49-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang also wanted to preserve his army instead of engaging in ground operations, despite pressure from the American leadership to go on the offensive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry199610–12_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry199610–12-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until early 1944 when Chiang agreed to launch a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">major offensive</a> against Japanese forces in <a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">Burma</a> to reopen the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Road" title="Burma Road">overland supply line</a> to China, though it was unsuccessful. It took place around the same time as Japan's largest offensive since 1941, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a>. The Japanese advanced rapidly in central and southeast China, as the Chinese Army still suffered from a lack of supplies, and by the start of 1945 they captured several U.S. air bases and created a direct connection to <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry199615–21_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry199615–21-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 1945, Chinese and Allied troops in Burma succeeded in opening a land route to India, allowing more equipment to be sent to the Chinese, which they used to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">stop Japanese advances</a> in southeast China by May. They were planning an offensive to retake control of a port in southern China when Japan surrendered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherry199622–24_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherry199622–24-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201884–85_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201884–85-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the CCP were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army, while remaining under separate command, but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">Constitution of the Republic of China</a> in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Republic of China Armed Forces</a>, with the bulk of its forces forming the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">Republic of China Army</a>, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after their defeat in the Chinese Civil War. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navy">Navy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Navy" title="Republic of China Navy">Republic of China Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Marine_Corps" title="Republic of China Marine Corps">Republic of China Marine Corps</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg/220px-Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg/330px-Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg/440px-Chinese_cruiser_NING-HAI_in_1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cruiser_Ning_Hai" title="Chinese cruiser Ning Hai">cruiser <i>Ning Hai</i></a> was the Chinese navy's flagship in the early 1930s.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Republic of China's Navy during between 1911 and 1949 was primarily composed of ships from the Qing Dynasty or ships obtained from foreign countries. As most threats to the Republic were on land from the warlords and the Communists there was no interest in developing any maritime strategies. No significant efforts were made during this period to grow the navy because of China being in a state of general disarray. Sometimes warlords did use maritime forces but mainly as a way of supporting land combat.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Sun Yat-sen established his constitutional protection government in Guangzhou in 1917, some of his early support came from the Chinese navy, represented by admirals <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Biguang" title="Cheng Biguang">Cheng Biguang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lin_Baoyi_(admiral)" title="Lin Baoyi (admiral)">Lin Baoyi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Shuzhuang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Shuzhuang (page does not exist)">Yang Shuzhuang</a> led some elements of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Fleet" title="Beiyang Fleet">Beiyang Fleet</a> to defect to the National Revolutionary Army and became the head of the revolutionary navy on the Yangtze River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan1976162_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976162-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Defense_of_the_Republic_of_China201029–33_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Defense_of_the_Republic_of_China201029–33-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Admiral Yang's subordinates was <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shaokuan" title="Chen Shaokuan">Chen Shaokuan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan1976162_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976162-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who became the commander of the ROC Navy in 1932 and remained in that position until after the war with Japan. During the 1930s he organized the Chinese navy into the Central, Northeast, and Guangdong Fleets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chiang Kai-shek announced in 1928 that it was his intention to build a large navy for China, but this goal was undermined by financial problems and other difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many senior officers did not have modern naval training, and newer officers that were educated in Western countries were not promoted. When the war with Japan broke out, the majority of the Chinese fleet was used during the Battle of Shanghai to slow down the Japanese advance along the Yangtze River. Many ships were sunk by Japanese aircraft or were sunk deliberately by the Chinese to use as blockships in the Yangtze. By 1939 most of the Chinese navy had been destroyed, with one estimate claiming that over 100 of the navy's 120 ships in 1937 had been sunk. Some Chinese warships (notably the cruisers <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cruiser_Ning_Hai" title="Chinese cruiser Ning Hai">Ning Hai</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cruiser_Ping_Hai" title="Chinese cruiser Ping Hai">Ping Hai</a></i>) were later refloated and put into service by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The building of a Chinese navy was no longer a priority during the rest of the war,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen202439–40-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1940 Chiang Kai-shek disbanded the Ministry of the Navy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElleman201943–46-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1945, Chiang revived plans to create a modern Chinese Navy and asked the United States for assistance. The Nationalists received over 100 ships from the U.S. and its allied countries, as well as some captured Axis ships. Before the end of 1945 a navy training center was established in Qingdao by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a>. The new navy was mainly used to transport troops and patrol the coastline during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChung2003114–115_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung2003114–115-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen202447–49_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen202447–49-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1948, the former British cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Aurora_(12)" title="HMS Aurora (12)">HMS <i>Aurora</i></a> was gifted to China and was renamed <i>Chongqing</i>, becoming the flagship of the ROCN. In February 1949, as Chinese Communist forces advanced to the Yangtze River from the north, a mutiny of sailors occurred on <i>Chongqing</i> and the flagship defected to the Communists. This was followed in April by a mutiny of the entire fleet along the Yangtze, which was led by its commander to the other side. Because of this, 23 April 1949 is considered the founding date of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">People's Liberation Army Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElleman201947–50_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElleman201947–50-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of the war the rest of the ROCN moved Nationalist troops from the mainland to Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChung2003114–115_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung2003114–115-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ROC Marine Corps was created from the former Naval Guard Corps, and consisted of two marine brigades, which were used during the war against Japan in several provinces before the corps was disbanded in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-gazette_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gazette-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1947, a reorganized Republic of China Marine Corps was created by the commander of the Navy using select personnel from the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_Force">Air Force</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Air Force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Republic of China Air Force</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_B-25C_(B31393)_(5519679693).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg/220px-North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg/330px-North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg/440px-North_American_B-25C_%28B31393%29_%285519679693%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/B-25_Mitchell" class="mw-redirect" title="B-25 Mitchell">B-25 Mitchell</a> bomber with Chinese Nationalist insignia</figcaption></figure> <p>The Republic of China Air Force during the Second-Sino Japanese War was outmatched by the Japanese aviation forces. Foreign advisors from Germany, France, Italy and the United Kingdom came to China in the 1930s; while foreign aircraft were also imported from a variety of countries. With the beginning of the war they began to rely most heavily on the United States and Soviet Union for advisors. The low amount of planes being domestically produced would prove to be a hindrance.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in 1929, the Nationalist government started expanding its air power to improve its position over warlords and the Communists. The ROC Air Force was formally established in April 1929, and that month the aviation department of the Ministry of War was separated as the National Aviation Administration, with General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chang_We-chang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chang We-chang (page does not exist)">Chang We-chang</a> as its head. He started a program of buying American aircraft, with the first, <a href="/wiki/Vought_O2U_Corsair" title="Vought O2U Corsair">Vought Corsair</a> planes, arriving in early 1930. The Chinese Air Force expanded from the first 12 Corsair planes in 1930 to a size of eight squadrons, with seven of bomber-observation planes and one of pursuit planes, in 1931, with a total of 40 to 50 aircraft. Several American pilots became advisors to China's air force and fought in battles against the Japanese or warlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997156–159_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997156–159-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nationalist Air Force had a role in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> of 1930 by bombing cities, directing artillery, and observing warlord army defensive positions, and is credited with helping bring about a faster victory for Chiang Kai-shek's government. It had less success against the Japanese during the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Incident">Shanghai Incident</a> in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997160–161_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997160–161-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1932, the Central Aviation School was founded with the help of an American mission led by John Jouett, and its graduates included the majority of Chinese pilot officers by 1937. On his recommendation, the ROCAF was restructured, with a Ministry of Aviation equal to that of the Military and Navy Ministries being established under the <a href="/wiki/Military_Affairs_Commission" title="Military Affairs Commission">Military Affairs Commission</a>. Additional planes were purchased, and factories were also opened in China. As of 1936, the Chinese Air Force had 645 aircraft, and multiple factories and schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997163–165_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997163–165-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the war with Japan broke out in July 1937, much of the ROC Air Force was destroyed during the fighting in central China by December of that year. From 1938 to 1940 the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Volunteer_Group" title="Soviet Volunteer Group">Soviet Volunteer Group</a> did much of the fighting against the Japanese, along with the remnants of the ROCAF.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolesworthMoseley19903–6_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolesworthMoseley19903–6-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets sent 885 planes to China over those years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997170_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997170-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of China (1912–49)">Economic history of China (1912–49)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg/220px-SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg/330px-SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg/440px-SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Boat traffic and development along <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_Creek" title="Suzhou Creek">Suzhou Creek</a>, Shanghai, 1920</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG/220px-10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG/330px-10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG/440px-10_Custom_Gold_Units_1930.JPG 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>A 10 Custom Gold Units bill, 1930</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early years of the Republic of China, the economy remained unstable as the country was marked by constant warfare between different regional warlord factions. The <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> in Beijing experienced constant changes in leadership, and this political instability led to stagnation in economic development until Chinese reunification in 1928 under the Kuomintang.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this reunification, China entered a period of relative stability—despite ongoing isolated military conflicts and in the face of Japanese aggression in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, in 1931—a period known as the "Nanjing Decade".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Chinese industries grew considerably from 1928 to 1931. While the economy was hit by the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935, industrial output recovered to their earlier peak by 1936. This is reflected by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion by 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) followed by the United Kingdom (1 billion). By 1948, however, the capital investment had halted and dropped to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain being the leading investors.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the rural economy was hit hard by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, Chinese imports of rice amounted to 21 million <a href="/wiki/Bushel" title="Bushel">bushels</a> compared with 12 million in 1928. Other imports saw even more increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition lead to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were at 41 percent of 1921 levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Sun_Jian,_page_1089_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sun_Jian,_page_1089-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1934, rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels in some areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Sun_Jian,_page_1089_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sun_Jian,_page_1089-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> began with a Japanese invasion of China, and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east coast was occupied by the Japanese, who committed atrocities such as the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing massacre">Nanjing massacre</a>. In one anti-guerilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating civil conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20% capacity and had 25% of the output of pre-war China.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One effect of the war with Japan was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to supervise and control firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70% of Chinese industry was owned by the government.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> in World War II, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Taiwan">Japanese Taiwan</a> was placed under the control of the ROC. In the meantime, the KMT renewed its struggle with the communists. However, the corruption and hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sympathy for the communists. In addition, the communists' promise to redistribute land gained them support among the large rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and later Nanjing. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China relocated to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation">Transportation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Transportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>China's infrastructure would grow dramatically during this period. The railroad network length grew from 9,600 kilometres (6,000 mi) in 1912 to 25,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) by 1945. The Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan was known for his strong commitment toward developing railroads. During the Nanjing decade the length of the highway network grew from 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) to 109,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) while growth was also seen in navigable waterways. In the early 1930s, a Sichuan warlord named Liu Xiang was strongly committed toward creating an entirely Chinese navigation company and eliminating foreign-owned companies in the Yangtze River basin.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communications">Communications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Republic of China had a national postal system which began under the Qing Dynasty and carried over into the Republican period. The postal service did pull of Manchuria when the Japanese did invade it in 1931 and in Mongolia in 1924. The postal service continued to operate in other areas of the country even when they were taken by the Japanese and eventually began offering their services once again in Manchuria. In rural areas the postal service even offered free deliveries.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radio had been previously experimented with during the Qing Dynasty and work continued into the Republican era. Radio stations began appearing in the 1920s being mainly concentrated in Shanghai. The Kuomintang would create a national radio program, the Central China Broadcasting Station (CCBS). The CBBS held programs that related to the news, education and entertainment along with putting the news in difference dialects of Chinese. However, those who actually listened to the radio in China were predominantly in the urban areas .Most radios were foreign made and little were made domestically.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the fall of the Qing dynasty, interaction and trade with western countries was more common in China than it had been in previous times. This led to greater cultural influence from the west in China. The culture of China and daily life within the country was disrupted from its previous state by the fall of dynastic rule. The Republic of China maintained the increase of western cultural influence in the country. Chinese intellectuals of the time were not unified in their opinions on the cultural changes occurring in the newly-founded state. Some took progressive stances and advocated for Art Reform, while more conservative intellectuals believed China should maintain older Chinese traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Motion pictures</a> were introduced to China in 1896. They were introduced through foreign film exhibitors in <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a> like Shanghai and Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 68">: 68 </span></sup> Chinese-made short melodrama and comedy films began emerging in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 48">: 48 </span></sup> Chinese film production developed significantly in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 48">: 48 </span></sup>Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, filmmaking in China was largely done by film studios and there was comparatively little small scale filmmaking.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 62">: 62 </span></sup>Upscale movie theaters in China had contracts which required them to exclusively show Hollywood films, and thus as of the later 1920s, Hollywood films accounted for 90% of screen time in Chinese theaters.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 64">: 64 </span></sup> After the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, a large number filmmakers left to join the War of Resistance, with many going to the Nationalist-controlled hinterlands to join the Nationalist film studios Central Motion Picture Studio or China Motion Picture Studio.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 102">: 102 </span></sup> A smaller number went to <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">Yan'an</a> or Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-:Qian_154-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 102–103">: 102–103 </span></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nanjing government</a>, the ROC launched a cultural campaign promoting the "Arts of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 120">: 120 </span></sup> It sought (mostly unsuccessfully) to attract cultural workers to create new <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Republic_of_China" title="Propaganda in the Republic of China">propaganda works</a> and more successfully established a censorship apparatus directed against unwelcome cultural products, especially left-wing artists and their works.<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 120–121">: 120–121 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Soviet Union relations">China–Soviet Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">Economic history of China (1912–1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93United_States_relations_to_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="History of China–United States relations to 1948">History of China–United States relations to 1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_the_Republic_of_China#List" title="Vice Premier of the Republic of China">Vice Premier of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a> was brought under <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Beiyang rule</a> between 1919 and 1921. After World War II, the Nationalist government officially recognized the sovereignty of the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a> in January 1946. With <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan's surrender</a>, Islands of <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penghu" title="Penghu">Penghu</a> was taken over from the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Empire">Japanese Empire</a> in October 1945.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Republic of China was proclaimed in Nanjing on 1 January, and its capital was moved to Beijing on March 10 of the same year.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From 23 April 1949, the government was evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> in the Mainland before declaring <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> as its temporary capital on 7 December 1949. Chengdu was captured on 27 December.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nanjing was still marked as the <i>de jure</i> capital on maps published by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Taiwan)" title="Ministry of the Interior (Taiwan)">Ministry of the Interior</a> after 1949, until publication was suspended in 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As wartime <a href="/wiki/Temporary_capital" title="Temporary capital">provisional capital</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">fall of Nanjing</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existence-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-existence_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-existence_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The state did not cease to exist in 1949. The government was <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">relocated</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> to <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, where it remains today.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Left hand drive until 1946.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Qūchú dálǔ, huīfù Zhōnghuá, chuànglì mínguó, píngjūn dì quán</span></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The relocation to Taiwan was initially intended to be a regrouping as the KMT had not actually been wholly defeated in the rest of China in 1949 and was initially able to hold onto pockets of Chinese territory on the mainland. After losing Hainan in 1950, most KMT holdouts were soon overrun, attempts to hold parts of the Chinese coast, especially that closest to Taiwan failed and rather than returning and reconquering – by the late 1950s the only presence the ROC had in mainland China was in the remote areas of western China's wilderness were a small number of KMT loyalists held out fighting a guerilla campaign that was gradually worn down.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2003" class="citation conference cs1">Dreyer, June Teufel (17 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-evolution-taiwanese-national-identity"><i>The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity</i></a>. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180114185358/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-evolution-taiwanese-national-identity">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+a+Taiwanese+National+Identity&rft.place=Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars&rft.date=2003-07-17&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=June+Teufel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Fpublication%2Fthe-evolution-taiwanese-national-identity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Dong (1 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTVZjRfek2IC&dq=%22second+republic+of+china%22+1928&pg=PA54"><i>China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History</i></a>. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-5297-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-5297-3"><bdi>978-0-7391-5297-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Unequal+Treaties%3A+Narrating+National+History&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2005-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-5297-3&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Dong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTVZjRfek2IC%26dq%3D%2522second%2Brepublic%2Bof%2Bchina%2522%2B1928%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Area-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Area_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120329140535/http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/94roc/context/Ch01/010202.htm">"中華民國九十四年年鑑：第一篇總論第二章土地第二節大陸地區"</a> [Yearbook of the 94th Year of the Republic of China: Chapter 1 General Introduction, Chapter 2 Land Section, 2 Mainland Region]. <i>Government Information Office, Executive Yuan, Republic of China</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/94roc/context/Ch01/010202.htm">the original</a> on 29 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Government+Information+Office%2C+Executive+Yuan%2C+Republic+of+China&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%9D%E5%8D%81%E5%9B%9B%E5%B9%B4%E5%B9%B4%E9%91%91%EF%BC%9A%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E7%AF%87+%E7%B8%BD%E8%AB%96+%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E7%AB%A0+%E5%9C%9F%E5%9C%B0+%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E7%AF%80+%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%80&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gio.gov.tw%2Finfo%2F94roc%2Fcontext%2FCh01%2F010202.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chinahistvol1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chinahistvol1_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF計秋楓朱慶葆2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">計秋楓; 朱慶葆 (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zhongguojindaish0000hsim/page/468"><i>Zhongguo jin dai shi</i> <bdi lang="zh">中國近代史</bdi></a>. Vol. 1. Chinese University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zhongguojindaish0000hsim/page/468">468</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789622019874" title="Special:BookSources/9789622019874"><bdi>9789622019874</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zhongguo+jin+dai+shi+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=468&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9789622019874&rft.au=%E8%A8%88%E7%A7%8B%E6%A5%93&rft.au=%E6%9C%B1%E6%85%B6%E8%91%86&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzhongguojindaish0000hsim%2Fpage%2F468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160354/https://sunology.yatsen.gov.tw/detail/9601dd267b603fdbdd3d07be25e7e1c6/?seq=4">"中華民國之意義"</a>. <i>Sun Yat-Sen Studies Database</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sunology.yatsen.gov.tw/detail/9601dd267b603fdbdd3d07be25e7e1c6/?seq=4">the original</a> on 9 September 2024. <q>諸君知中華民國之意義乎？何以不曰「中華共和國」，而必曰「中華民國」？此「民」字之意義，為僕研究十餘年之結果而得之者。歐美之共和國，創建遠在吾國之前。二十世紀之國，當含有創制之精神，不當自謂能效法於十八九世紀成法，而引為自足。共和政體為代表政體，世界各國，隸於此旗幟之下者，如希臘，則有貴族奴隸之堦級，直可稱之曰「專制共和」。如美國則已有十四省，樹直接民權之規模，而瑞士則全乎直接民權制度也。雖吾人今既易專制而成代議政體，然何可故步自封，落於人後。故今後國民當奮振全神於世界，發現一光芒萬丈之奇采，俾更進而底於直接民權之域。代議政體旗幟之下，吾民所享者，祇一種代議權。若底於直接民權，則有創制權、廢止權、退官權。但此種民權，不宜以廣漠之省境施行之，故當以縣為單位。地方財政完全由地方處理之，而分任中央之政費。其餘各種實業，則懲美國托拉斯之弊，而歸諸中央。如是數年，必有一莊嚴燦爛之中華民國發現於東大陸，駕諸世界共和國之上矣。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sun+Yat-Sen+Studies+Database&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E6%84%8F%E7%BE%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsunology.yatsen.gov.tw%2Fdetail%2F9601dd267b603fdbdd3d07be25e7e1c6%2F%3Fseq%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HHG-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HHG_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HHG_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF黎民" class="citation web cs1">黎民. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161023071213/http://www.huanghuagang.org/hhgMagazine/issue02/big5/2_2.html#note">"中華民國國號的來由和意義"</a>. 黄花岗杂志. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huanghuagang.org/hhgMagazine/issue02/big5/2_2.html#note">the original</a> on 23 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E8%99%9F%E7%9A%84%E4%BE%86%E7%94%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%84%8F%E7%BE%A9&rft.pub=%E9%BB%84%E8%8A%B1%E5%B2%97%E6%9D%82%E5%BF%97&rft.au=%E9%BB%8E%E6%B0%91&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huanghuagang.org%2FhhgMagazine%2Fissue02%2Fbig5%2F2_2.html%23note&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2018-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2018_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright2018">Wright (2018)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sunyat-sen.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=46&id=6861">"中华民国临时大总统对外宣言书"</a>. <i>孙中山故居纪念馆</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506112607/http://www.sunyat-sen.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=46&id=6861">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2021</span>. <q>抑吾人更有进者，民国与世界各国政府人民之交际，此后必益求辑睦。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E5%AD%99%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E6%95%85%E5%B1%85%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%B4%E6%97%B6%E5%A4%A7%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%AF%B9%E5%A4%96%E5%AE%A3%E8%A8%80%E4%B9%A6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sunyat-sen.org%2Findex.php%3Fm%3Dcontent%26c%3Dindex%26a%3Dshow%26catid%3D46%26id%3D6861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-溫躍寬1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-溫躍寬1_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">溫躍寬. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222131118/http://img.memopool.cn/news/2013/10/17/5d670af74141a8d80141c4b430e6026d.html">被西方誉成为的“民国黄金十年”</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%86%B6%E5%BA%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="憶庫 (page does not exist)">憶庫</a>. 2013-10-17 [2014-02-23]<span class="languageicon">(in Chinese)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">中华民国纪年也称“<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E7%BA%AA%E5%B9%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="民国纪年 (page does not exist)">民国纪年</a>”。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lee2013-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lee2013_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lee2013_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Junghwan (June 2013). "The History of Konghwa 共和 in Early Modern East Asia and Its Implications in the [Provisional] Constitution of the Republic of Korea". <i>Acta Koreana</i>. <b>16</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Koreana&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Konghwa+%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C+in+Early+Modern+East+Asia+and+Its+Implications+in+the+%5BProvisional%5D+Constitution+of+the+Republic+of+Korea.&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2013-06&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Junghwan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/06dat/bio.3rep.html">"Exploring Chinese History :: Database Catalog :: Biographical Database :: Republican Era- (1912–1949)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200908124755/http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/06dat/bio.3rep.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exploring+Chinese+History+%3A%3A+Database+Catalog+%3A%3A+Biographical+Database+%3A%3A+Republican+Era-+%281912%E2%80%931949%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fchinesehistory%2Fcontents%2F06dat%2Fbio.3rep.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/chinesecbdb/galleries/%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%EF%BC%881911-1949%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%AE%E9%8C%84%E8%88%87%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E6%95%B8%E6%93%9A%E5%BA%AB">"民國時期（1911–1949）的目錄與學者數據庫"</a>. <i>Harvard University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614075012/https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/chinesecbdb/galleries/%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%EF%BC%881911-1949%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%AE%E9%8C%84%E8%88%87%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E6%95%B8%E6%93%9A%E5%BA%AB">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+University&rft.atitle=%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%EF%BC%881911%E2%80%931949%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%AE%E9%8C%84%E8%88%87%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E6%95%B8%E6%93%9A%E5%BA%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprojects.iq.harvard.edu%2Fchinesecbdb%2Fgalleries%2F%25E6%25B0%2591%25E5%259C%258B%25E6%2599%2582%25E6%259C%259F%25EF%25BC%25881911-1949%25EF%25BC%2589%25E7%259A%2584%25E7%259B%25AE%25E9%258C%2584%25E8%2588%2587%25E5%25AD%25B8%25E8%2580%2585%25E6%2595%25B8%25E6%2593%259A%25E5%25BA%25AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF吳展良" class="citation web cs1">吳展良. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kan.ntu.edu.tw/?mode=detail&group=ntu&level_sn=48&page=9">"民国时期的启蒙与批判启蒙"</a>. <i>National Taiwan University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614074628/http://kan.ntu.edu.tw/?mode=detail&group=ntu&level_sn=48&page=9">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Taiwan+University&rft.atitle=%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E4%B8%8E%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99&rft.au=%E5%90%B3%E5%B1%95%E8%89%AF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkan.ntu.edu.tw%2F%3Fmode%3Ddetail%26group%3Dntu%26level_sn%3D48%26page%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507102902/https://www.cnbksy.com/product/productDescription?id=12&isProduct=false">"民国时期期刊全文数据库(1911～1949)"</a>. <i>全国报刊索引</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbksy.com/product/productDescription?id=12&isProduct=false">the original</a> on 7 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BD%E6%8A%A5%E5%88%8A%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95&rft.atitle=%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E6%9C%9F%E5%88%8A%E5%85%A8%E6%96%87%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%BA%93%281911%EF%BD%9E1949%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbksy.com%2Fproduct%2FproductDescription%3Fid%3D12%26isProduct%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoachim1993" class="citation book cs1">Joachim, Martin D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&q=%22mainland+period%22+china+1912&pg=PA188"><i>Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781560245209" title="Special:BookSources/9781560245209"><bdi>9781560245209</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202406/https://books.google.com/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&q=%22mainland+period%22+china+1912&pg=PA188">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages+of+the+World%3A+Cataloging+Issues+and+Problems&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9781560245209&rft.aulast=Joachim&rft.aufirst=Martin+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6u18PtO0BoQC%26q%3D%2522mainland%2Bperiod%2522%2Bchina%2B1912%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cuhk-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cuhk_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cuhk_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA116"><i>China, Fiver thousand years of History and Civilization</i></a>. City University Of Hong Kong Press. 2007. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629371401" title="Special:BookSources/9789629371401"><bdi>9789629371401</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202400/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA116">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%2C+Fiver+thousand+years+of+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=City+University+Of+Hong+Kong+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789629371401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz-fAxn_9f8wC%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2004" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Denny (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn"><i>Taiwan: A Political History</i></a></span>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn/page/55">55</a>, 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8805-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8805-2"><bdi>0-8014-8805-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taiwan%3A+A+Political+History&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=55%2C+56&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8014-8805-2&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Denny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaiwan00denn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Laikwan-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaikwan2024" class="citation book cs1">Laikwan, Pang (2024). <i>One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty</i>. Stanford, CA: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781503638815" title="Special:BookSources/9781503638815"><bdi>9781503638815</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+and+All%3A+The+Logic+of+Chinese+Sovereignty&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781503638815&rft.aulast=Laikwan&rft.aufirst=Pang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference ":Laikwan" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbctimeline-retreat-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbctimeline-retreat_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1949_1955.stm">"Taiwan Timeline – Retreat to Taiwan"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090624190413/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1949_1955.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Taiwan+Timeline+%E2%80%93+Retreat+to+Taiwan&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fhi%2Fenglish%2Fstatic%2Fin_depth%2Fasia_pacific%2F2000%2Ftaiwan_elections2000%2F1949_1955.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-temporary-capital-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-temporary-capital_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinauspolicysin00cong"><i>China: U.S. policy since 1945</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</a>. 1980. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87187-188-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87187-188-2"><bdi>0-87187-188-2</bdi></a>. <q>the city of Taipei became the temporary capital of the Republic of China</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+U.S.+policy+since+1945&rft.pub=Congressional+Quarterly&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-87187-188-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinauspolicysin00cong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taiwanbasic.com/edu/stanford-intro.htm">Introduction to Sovereignty: A Case Study of Taiwan</a> (Report). Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429004749/http://www.taiwanbasic.com/edu/stanford-intro.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Sovereignty%3A+A+Case+Study+of+Taiwan&rft.pub=Stanford+Program+on+International+and+Cross-Cultural+Education&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taiwanbasic.com%2Fedu%2Fstanford-intro.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-depstate-chineserev-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-depstate-chineserev_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-depstate-chineserev_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/chinese-rev">"The Chinese Revolution of 1911"</a>. US Department of State. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019065014/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/chinese-rev">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Revolution+of+1911&rft.pub=US+Department+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1899-1913%2Fchinese-rev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2009">Fenby 2009</a>, pp. 89–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman1972" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank; Goldman (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanpolicyto00dull/page/235"><i>China</i></a>. Crowell. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanpolicyto00dull/page/235">235</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-690-07612-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-690-07612-6"><bdi>0-690-07612-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Crowell&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-690-07612-6&rft.au=Fairbank&rft.au=Goldman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanpolicyto00dull%2Fpage%2F235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eb-sun-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eb-sun_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wang, Yi Chu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sun-Yat-sen">"Sun Yat-sen"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220321172830/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sun-Yat-sen">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sun+Yat-sen&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yi+Chu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FSun-Yat-sen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1911/12/29/Sun-Yat-Sen-elected-president-of-new-Republic-of-China/5111038294461/">"Sun Yat Sen elected president of new Republic of China"</a>. Shanghai: <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">United Press International</a>. 29 December 1911. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221201213258/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1911/12/29/Sun-Yat-Sen-elected-president-of-new-Republic-of-China/5111038294461/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sun+Yat+Sen+elected+president+of+new+Republic+of+China&rft.date=1911-12-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FArchives%2F1911%2F12%2F29%2FSun-Yat-Sen-elected-president-of-new-Republic-of-China%2F5111038294461%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Fenby, <i>The Penguin History of Modern China</i> (2013) p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsü1970">Hsü 1970</a>, pp. 472–474</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/">"The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)"</a>. <i>alphahistory.com</i>. 4 June 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202346/https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=alphahistory.com&rft.atitle=The+abdication+decree+of+Emperor+Puyi+%281912%29&rft.date=2013-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fchineserevolution%2Fabdication-emperor-puyi-1912%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord199392–93-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord199392–93_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCord1993">McCord 1993</a>, pp. 92–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Fenby, "The silencing of Song." <i>History Today</i> (March 2013) 63#3 pp 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2009">Fenby 2009</a>, pp. 123–125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2009">Fenby 2009</a>, p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2009">Fenby 2009</a>, pp. 136–138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyerJames_H_WittebolsTerry_Parssinen2002" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Kathryn; James H Wittebols; Terry Parssinen (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RNknjDjfH6AC&pg=PA54"><i>Webs of Smoke</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 54–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-2003-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-2003-X"><bdi>0-7425-2003-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202410/https://books.google.com/books?id=RNknjDjfH6AC&pg=PA54">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Webs+of+Smoke&rft.pages=54-56&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7425-2003-X&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft.au=James+H+Wittebols&rft.au=Terry+Parssinen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRNknjDjfH6AC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pak-chinesehist-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pak-chinesehist_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakWah_Leung2005" class="citation book cs1">Pak, Edwin; Wah Leung (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BX04ZA8R9ugC&pg=PA59"><i>Essentials of Modern Chinese History</i></a>. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 59–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87891-458-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87891-458-6"><bdi>978-0-87891-458-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202340/https://books.google.com/books?id=BX04ZA8R9ugC&pg=PA59">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Modern+Chinese+History&rft.pages=59-61&rft.pub=Research+%26+Education+Assoc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87891-458-6&rft.aulast=Pak&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft.au=Wah+Leung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBX04ZA8R9ugC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillermaz,_Jacques1972" class="citation book cs1">Guillermaz, Jacques (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WVEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA22"><i>A History of the Chinese Communist Party 1921–1949</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 22–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202339/https://books.google.com/books?id=WVEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA22">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Chinese+Communist+Party+1921%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Guillermaz%2C+Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWVEOAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2009">Fenby 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nanking_zh:南京市-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nanking_zh:南京市_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/cgi-bin/cbdic/gsweb.cgi?o=dcbdic&searchid=Z00000056983"><bdi lang="zh">重編國語辭典修訂本</bdi></a> (in Chinese). Taiwan Ministry of Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210517152241/http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/cgi-bin/cbdic/gsweb.cgi?o=dcbdic&searchid=Z00000056983">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2012</span>. <bdi lang="zh">民國十六年，國民政府宣言定為首都，今以臺北市為我國中央政府所在地。</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E9%87%8D%E7%B7%A8%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E%E8%BE%AD%E5%85%B8%E4%BF%AE%E8%A8%82%E6%9C%AC&rft.pub=Taiwan+Ministry+of+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdict.revised.moe.edu.tw%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcbdic%2Fgsweb.cgi%3Fo%3Ddcbdic%26searchid%3DZ00000056983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ah-nanjing-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ah-nanjing_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ah-nanjing_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuchaLlewellyn2019" class="citation web cs1">Kucha, Glenn; Llewellyn, Jennifer (12 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/nanjing-decade/">"The Nanjing Decade"</a>. <i>Alpha History</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202409/https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/nanjing-decade/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=The+Nanjing+Decade&rft.date=2019-09-12&rft.aulast=Kucha&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fchineserevolution%2Fnanjing-decade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFung2000">Fung 2000</a>, p. 30)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenMyers1994" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Lifu; Myers, Ramon Hawley (1994). Chang, Hsu-hsin; Myers, Ramon Hawley (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOT_axUIWooC&pg=PA102"><i>The storm clouds clear over China: the memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993</i></a>. Hoover. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-9272-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-9272-3"><bdi>0-8179-9272-3</bdi></a>. <q>After the 1930 mutiny ended, Chiang accepted the suggestion of Wang Ching-wei, Yen Hsi-shan, and Feng Yü-hsiang that a provisional constitution for the political tutelage period be drafted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+storm+clouds+clear+over+China%3A+the+memoir+of+Ch%CA%BBen+Li-fu%2C+1900%E2%80%931993&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Hoover&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8179-9272-3&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Lifu&rft.au=Myers%2C+Ramon+Hawley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOT_axUIWooC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastman2021" class="citation journal cs1">Eastman, Lloyd (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/652110">"Fascism in Kuomintang China: The Blue Shirts"</a>. <i>The China Quarterly</i> (49). Cambridge University Press: 1–31. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/652110">652110</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Fascism+in+Kuomintang+China%3A+The+Blue+Shirts&rft.issue=49&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F652110%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Eastman&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F652110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2021" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Stanley (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&q=blue%20shirts%20chiang"><i>A History of Fascism 1914–1945</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0299148744" title="Special:BookSources/978-0299148744"><bdi>978-0299148744</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Fascism+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=337&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0299148744&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNLiFIEdI1V4C%26q%3Dblue%2520shirts%2520chiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Kz111Lie-0C&q=new%20life%20movement%20inculcate"><i>The Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03338-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+Struggle+for+Modern+China&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03338-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Kz111Lie-0C%26q%3Dnew%2520life%2520movement%2520inculcate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregor2019" class="citation book cs1">Gregor, A. James (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qKybDwAAQBAJ&q=new%20life"><i>A Place In The Sun: Marxism And Fascism In China's Long Revolution</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-98319-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-98319-1"><bdi>978-0-429-98319-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Place+In+The+Sun%3A+Marxism+And+Fascism+In+China%27s+Long+Revolution&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-98319-1&rft.aulast=Gregor&rft.aufirst=A.+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqKybDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnew%2520life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2021" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Stanley (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&q=blue%20shirts%20chiang"><i>A History of Fascism 1914–1945</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-14874-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-14874-4"><bdi>978-0-299-14874-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Fascism+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=337&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-299-14874-4&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNLiFIEdI1V4C%26q%3Dblue%2520shirts%2520chiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2013" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Wennan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265835933">"Redefining the Moral and Legal Roles of the State in Everyday Life - The New Life Movement in China in the Mid-1930s"</a>. <i>Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review</i>. <b>44</b> (5): 8–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fach.2013.0022">10.1353/ach.2013.0022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16269769">16269769</a> – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cross-Currents%3A+East+Asian+History+and+Culture+Review&rft.atitle=Redefining+the+Moral+and+Legal+Roles+of+the+State+in+Everyday+Life+-+The+New+Life+Movement+in+China+in+the+Mid-1930s&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=8-12&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fach.2013.0022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16269769%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Wennan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F265835933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2008" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s2NKutuUlA8C&q=new%20life%20Chiang"><i>Chiang Kai Shek - China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786739844" title="Special:BookSources/9780786739844"><bdi>9780786739844</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chiang+Kai+Shek+-+China%27s+Generalissimo+and+the+Nation+He+Lost&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780786739844&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds2NKutuUlA8C%26q%3Dnew%2520life%2520Chiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerlanti2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ferlanti, Federica (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/31350/1/Ferlanti%202010.pdf">"The New Life Movement in Jiangxi Province, 1934–1938"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Modern Asian Studies</i>. <b>44</b> (5): 8–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X0999028X">10.1017/S0026749X0999028X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40926538">40926538</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146456085">146456085</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+New+Life+Movement+in+Jiangxi+Province%2C+1934%E2%80%931938&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=8-12&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146456085%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40926538%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X0999028X&rft.aulast=Ferlanti&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forca.cardiff.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F31350%2F1%2FFerlanti%25202010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershatter2019" class="citation book cs1">Hershatter, Gail (2019). <i>Women and China's Revolutions</i>. Critical issues in world and international history. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-442-21568-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-442-21568-9"><bdi>978-1-442-21568-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+China%27s+Revolutions&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.series=Critical+issues+in+world+and+international+history&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-442-21568-9&rft.aulast=Hershatter&rft.aufirst=Gail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsMilwertz2006" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Louise; Milwertz, Cecilia Nathansen (2006). Hershatter, Gail (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4uzfrO3Cu0C&dq=women+suffrage+in+china+1947&pg=PA5%20WOMEN"><i>Women and Gender in Chinese Studies</i></a>. Münster: LIT Verlag. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-825-89304-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-825-89304-0"><bdi>978-3-825-89304-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Gender+in+Chinese+Studies&rft.place=M%C3%BCnster&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-825-89304-0&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft.au=Milwertz%2C+Cecilia+Nathansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq4uzfrO3Cu0C%26dq%3Dwomen%2Bsuffrage%2Bin%2Bchina%2B1947%26pg%3DPA5%2520WOMEN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJing" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jing, Zhiren (荆知仁). <bdi lang="zh">中华民国立宪史</bdi> (in Chinese). 联经出版公司.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BD%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%AA%E5%8F%B2&rft.pub=%E8%81%94%E7%BB%8F%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.aulast=Jing&rft.aufirst=Zhiren+%28%E8%8D%86%E7%9F%A5%E4%BB%81%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFFung2000">Fung 2000</a>, p. 5) "Nationalist disunity, political instability, civil strife, the communist challenge, the autocracy of Chiang Kai-shek, the ascendancy of the military, the escalating Japanese threat, and the "crisis of democracy" in Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain, all contributed to a freezing of democracy by the Nationalist leadership."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_between_the_United_States_and_China_for_the_Relinquishment_of_Extraterritorial_Rights_in_China" title="Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China">Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sino-British_Treaty_for_the_Relinquishment_of_Extra-Territorial_Rights_in_China" title="Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China">Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrquhart" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Urquhart" title="Brian Urquhart">Urquhart, Brian</a>. <i>Looking for the Sheriff</i>. New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Looking+for+the+Sheriff&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books%2C+16+July+1998&rft.aulast=Urquhart&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrendan_M._Howe2016" class="citation book cs1">Brendan M. Howe (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PA_tCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT71"><i>Post-Conflict Development in East Asia</i></a>. Routledge. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317077404" title="Special:BookSources/9781317077404"><bdi>9781317077404</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202414/https://books.google.com/books?id=PA_tCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT71">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Conflict+Development+in+East+Asia&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317077404&rft.au=Brendan+M.+Howe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPA_tCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jessup-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jessup_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessup1989" class="citation book cs1">Jessup, John E. (1989). <i>A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985</i>. New York: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5"><bdi>0-313-24308-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+of+Conflict+and+Resolution%2C+1945%E2%80%931985&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-313-24308-5&rft.aulast=Jessup&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1994" class="citation book cs1">Rummel, Rudolph J. (1994). <i>Death by Government</i>. Transactions Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-145-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-145-4"><bdi>978-1-56000-145-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+by+Government&rft.pub=Transactions+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-145-4&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValentino2005" class="citation book cs1">Valentino, Benjamin A. (2005). <i>Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century</i>. Cornell Studies in Security Affairs. Cornell University Press. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7273-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7273-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-7273-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Final+solutions%3A+mass+killing+and+genocide+in+the+twentieth+century&rft.series=Cornell+Studies+in+Security+Affairs&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-7273-2&rft.aulast=Valentino&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yb-2008-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yb-2008_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ch4.html">"The Republic of China Yearbook 2008 / Chapter 4 Government"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Republic+of+China+Yearbook+2008+%2F+Chapter+4+Government&rft.pub=Government+Information+Office%2C+Taiwan&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gio.gov.tw%2Ftaiwan-website%2F5-gp%2Fyearbook%2Fch4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2010">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilbur, Clarence Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationalistrevol00wilb_0/page/190"><i>The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928</i></a>. Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Li Shui. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://2006.chinataiwan.org/web/webportal/W3799218/A376833.html">Chiang Kai-shek's chief bodyguard published a book revealing the 62-year history of "counterattacking the mainland"</a> 13 November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081021090839/http://2006.chinataiwan.org/web/webportal/W3799218/A376833.html">Archived</a> 21 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qin Xin. Taiwan army published new book uncovering secrets of Chiang Kai-shek: Plan to retake the mainland. 28 June 2006. China News Agency. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinanews.com.cn/taiwan/lagx/news/2006/06-28/750229.shtml">China News</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514154443/http://www.chinanews.com.cn/taiwan/lagx/news/2006/06-28/750229.shtml">Archived</a> 14 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kaufman, Alison Adcock (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24575645">"In Pursuit of Equality and Respect: China's Diplomacy and the League of Nations"</a>. <i>Modern China</i>. <b>400</b> (6): 605–638. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700413502616">10.1177/0097700413502616</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24575645">24575645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=In+Pursuit+of+Equality+and+Respect%3A+China%27s+Diplomacy+and+the+League+of+Nations&rft.volume=400&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=605-638&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700413502616&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24575645%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Alison+Adcock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24575645&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAn2020" class="citation book cs1">An, Kang (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/096b48c6-c6e2-4150-a64a-07a41a0907c0/content"><i>To Play or Not to Play: A Historic Overview of the Olympic Movement in China From 1894 to 1984</i></a>. The University of Texas at Austin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Play+or+Not+to+Play%3A+A+Historic+Overview+of+the+Olympic+Movement+in+China+From+1894+to+1984&rft.pub=The+University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=An&rft.aufirst=Kang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositories.lib.utexas.edu%2Fserver%2Fapi%2Fcore%2Fbitstreams%2F096b48c6-c6e2-4150-a64a-07a41a0907c0%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAn2020" class="citation book cs1">An, Kang (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/096b48c6-c6e2-4150-a64a-07a41a0907c0/content"><i>To Play or Not to Play: A Historic Overview of the Olympic Movement in China From 1894 to 1984</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). University of Texas at Austin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Play+or+Not+to+Play%3A+A+Historic+Overview+of+the+Olympic+Movement+in+China+From+1894+to+1984&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=An&rft.aufirst=Kang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositories.lib.utexas.edu%2Fserver%2Fapi%2Fcore%2Fbitstreams%2F096b48c6-c6e2-4150-a64a-07a41a0907c0%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topendsports.com/events/summer/countries/china-republic.htm">"Republic of China at the Olympics"</a>. <i>topendsports</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1945%3A+The+San+Francisco+Conference&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fsections%2Fhistory-united-nations-charter%2F1945-san-francisco-conference%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Schlesinger, "FDR's five policemen: creating the United Nations." <i>World Policy Journal</i> 11.3 (1994): 88-93. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209368">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104221338/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209368">Archived</a> 4 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellens1990" class="citation book cs1">Wellens, Karel C., ed. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lsyOVH6E-PEC&pg=PA251"><i>Resolutions and Statements of the United Nations Security Council: (1946–1989); a Thematic Guide</i></a>. Dordrecht: Brill. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-0796-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-0796-8"><bdi>0-7923-0796-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202416/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsyOVH6E-PEC&pg=PA251">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resolutions+and+Statements+of+the+United+Nations+Security+Council%3A+%281946%E2%80%931989%29%3B+a+Thematic+Guide&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7923-0796-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlsyOVH6E-PEC%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. [2005] (2005). The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914. 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University Press of Kentucky. pp. 54, 57–59, 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813176765" title="Special:BookSources/9780813176765"><bdi>9780813176765</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soldier+Image+and+State-Building+in+Modern+China%2C+1924%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=54%2C+57-59%2C+122&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780813176765&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Yan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA3J9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESetzekorn201818–21_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSetzekorn2018">Setzekorn 2018</a>, pp. 18–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schillinger2016-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schillinger2016_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchillinger2016" class="citation book cs1">Schillinger, Nicolas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=moZwDQAAQBAJ&q=beiyang+army&pg=PA30"><i>The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers</i></a>. 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Stanford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decisiveencounte00west/page/305">305</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4484-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4484-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-4484-3</bdi></a>. <q>last major GMD stronghold.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisive+Encounters%3A+The+Chinese+Civil+War%2C+1946%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4484-3&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecisiveencounte00west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole2014" class="citation journal cs1">Cole, Bernard D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leatherneck+Magazine&rft.atitle=Marines+of+Free+China&rft.date=1953-02&rft.aulast=Braitsch&rft.aufirst=Fred+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_leatherneck_1953-02_36_2%2Fpage%2F26%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLance2014" class="citation book cs1">Lance, John Alexander (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/wcu/f/Lance2014.pdf"><i>Icarus in China : Western Aviation and the Chinese Air Force, 1931–1941</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). Western Carolina University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icarus+in+China+%3A+Western+Aviation+and+the+Chinese+Air+Force%2C+1931%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Western+Carolina+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Lance&rft.aufirst=John+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibres.uncg.edu%2Fir%2Fwcu%2Ff%2FLance2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997156–159-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997156–159_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu1997">Xu 1997</a>, pp. 156–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997160–161-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997160–161_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu1997">Xu 1997</a>, pp. 160–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997163–165-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997163–165_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu1997">Xu 1997</a>, pp. 163–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolesworthMoseley19903–6-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolesworthMoseley19903–6_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMolesworthMoseley1990">Molesworth & Moseley 1990</a>, pp. 3–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu1997170-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu1997170_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu1997">Xu 1997</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, pp. 613–614 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, pp. 1059–1071</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, p. 1353</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sun_Jian,_page_1089-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sun_Jian,_page_1089_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sun_Jian,_page_1089_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, page 1089</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, pp. 615–616</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, p. 1319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, pp. 1237–1240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Jian, pp. 617–618</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Marvin_Davison2003" class="citation book cs1">Gary Marvin Davison (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistorytaiw00davi"><i>A short history of Taiwan: the case for independence</i></a></span>. Praeger Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistorytaiw00davi/page/n80">64</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-98131-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-98131-2"><bdi>0-275-98131-2</bdi></a>. <q>Basic literacy came to most of the school-aged populace by the end of the Japanese tenure on Taiwan. School attendance for Taiwanese children rose steadily throughout the Japanese era, from 3.8 percent in 1904 to 13.1 percent in 1917; 25.1 percent in 1920; 41.5 percent in 1935; 57.6 percent in 1940; and 71.3 percent in 1943.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+short+history+of+Taiwan%3A+the+case+for+independence&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-275-98131-2&rft.au=Gary+Marvin+Davison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistorytaiw00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulès2022" class="citation journal cs1">Paulès, Xavier (January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/842932">"Warlords at Work: Four Crucial Realms and Four Dynamics of State Building in Republican China, 1916–1937"</a>. <i>Twentieth-Century China</i>. <b>47</b> (1): 40–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftcc.2022.0008">10.1353/tcc.2022.0008</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2023</span> – via Project MUSE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twentieth-Century+China&rft.atitle=Warlords+at+Work%3A+Four+Crucial+Realms+and+Four+Dynamics+of+State+Building+in+Republican+China%2C+1916%E2%80%931937&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-49&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftcc.2022.0008&rft.aulast=Paul%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F842932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2012" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Lane Jeremy (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6103253.pdf"><i>THE POST OFFICE AND STATE FORMATION IN MODERN CHINA, 1896-1949</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+POST+OFFICE+AND+STATE+FORMATION+IN+MODERN+CHINA%2C+1896-1949&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+at+Urbana-Champaign&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Lane+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F6103253.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiorgi2014" class="citation journal cs1">Giorgi, Laura De (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44162341">"Communication Technology and Mass Propaganda in Republican China: The Nationalist Party's Radio Broadcasting Policy and Organisation during the Nanjing Decade (1927-1937)"</a>. <i>European Journal of East Asian Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 305–329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700615-01302009">10.1163/15700615-01302009</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44162341">44162341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+East+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Communication+Technology+and+Mass+Propaganda+in+Republican+China%3A+The+Nationalist+Party%27s+Radio+Broadcasting+Policy+and+Organisation+during+the+Nanjing+Decade+%281927-1937%29&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=305-329&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700615-01302009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44162341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Giorgi&rft.aufirst=Laura+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44162341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asia-archive.si.edu/learn/for-educators/teaching-china-with-the-smithsonian/explore-by-dynasty/modern-china/">"Modern China, 1912–Present"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian">Smithsonian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Modern+China%2C+1912%E2%80%93Present&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasia-archive.si.edu%2Flearn%2Ffor-educators%2Fteaching-china-with-the-smithsonian%2Fexplore-by-dynasty%2Fmodern-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2023" class="citation book cs1">Li, Jie (2023). <i>Cinematic Guerillas: Propaganda, Projectionists, and Audiences in Socialist China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231206273" title="Special:BookSources/9780231206273"><bdi>9780231206273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cinematic+Guerillas%3A+Propaganda%2C+Projectionists%2C+and+Audiences+in+Socialist+China&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780231206273&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Qian-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Qian_154-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQian2024" class="citation book cs1">Qian, Ying (2024). <i>Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231204477" title="Special:BookSources/9780231204477"><bdi>9780231204477</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Becomings%3A+Documentary+Media+in+Twentieth-Century+China&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9780231204477&rft.aulast=Qian&rft.aufirst=Ying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>For works on specific people and events, please see the relevant articles.</dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Boorman, Howard, et al., eds.,<i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Dictionary_of_Republican_China" title="Biographical Dictionary of Republican China">Biographical Dictionary of Republican China</a></i>. (New York: Columbia University Press, 4 vols, 1967–1971). 600 articles. Available online at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotjer,_George_F.1979" class="citation book cs1">Botjer, George F. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rtAXAAAAMAAJ&q=chahars+1919"><i>A short history of Nationalist China, 1919–1949</i></a>. Putnam. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780399123825" title="Special:BookSources/9780399123825"><bdi>9780399123825</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202407/https://books.google.com/books?id=rtAXAAAAMAAJ&q=chahars+1919">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+short+history+of+Nationalist+China%2C+1919%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Putnam&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780399123825&rft.au=Botjer%2C+George+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrtAXAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dchahars%2B1919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2024" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Kuan-Jen (2024). <i>Charting America's Cold War Waters in East Asia: Sovereignty, Local Interests, and International Security</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-41875-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-41875-1"><bdi>978-1-009-41875-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charting+America%27s+Cold+War+Waters+in+East+Asia%3A+Sovereignty%2C+Local+Interests%2C+and+International+Security&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-009-41875-1&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Kuan-Jen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung2003" class="citation book cs1">Chung, Chien (2003). "A review of the ROC's military reform: A case study of the Taiwanese Navy". In Martin Edmonds; Michal M. Tsai (eds.). <i>Defending Taiwan: The Future Vision of Taiwan's Defence Policy and Military Strategy</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87541-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87541-0"><bdi>978-1-136-87541-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+review+of+the+ROC%27s+military+reform%3A+A+case+study+of+the+Taiwanese+Navy&rft.btitle=Defending+Taiwan%3A+The+Future+Vision+of+Taiwan%27s+Defence+Policy+and+Military+Strategy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87541-0&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Chien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElleman2019" class="citation book cs1">Elleman, Bruce A. (2019). <i>The Making of the Modern Chinese Navy: Special Historical Characteristics</i>. New York: Anthem Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78527-102-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78527-102-1"><bdi>978-1-78527-102-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Modern+Chinese+Navy%3A+Special+Historical+Characteristics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78527-102-1&rft.aulast=Elleman&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2009" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2009). <i>The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850–2008</i>. London: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+Modern+China%3A+The+Fall+and+Rise+of+a+Great+Power%2C+1850%E2%80%932008&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFung2000" class="citation book cs1">Fung, Edmund S. K. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-b4-B85KJ4C"><i>In Search of Chinese Democracy: Civil Opposition in Nationalist China, 1929–1949</i></a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521771242" title="Special:BookSources/0521771242"><bdi>0521771242</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202357/https://books.google.com/books?id=N-b4-B85KJ4C">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Chinese+Democracy%3A+Civil+Opposition+in+Nationalist+China%2C+1929%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0521771242&rft.aulast=Fung&rft.aufirst=Edmund+S.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN-b4-B85KJ4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Henrietta (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinainventingna00henr"><i>China</i></a></span>. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0340741333" title="Special:BookSources/0340741333"><bdi>0340741333</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Arnold%3B+New+York%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0340741333&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Henrietta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinainventingna00henr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span>. In the series "Inventing the Nation."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsü1970" class="citation book cs1">Hsü, Immanuel C.Y. (1970). <i>The Rise of Modern China</i> (1995 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195087208" title="Special:BookSources/9780195087208"><bdi>9780195087208</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Modern+China&rft.edition=1995&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780195087208&rft.aulast=Hs%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Immanuel+C.Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan1976" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, Donald A. (1976). <i>The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8086-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8086-6"><bdi>978-0-8248-8086-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Expedition%3A+China%27s+National+Revolution+of+1926%E2%80%931928&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-8086-6&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jowett, Philip. (2013) <i>China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949</i> (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013).</li> <li>Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. <i>Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary China, 1839–1976</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. <i>Political Leaders of Modern China: A Biographical Dictionary</i> (2002)</li> <li>Li, Xiaobing. (2007) <i>A History of the Modern Chinese Army</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=svBt-hzD53AC">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202408/https://books.google.com/books?id=svBt-hzD53AC">Archived</a> 10 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Li, Xiaobing. (2012) <i>China at War: An Encyclopedia</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R7qNuIJJsNEC">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCord1993" class="citation book cs1">McCord, Edward A. (1993). <i>The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08128-4"><bdi>978-0-520-08128-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+the+Gun%3A+The+Emergence+of+Modern+Chinese+Warlordism&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08128-4&rft.aulast=McCord&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinistry_of_Defense_of_the_Republic_of_China2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ministry of Defense of the Republic of China (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mnd.gov.tw/NewUpload/files/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%B5%B7%E8%BB%8D%E9%99%B8%E6%88%B0%E9%9A%8A%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E5%8F%B2_%E5%85%A8%E6%96%87%E6%96%B0.pdf"><i>中華民國海軍陸戰隊發展史</i></a> [<i>The Development History of the Republic of China Marine Corps</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Chinese). Taipei: History and Politics Compilation Office of the Ministry of National Defense. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-02-0593-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-02-0593-0"><bdi>978-986-02-0593-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%B5%B7%E8%BB%8D%E9%99%B8%E6%88%B0%E9%9A%8A%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=History+and+Politics+Compilation+Office+of+the+Ministry+of+National+Defense&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-986-02-0593-0&rft.au=Ministry+of+Defense+of+the+Republic+of+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mnd.gov.tw%2FNewUpload%2Ffiles%2F%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E8%258F%25AF%25E6%25B0%2591%25E5%259C%258B%25E6%25B5%25B7%25E8%25BB%258D%25E9%2599%25B8%25E6%2588%25B0%25E9%259A%258A%25E7%2599%25BC%25E5%25B1%2595%25E5%258F%25B2_%25E5%2585%25A8%25E6%2596%2587%25E6%2596%25B0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolesworthMoseley1990" class="citation book cs1">Molesworth, Carl; Moseley, Steve (1990). <i>Wing to Wing: Air Combat in China, 1943–45</i>. Orion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-57568-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-57568-0"><bdi>978-0-517-57568-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wing+to+Wing%3A+Air+Combat+in+China%2C+1943%E2%80%9345&rft.pub=Orion+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-517-57568-0&rft.aulast=Molesworth&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Moseley%2C+Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bitterrevolution00mitt_0"><i>A Bitter Revolution: China's Struggle with the Modern World</i></a></span>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192803417" title="Special:BookSources/0192803417"><bdi>0192803417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Bitter+Revolution%3A+China%27s+Struggle+with+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0192803417&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbitterrevolution00mitt_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Paulès, Xavier, <i>The Republic of China, 1912–1949</i> (Polity Press, 2023).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSetzekorn2018" class="citation book cs1">Setzekorn, Eric (2018). <i>The Rise and Fall of an Officer Corps: The Republic of China Military, 1942–1955</i>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806162966" title="Special:BookSources/9780806162966"><bdi>9780806162966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Officer+Corps%3A+The+Republic+of+China+Military%2C+1942%E2%80%931955&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780806162966&rft.aulast=Setzekorn&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Sheridan, James E. (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinaindisintegr0000sher"><i>China in Disintegration : The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912–1949</i></a></span>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0029286107" title="Special:BookSources/0029286107"><bdi>0029286107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+Disintegration+%3A+The+Republican+Era+in+Chinese+History%2C+1912%E2%80%931949&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0029286107&rft.aulast=Sheridan&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinaindisintegr0000sher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherry1996" class="citation book cs1">Sherry, Mark D. (1996). <i>China Defensive</i>. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160613227" title="Special:BookSources/9780160613227"><bdi>9780160613227</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Defensive&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780160613227&rft.aulast=Sherry&rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl"><i>The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-Shek and the Struggle for Modern China</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674033382" title="Special:BookSources/9780674033382"><bdi>9780674033382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-Shek+and+the+Struggle+for+Modern+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674033382&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralissimochi00tayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">van de Ven, Hans (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a9PMmgEACAAJ"><i>China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937–1952</i></a>. London: Profile Books Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781781251942" title="Special:BookSources/9781781251942"><bdi>9781781251942</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402122608/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9PMmgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War%3A+Triumph+and+Tragedy+in+the+Emergence+of+the+New+China%2C+1937%E2%80%931952&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Profile+Books+Limited&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781781251942&rft.aulast=van+de+Ven&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da9PMmgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vogel, Ezra F. <i>China and Japan: Facing History</i> (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/China-Japan-Ezra-F-Vogel/dp/0674916573/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210309000700/https://www.amazon.com/China-Japan-Ezra-F-Vogel/dp/0674916573/">Archived</a> 9 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Westad, Odd Arne. <i>Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750</i> (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/restlessempirech0000west">Online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Wilbur, Clarence Martin. <i>Sun Yat-sen, frustrated patriot</i> (Columbia University Press, 1976), a major scholarly biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sunyatsenfrustra0000wilb">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu1997" class="citation journal cs1">Xu, Guangqiu (1997). "Americans and Chinese Nationalist Military Aviation, 1929–1949". <i>Journal of Asian History</i>. <b>31</b> (2): 155–180. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41933046">41933046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=Americans+and+Chinese+Nationalist+Military+Aviation%2C+1929%E2%80%931949&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-180&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41933046%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Guangqiu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Historiography</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future", <i>Asian Survey</i>, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202191735/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062">Archived</a> 2 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> historiography</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2018" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Tim (2018). <i>Chinese Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199920082" title="Special:BookSources/9780199920082"><bdi>9780199920082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780199920082&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepublic+of+China+%281912%E2%80%931949%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taiwan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taiwan_topics" title="Template talk:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taiwan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Taiwan-related_articles" title="Index of Taiwan-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Taiwanese_history" title="Timeline of Taiwanese history">Timeline of Taiwanese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Taiwan" title="Prehistory of Taiwan">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Taiwan" title="List of archaeological sites in Taiwan">archaeological sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Chinese_contact_with_Taiwan" title="Early Chinese contact with Taiwan">Early Chinese contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Middag" title="Kingdom of Middag">Kingdom of Middag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Dutch Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Spanish Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Formosa" title="Republic of Formosa">Republic of Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan under Japanese rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanbi_policy" title="Guanbi policy">Guanbi policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Policy_in_Taiwan%27s_White_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Policy in Taiwan's White Terror">Mandarin policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Taiwan" title="List of beaches in Taiwan">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Taiwan" title="List of cities in Taiwan">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan#Climate" title="Geography of Taiwan">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Taiwan" title="Deforestation in Taiwan">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Taiwan" title="List of earthquakes in Taiwan">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endemic_species_of_Taiwan" title="List of endemic species of Taiwan">Endemic species</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_species_in_Taiwan" title="List of protected species in Taiwan">Protected species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese hot springs">Hot springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Taiwan" title="List of islands of Taiwan">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Taiwan" title="List of lakes of Taiwan">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Taiwan" title="List of mountains in Taiwan">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Taiwan" title="National parks of Taiwan">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Taiwan" title="List of rivers of Taiwan">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_scenic_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of national scenic areas in Taiwan">Scenic areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Taiwan" title="List of volcanoes in Taiwan">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="GovernmentPoliticsEconomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">politics</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Yuan" title="Executive Yuan">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the Republic of China">Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Taiwan" title="Censorship in Taiwan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Taiwan" title="Civil defense in Taiwan">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additional_Articles_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China">Additional Articles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Taiwan" title="Elections in Taiwan">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Taiwan" title="Human rights in Taiwan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Taiwan">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_(Taiwan)" title="National Security Bureau (Taiwan)">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Taiwan" title="Law of Taiwan">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Taiwan" title="Law enforcement in Taiwan">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Taiwan" title="Military history of Taiwan">Military history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_President_(Taiwan)" title="Office of the President (Taiwan)">Office of the President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_to_the_President_(Republic_of_China)" title="Secretary-General to the President (Republic of China)">Secretary-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Vice President of the Republic of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Taiwan" title="List of political parties in Taiwan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Republic_of_China" title="Propaganda in the Republic of China">Propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Taiwan" title="Regions of Taiwan">Regions of Taiwan</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="Administrative divisions of Taiwan">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_municipality_(Taiwan)" title="Special municipality (Taiwan)">Special municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(Taiwan)" class="mw-redirect" title="County (Taiwan)">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_city_(Taiwan)" title="Provincial city (Taiwan)">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="List of administrative divisions of Taiwan">List of administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of metropolitan areas in Taiwan">Metropolitan areas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Political issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Taiwan" title="Conscription in Taiwan">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait relations">Cross-Strait relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taipei" title="Chinese Taipei">Chinese Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_Taiwan" title="North–South divide in Taiwan">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Country_on_Each_Side" title="One Country on Each Side">One Country on Each Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_Taiwanese_identity" title="Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity">Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_non-state-to-state_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Special non-state-to-state relations">Special non-state-to-state relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Agriculture in Taiwan">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Taiwan" title="Aquaculture in Taiwan">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Floriculture in Taiwan">Floriculture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Automotive industry in Taiwan">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Taiwan" title="Banking in Taiwan">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Taiwan" title="List of banks in Taiwan">List of banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_China_(Taiwan)" title="Central Bank of the Republic of China (Taiwan)">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Taiwan" title="List of companies of Taiwan">Companies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_Taiwan" title="List of largest companies in Taiwan">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned enterprises of Taiwan">State-owned enterprises</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Taiwan" title="Defense industry of Taiwan">Defense industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar" title="New Taiwan dollar">Dollar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Taiwan" title="Economic history of Taiwan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Taiwan" title="Energy in Taiwan">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Taiwan" title="Forestry in Taiwan">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_industries_of_Taiwan" title="Maritime industries of Taiwan">Maritime industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Taiwan" title="Mining in Taiwan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Semiconductor industry in Taiwan">Semiconductor industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Stock_Exchange" title="Taiwan Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Miracle" title="Taiwan Miracle">Taiwan Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Taiwan" title="Taxation in Taiwan">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Textile industry in Taiwan">Textile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Taiwan" title="Tourism in Taiwan">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Taiwan" title="Transportation in Taiwan">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Invoice_lottery" title="Uniform Invoice lottery">Uniform Invoice lottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Taiwan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Taiwan">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="National_SymbolsPeopleSocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>National Symbols</li><li>People</li><li>Society</li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="National symbols">National symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Anthem of the Republic of China">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emblem of Taiwan">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">Flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proposed_flags_of_Taiwan" title="Proposed flags of Taiwan">proposed</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Flower_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Flower of the Republic of China">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Seals_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Seals of the Republic of China">Seals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Taiwan" title="Demographics of Taiwan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_people" title="Taiwanese people">Taiwanese people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Taiwanese indigenous peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_Taiwan" title="List of Indigenous peoples of Taiwan">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Taiwanese" title="Han Taiwanese">Hans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoklo_Taiwanese" title="Hoklo Taiwanese">Hoklos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Taiwanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka Taiwanese">Hakkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waishengren" title="Waishengren">Waishengren</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amis_language" title="Amis language">Amis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atayal_language" title="Atayal language">Atayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunun_language" title="Bunun language">Bunun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanakanavu_language" title="Kanakanavu language">Kanakanavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavalan_language" title="Kavalan language">Kavalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiwan_language" title="Paiwan language">Paiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyuma_language" title="Puyuma language">Puyuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukai_language" title="Rukai language">Rukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saaroa_language" title="Saaroa language">Saaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saisiyat_language" title="Saisiyat language">Saisiyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakizaya_language" title="Sakizaya language">Sakizaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seediq_language" title="Seediq language">Seediq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsou_language" title="Tsou language">Tsou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yami_language" title="Yami language">Yami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Taiwan" title="Architecture of Taiwan">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Taiwan" title="Crime in Taiwan">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime_in_Taiwan" title="Organized crime in Taiwan">Organized crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Taiwan" title="Sex trafficking in Taiwan">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Taiwan" title="Healthcare in Taiwan">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Taiwan" title="Prostitution in Taiwan">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Taiwan" title="Public holidays in Taiwan">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Taiwan" title="Public housing in Taiwan">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Taiwan" title="Squatting in Taiwan">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_studies" title="Taiwan studies">Taiwan studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Taiwan" title="Waste management in Taiwan">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_animation" title="Taiwanese animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Taiwan" title="Cinema of Taiwan">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_cuisine" title="Taiwanese cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wine" title="Taiwanese wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_Taiwan" title="Cultural history of Taiwan">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Taiwan" title="Gambling in Taiwan">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glove_puppetry" title="Glove puppetry">Glove puppetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_literature" title="Taiwanese literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Taiwan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Taiwan" title="Music of Taiwan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_opera" title="Taiwanese opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_markets_in_Taiwan" title="Night markets in Taiwan">Night markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Taiwan" title="Smoking in Taiwan">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in Taiwan">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-Beauty" title="T-Beauty">T-Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wave" title="Taiwanese wave">Taiwanese wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea" title="Taiwanese tea">Tea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea_culture" title="Taiwanese tea culture">tea culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Taiwan" title="List of tourist attractions in Taiwan">Tourist attractions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Taiwan" title="Category:Taiwan">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Taiwan" title="Outline of Taiwan">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Warlord_era" title="Template:Warlord era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Warlord_era" title="Template talk:Warlord era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Warlord_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Warlord era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_star.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/22px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/33px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/44px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a> and warlordism during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton_Merchants%27_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/1924_Beijing_Coup" title="1924 Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government#Nanjing–Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Red_Spears%27_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang <span style="font-size:85%;">(KMT)</span></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCP)</span></a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121607811">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/132441531">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79091151">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="中国 (1912- 中華民国)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573848">Japan</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="中華ソヴィエト共和国 (1931-1934)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573904">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span 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