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cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biological carbon sequestration on land subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_carbon_sequestration_on_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wetlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wetlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Wetlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wetlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peatlands,_mires_and_peat_bogs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peatlands,_mires_and_peat_bogs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Peatlands, mires and peat bogs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peatlands,_mires_and_peat_bogs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Carbon farming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prairies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prairies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Prairies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prairies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biochar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Biochar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biochar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burial_of_biomass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burial_of_biomass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Burial of biomass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burial_of_biomass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_carbon_sequestration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_carbon_sequestration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Geological carbon sequestration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geological_carbon_sequestration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geological carbon sequestration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geological_carbon_sequestration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Underground_storage_in_suitable_geologic_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underground_storage_in_suitable_geologic_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Underground storage in suitable geologic formations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underground_storage_in_suitable_geologic_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_sequestration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_sequestration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mineral sequestration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_sequestration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mineral_carbonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_carbonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Mineral carbonation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_carbonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequestration_in_oceans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequestration_in_oceans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Sequestration in oceans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sequestration_in_oceans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sequestration in oceans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sequestration_in_oceans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_carbon_pumps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_carbon_pumps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Marine carbon pumps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_carbon_pumps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vegetated_coastal_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vegetated_coastal_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Vegetated coastal ecosystems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vegetated_coastal_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seaweed_farming_and_algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seaweed_farming_and_algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Seaweed farming and algae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seaweed_farming_and_algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_fertilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_fertilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Ocean fertilization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_fertilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_upwelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_upwelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Artificial upwelling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_upwelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basalt_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basalt_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Basalt storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basalt_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mineralization_and_deep_sea_sediments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineralization_and_deep_sea_sediments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Mineralization and deep sea sediments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineralization_and_deep_sea_sediments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Adding bases to neutralize acids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single-step_carbon_sequestration_and_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-step_carbon_sequestration_and_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.1 Single-step carbon sequestration and storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-step_carbon_sequestration_and_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abandoned_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abandoned_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Abandoned ideas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abandoned_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8.1 Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Costs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" > 15 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86" title="عزل الكربون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عزل الكربون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekvestrace_uhl%C3%ADku" title="Sekvestrace uhlíku – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sekvestrace uhlíku" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1" title="Δέσμευση άνθρακα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δέσμευση άνθρακα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secuestro_de_carbono" title="Secuestro de carbono – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Secuestro de carbono" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A8_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86" title="ترسیب کربن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترسیب کربن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9questration_du_dioxyde_de_carbone" title="Séquestration du dioxyde de carbone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Séquestration du dioxyde de carbone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%84%EC%86%8C%EA%B2%A9%EB%A6%AC" title="탄소격리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탄소격리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekuestrasi_karbon" title="Sekuestrasi karbon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sekuestrasi karbon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequestration_de_carbon" title="Sequestration de carbon – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Sequestration de carbon" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%9F" title="קיבוע פחמן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קיבוע פחמן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemencilan_karbon" title="Pemencilan karbon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemencilan karbon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%AD%E7%B4%A0%E9%9A%94%E9%9B%A2" title="炭素隔離 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="炭素隔離" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carbon sequestration" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" 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</div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about storing carbon so that it is not in the atmosphere. For removing carbon dioxide from industrial point sources before it enters the atmosphere, see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>. For removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (and negative emissions), see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg/260px-Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg/390px-Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg/520px-Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption> Geologic and biologic carbon sequestration of excess <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide in the atmosphere</a> emitted by human activities.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pool">carbon pool</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Masson-Delmotte-2">[2]</a>: 2248  It plays a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">limiting climate change</a> by reducing the amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide in the atmosphere</a>. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic (also called biosequestration) and geologic.<a href="#cite_note-:8-3">[3]</a> Biologic carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process as part of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>. Humans can enhance it through deliberate actions and use of technology. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is naturally captured from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through biological, chemical, and physical processes. These processes can be accelerated for example through changes in land use and agricultural practices, called <a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">carbon farming</a>. Artificial processes have also been devised to produce similar effects. This approach is called <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>. It involves using technology to capture and sequester (store) CO 2 that is produced from human activities underground or under the sea bed. Plants, such as forests and <a href="/wiki/Kelp_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelp bed">kelp beds</a>, absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores may be temporary <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a>, as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a>, disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities may release the sequestered carbon back into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it underground, or in the form of <a href="/wiki/Insoluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Insoluble">insoluble</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> salts. The latter process is called <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage#Mineral_storage/mineral_carbonation" title="Carbon capture and storage">mineral sequestration</a>. These methods are considered non-volatile because they not only remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere but also sequester it indefinitely. This means the carbon is "locked away" for thousands to millions of years. To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following chemical or physical technologies have been proposed: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean fertilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_upwelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial upwelling">artificial upwelling</a>, basalt storage, mineralization and deep-sea sediments, and adding bases to neutralize acids.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> However, none have achieved large scale application so far. Large-scale <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">seaweed farming</a> on the other hand is a biological process and could sequester significant amounts of carbon.<a href="#cite_note-:152-6">[6]</a> The potential growth of seaweed for carbon farming would see the harvested seaweed transported to the deep ocean for long-term burial.<a href="#cite_note-:73-7">[7]</a> The IPCC <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a> recommends "further research attention" on seaweed farming as a mitigation tactic.<a href="#cite_note-:242-8">[8]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/160px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/240px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/320px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="460" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle" title="Terrestrial biological carbon cycle">Terrestrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">Atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_carbon_cycle" title="Deep carbon cycle">Deep carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_and_carbon_cycling_in_boreal_forests" title="Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests">Boreal forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry_of_carbon" title="Geochemistry of carbon">Geochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">In the atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide">Satellite measurements</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Forms_of_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of carbon">Forms of carbon</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Total_carbon" title="Total carbon">Total carbon</a> (TC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_organic_carbon" title="Total organic carbon">Total organic carbon</a> (TOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_inorganic_carbon" title="Total inorganic carbon">Total inorganic carbon</a> (TIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_organic_carbon" title="Dissolved organic carbon">Dissolved organic carbon</a> (DOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">Dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_matter" title="Particulate organic matter">Particulate organic carbon</a> (POC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_inorganic_carbon" title="Particulate inorganic carbon">Particulate inorganic carbon</a> (PIC)</li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">marine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">Kerogen</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathways</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle">Reverse Krebs cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation">C3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_respiration" title="Carbon respiration">Carbon respiration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_respiration" title="Ecosystem respiration">Ecosystem respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_ecosystem_production" title="Net ecosystem production">Net ecosystem production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">Photorespiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pump">Carbon pumps</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_curve" title="Martin curve">Martin curve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">Solubility pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_pump" title="Lipid pump">Lipid pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelly-falls" title="Jelly-falls">Jelly pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_feces" title="Whale feces">Whale pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf_pump" title="Continental shelf pump">Continental shelf pump</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbon sequestration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage" title="Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage">Soil carbon storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">pelagic sediment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">Atmospheric methane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">Methanogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">Methane emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">Wetland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_methane_production" title="Aerobic methane production">Aerobic production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis" title="Clathrate gun hypothesis">Clathrate gun hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_clathrate" title="Carbon dioxide clathrate">Carbon dioxide clathrate</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Marine cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">Carbonate–silicate cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">Carbonate compensation depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Calcite_Belt" title="Great Calcite Belt">Great Calcite Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redfield_ratio" title="Redfield ratio">Redfield ratio</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Climate reconstruction proxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-to-nitrogen_ratio" title="Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio">Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Carbon_Observatory" title="Deep Carbon Observatory">Deep Carbon Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Carbon_Project" title="Global Carbon Project">Global Carbon Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle_re-balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon cycle re-balancing">Carbon cycle re-balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance" title="Territorialisation of carbon governance">Territorialisation of carbon governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network" title="Total Carbon Column Observing Network">Total Carbon Column Observing Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4MIP" title="C4MIP">C4MIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CO2SYS" title="CO2SYS">CO2SYS</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Carbon_cycle" title="Category:Carbon cycle">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Carbon_cycle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Carbon cycle (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The term carbon sequestration is used in different ways in the literature and media. The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> defines it as "The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool".<a href="#cite_note-:6-9">[9]</a>: 2248  Subsequently, a pool is defined as "a reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, reside in various chemical forms for a period of time".<a href="#cite_note-:6-9">[9]</a>: 2244  The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS) defines carbon sequestration as follows: "Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide."<a href="#cite_note-:8-3">[3]</a> Therefore, the difference between carbon sequestration and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS) is sometimes blurred in the media.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The IPCC, however, defines CCS as "a process in which a relatively pure stream of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2) from industrial sources is separated, treated and transported to a long-term storage location".<a href="#cite_note-:9-10">[10]</a>: 2221  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roles">Roles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roles">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_nature">In nature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In nature">edit</a>]</div> Carbon sequestration is part of the natural <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> by which <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> is exchanged among the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a> (soil), <a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">geosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">atmosphere of Earth</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, or physical processes, and stored in long-term reservoirs. Plants, such as forests and <a href="/wiki/Kelp_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelp bed">kelp beds</a>, absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>. However, these biological stores are considered volatile <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a> as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. Events such as <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> or disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_climate_change_mitigation_and_policies">In climate change mitigation and policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In climate change mitigation and policies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics of climate change</a></div> Carbon sequestration - when acting as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> -[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] helps to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a> and thus reduce harmful <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>. It helps to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>, which is mainly carbon dioxide released by burning <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hodrien-12">[12]</a> Carbon sequestration, when applied for climate change mitigation, can either build on enhancing naturally occurring carbon sequestration or use technology for carbon sequestration processes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">needs copy edit</a>] Within the carbon capture and storage approaches, carbon sequestration refers to the storage component. Artificial carbon storage technologies can be applied, such as gaseous storage in deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), and solid storage by reaction of CO2 with metal <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> to produce stable <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon-rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">needs copy edit</a>] Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways. For instance, upon harvesting, wood (as a carbon-rich material) can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries.<a href="#cite_note-:10-14">[14]</a> In industrial production, engineers typically capture carbon dioxide from emissions from power plants or factories. For example in the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Climate change policy of the United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13990" title="Executive Order 13990">Executive Order 13990</a> (officially titled "Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis") from 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. The document emphasizes the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration. It directs the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Treasury Department</a> to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_carbon_sequestration_on_land">Biological carbon sequestration on land</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biological carbon sequestration on land">edit</a>]</div> Biological carbon sequestration (also called biosequestration) is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual[<a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles">contradictory</a>]or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> via <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land-use</a> practices such as <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beerling-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Land-use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land-use change">Land-use changes</a> that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include the conservation, management, and restoration of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> such as forests, <a href="/wiki/Peatlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Peatlands">peatlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grasslands" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasslands">grasslands</a>, in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Methods and practices exist to enhance <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> sequestration in both <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forestry">Forestry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forestry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools,_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/220px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/330px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/440px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020<a href="#cite_note-FAO-2020-22">[22]</a></figcaption></figure> Forests are an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Global_carbon_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Global carbon cycle">global carbon cycle</a> because trees and plants absorb <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Therefore, they play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-23">[23]</a>: 37  By removing the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a>, meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO2 long-term.<a href="#cite_note-Sedjo,_R._2012-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation. An important consideration in such efforts is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">solution</a>".<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The planting of trees on marginal crop and <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO 2 into <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a>, landfill or stored by use in construction. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover, although this estimate has been criticized,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> and the true area that has a net cooling effect on the climate when accounting for biophysical feedbacks like albedo is 20-80% lower.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-42">[42]</a> Planting and protecting these trees would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon if the trees survive future climate stress to reach maturity.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-42">[42]</a> To put this number into perspective, this is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions (as of 2019) .<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of the atmosphere's carbon pool in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-:7-42">[42]</a> Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions, and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper, and pallets.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> If all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of <a href="/wiki/Mass_timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass timber">mass timber</a> in <a href="/wiki/Low_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Low rise">low rise</a> construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce. A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests.<a href="#cite_note-:6-9">[9]</a> Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">bamboo plantation</a> sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) reported that: "The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020".<a href="#cite_note-FAO-2020-22">[22]</a>: 11  In <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest_of_Canada" title="Boreal forest of Canada">Canada's boreal forests</a> as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter.<a href="#cite_note-cfs.nrcan.gc.ca-50">[50]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">globalize</a>] The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> says: "Secondary forest regrowth and restoration of degraded forests and non-forest ecosystems can play a large role in carbon sequestration (high confidence) with high resilience to disturbances and additional benefits such as enhanced biodiversity."<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or <a href="/wiki/Subarctic" title="Subarctic">subarctic</a> regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high-<a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to a positive change such as the formation of <a href="/wiki/Clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Clouds">clouds</a>. These clouds then <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">reflect the sunlight</a>, lowering temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Canadell-53">[53]</a>: 1457  Planting trees in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a> with <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">wet seasons</a> has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/girth" class="extiw" title="wikt:girth">girth</a> of 70,000 trees across <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one-fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, <a href="/wiki/Amazonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazonia">Amazonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>. Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering the rate of change."<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wetlands">Wetlands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wetlands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wetland#Climate_change_mitigation" title="Wetland">Wetland § Climate change mitigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wetland_in_Skippack_Township,_MontCo_PA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg/220px-Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg/330px-Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg/440px-Wetland_in_Skippack_Township%2C_MontCo_PA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption>A healthy wetland ecosystem</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF/lossy-page1-220px-Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF/lossy-page1-330px-Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF/lossy-page1-440px-Journal.pone.0043542.g001.TIF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2063" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Global distribution of blue carbon (rooted vegetation in the coastal zone): tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses.<a href="#cite_note-Pendleton2012-55">[55]</a></div></figcaption></figure> Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> It is a good way to reduce climate change.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">sea grasses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marshes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of the world's land is composed of wetlands.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">CO2 sinks</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> and many are being restored.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, and aid with <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-64">[64]</a> The plants that makeup wetlands absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and convert it into organic matter. The waterlogged nature of the soil slows down the decomposition of organic material, leading to the accumulation of carbon-rich sediments,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] acting as a long-term <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-66">[66]</a> Also, anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils hinder the complete breakdown of organic matter, promoting the conversion of carbon into more stable forms.<a href="#cite_note-:11-66">[66]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">needs copy edit</a>] As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it is disturbed the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere, and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO2 greenhouse gases, such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a> by wetlands can also be difficult to measure.<a href="#cite_note-:5-64">[64]</a> Wetland soil is an important <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>; 14.5% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> is found in wetlands, while only 5.5% of the world's land is composed of wetlands.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Not only are wetlands a great carbon sink, they have many other benefits like collecting floodwater, filtering out air and water pollutants, and creating a home for numerous birds, fish, insects, and plants.<a href="#cite_note-:032-71">[71]</a> Climate change could alter wetland soil carbon storage, changing it from a sink to a source.<a href="#cite_note-:14-72">[72]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>]With rising temperatures comes an increase in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gasses</a> from wetlands especially locations with <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>. When this permafrost melts it increases the available oxygen and water in the soil.<a href="#cite_note-:14-72">[72]</a> Because of this, bacteria in the soil would create large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to be released into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-:14-72">[72]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>] The link between climate change and wetlands is still not fully known.<a href="#cite_note-:14-72">[72]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>]It is also not clear how restored wetlands manage carbon while still being a contributing source of methane. However, preserving these areas would help prevent further release of carbon into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-:23-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peatlands,_mires_and_peat_bogs">Peatlands, mires and peat bogs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Peatlands, mires and peat bogs">edit</a>]</div> Despite occupying only 3% of the global land area, <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">peatlands</a> hold approximately 30% of the carbon in our ecosystem - twice the amount stored in the world's forests.<a href="#cite_note-:23-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Most peatlands are situated in high latitude areas of the northern hemisphere, with most of their growth occurring since the last <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:12-75">[75]</a> but they are also found in tropical regions, such as the Amazon and Congo Basin.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Peatlands grow steadily over thousands of years, accumulating dead plant material – and the carbon contained within it – due to waterlogged conditions which greatly slow rates of decay.<a href="#cite_note-:12-75">[75]</a> If peatlands are drained, for <a href="/wiki/Farmland" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmland">farmland</a> or development, the plant material stored within them decomposes rapidly, releasing stored carbon. These degraded peatlands account for 5-10% of global <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">carbon emissions</a> from human activities.<a href="#cite_note-:12-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-77">[77]</a> The loss of one peatland could potentially produce more carbon than 175–500 years of <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-72">[72]</a> Peatland protection and restoration are therefore important measures to mitigate carbon emissions, and also provides benefits for biodiversity,<a href="#cite_note-:13-77">[77]</a> freshwater provision, and flood risk reduction.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink#Soils" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink § Soils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG/220px-Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG/330px-Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG/440px-Panicum_virgaturn_heavy_metal_switch_grass_MN_2007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Panicum_virgatum" title="Panicum virgatum">Panicum virgatum</a> switchgrass, valuable in <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> production, soil conservation, and carbon sequestration in soils.</figcaption></figure> Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When soil is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes, and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%.<a href="#cite_note-:3-79">[79]</a> This loss is due to <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvesting</a>, as plants contain carbon. When <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">land use changes</a>, the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, and this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] climate.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing the carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertilizer, or include perennial crops in the rotation. <a href="/wiki/Perennial_crop" title="Perennial crop">Perennial crops</a> have a larger below-ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content.<a href="#cite_note-:3-79">[79]</a> Perennial crops reduce the need for <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain >8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times the amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Following carbon dioxide (CO2) absorption from the atmosphere, plants deposit organic matter into the soil.<a href="#cite_note-Sedjo,_R._2012-24">[24]</a> This organic matter, derived from decaying plant material and root systems, is rich in carbon compounds. <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">Microorganisms</a> in the soil break down this organic matter, and in the process, some of the carbon becomes further stabilized in the soil as <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a> - a process known as <a href="/wiki/Humification" class="mw-redirect" title="Humification">humification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> On a global basis, it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon.[<a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles">contradictory</a>]This is greater than 3-fold the carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper metre and is stabilized by mineral-organic associations.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_farming">Carbon farming</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Carbon farming">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_farming&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a> is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil's organic matter</a> content. This can also aid plant growth, improve <a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">soil water retention</a> capacity<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_CCI-2021-87">[87]</a> and reduce <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> use.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a> is another tool that is used in carbon farming.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_Jindal-2008-89">[89]</a> Carbon farming is one component of <a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">climate-smart agriculture</a>. It is also one way to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a>. Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> and livestock <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> is done, using organic <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>, and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboo farming">bamboo farming</a>. Carbon farming methods might have additional costs. Some countries have government policies that give financial incentives to farmers to use carbon farming methods.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_Tang-2016-90">[90]</a> As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×1010 acres) of world farmland.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_Burton-2018-91">[91]</a> Carbon farming has some disadvantages because some of its methods can affect <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>. For example, carbon farming could cause an increase of land clearing, <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monocultures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_Lin-2013-92">[92]</a> It is important to maximize environmental benefits of carbon farming by keeping in mind ecosystem services at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_Lin-2013-92">[92]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prairies">Prairies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Prairies">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Prairie_restoration" title="Prairie restoration">Prairie restoration</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> effort to restore <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a> lands that were destroyed due to industrial, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a>, commercial, or residential development.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The mass of SOC able to be stored in these restored plots is typically greater than the previous crop, acting as a more effective carbon sink.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biochar">Biochar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biochar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a> is <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> waste. The resulting material is added to a <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> or used as a soil improver to create <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Adding biochar may increase the soil-C stock for the long term and so mitigate global warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually).<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In the soil, the biochar carbon is unavailable for <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> to CO 2 and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of the carbon already present in the soil.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a>, high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysing</a> biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>, which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils (biochar or agrichar).<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-abc.net.au/catalyst/s2012892-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burial_of_biomass">Burial of biomass</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Burial of biomass">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charcoal2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Charcoal2.jpg/220px-Charcoal2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Charcoal2.jpg/330px-Charcoal2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Charcoal2.jpg/440px-Charcoal2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a> can be landfilled, used as a <a href="/wiki/Soil_improver" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil improver">soil improver</a> or burned using <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>.</figcaption></figure>Burying biomass (such as trees) directly mimics the natural processes that created <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The global potential for carbon sequestration using wood burial is estimated to be 10 ± 5 GtC/yr and largest rates in tropical forests (4.2 GtC/yr), followed by temperate (3.7 GtC/yr) and boreal forests (2.1 GtC/yr).<a href="#cite_note-:10-14">[14]</a> In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Ning_Zeng" title="Ning Zeng">Ning Zeng</a> of the University of Maryland estimated 65 GtC[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] lying on the floor of the world's forests as coarse woody material which could be buried and costs for wood burial carbon sequestration run at 50 USD/tC which is much lower than carbon capture from e.g. power plant emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:10-14">[14]</a> CO2 fixation into woody biomass is a natural process carried out through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. This is a nature-based solution and methods being trialled include the use of "wood vaults" to store the wood-containing carbon under oxygen-free conditions.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In 2022 a certification organization published methodologies for biomass burial.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Other biomass storage proposals have included the burial of biomass deep underwater, including at the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_carbon_sequestration">Geological carbon sequestration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geological carbon sequestration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underground_storage_in_suitable_geologic_formations">Underground storage in suitable geologic formations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Underground storage in suitable geologic formations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></div> Geological sequestration refers to the storage of CO2 underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline formations, or deep, coal beds unsuitable for mining.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Once CO2 is captured from a point source, such as a cement factory,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> it can be compressed to ≈100 bar into a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide" title="Supercritical carbon dioxide">this form</a>, the CO2 could be transported via pipeline to the place of storage. The CO2 could then be injected deep underground, typically around 1 km (0.6 mi), where it would be stable for hundreds to millions of years.<a href="#cite_note-:0-109">[109]</a> Under these storage conditions, the density of <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide" title="Supercritical carbon dioxide">supercritical</a> CO2 is 600 to 800 kg/m3.<a href="#cite_note-:1-110">[110]</a> The important parameters in determining a good site for carbon storage are: rock porosity, rock permeability, absence of faults, and geometry of rock layers. The medium in which the CO2 is to be stored ideally has a high porosity and permeability, such as sandstone or limestone. Sandstone can have a permeability ranging from 1 to 10−5 <a href="/wiki/Darcy_(unit)" title="Darcy (unit)">Darcy</a>, with a porosity as high as ≈30%. The porous rock must be capped by a layer of low permeability which acts as a seal, or caprock, for the CO2. Shale is an example of a very good caprock, with a permeability of 10−5 to 10−9 Darcy. Once injected, the CO2 plume will rise via buoyant forces, since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, there is a possibility the CO2 could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into the atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. Another risk related to carbon sequestration is induced seismicity. If the injection of CO2 creates pressures underground that are too high, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-:2-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trapping_mechanisms_for_carbon_geosequestration#Structural_trapping" title="Trapping mechanisms for carbon geosequestration">Structural trapping</a> is considered the principal storage mechanism, impermeable or low permeability rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">mudstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a>, or tight carbonates[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] act as a barrier to the upward buoyant migration of CO2, resulting in the retention of CO2 within a storage formation.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> While trapped in a rock formation, CO2 can be in the supercritical fluid phase or dissolve in groundwater/brine. It can also react with minerals in the geologic formation to become carbonates. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mineral_sequestration">Mineral sequestration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mineral sequestration">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Trapping_mechanisms_for_carbon_geosequestration#Mineral_trapping" title="Trapping mechanisms for carbon geosequestration">Mineral sequestration</a> aims to trap carbon in the form of solid <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> over geologic time. <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">Carbonic acid</a> in groundwater slowly reacts with complex <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicates</a> to dissolve <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkalis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> and leave a residue of <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a>. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeolitic_imidazolate_framework" title="Zeolitic imidazolate framework">Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks</a> (ZIFs) are <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93organic_framework" title="Metal–organic framework">metal–organic frameworks</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Zeolite" title="Zeolite">zeolites</a>. Because of their porosity, chemical stability and thermal resistance, ZIFs are being examined for their capacity to capture carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mineral_carbonation">Mineral carbonation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mineral carbonation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> CO2 <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermically</a> reacts with metal oxides, producing stable carbonates (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesite" title="Magnesite">magnesite</a>). This process (CO2-to-stone) occurs naturally over periods of years and is responsible for much surface <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">Olivine</a> is one such metal oxide.<a href="#cite_note-Olivine_weathering2-115">[115]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>] Rocks rich in metal oxides that react with CO2, such as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">MgO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">CaO</a> as contained in <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalts</a>, have been proven as a viable means to achieve carbon-dioxide mineral storage.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The reaction rate can in principle be accelerated with a <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> or by increasing pressures, or by mineral pre-treatment, although this method can require additional energy. <a href="/wiki/Ultramafic_rock" title="Ultramafic rock">Ultramafic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mine_tailings" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine tailings">mine tailings</a> are a readily available source of fine-grained metal oxides that could serve this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Accelerating passive CO2 sequestration via mineral carbonation may be achieved through microbial processes that enhance mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Carbon, in the form of CO 2 can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate mineral</a> forms. This process (CO 2-to-stone) is known as "carbon sequestration by mineral <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a>" or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides – either <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a> (MgO) or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a> (CaO) – to form stable carbonates. These reactions are <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> and occur naturally (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of rock over <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic time">geologic time</a> periods).<a href="#cite_note-herzog-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-goldberg-124">[124]</a> <dl><dd>CaO + CO 2 → CaCO 3</dd></dl> <dl><dd>MgO + CO 2 → MgCO 3</dd></dl> Calcium and magnesium are found in nature typically as calcium and magnesium <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicates</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Forsterite" title="Forsterite">forsterite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinite</a>) and not as binary oxides. For forsterite and serpentine the reactions are: <dl><dd>Mg 2SiO 4 + 2 CO 2 → 2 MgCO 3 + SiO 2</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Mg 3Si 2O 5(OH) 4+ 3 CO 2 → 3 MgCO 3 + 2 SiO 2 + 2 H 2O</dd></dl> These reactions are slightly more favorable at low temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-herzog-123">[123]</a> This process occurs naturally over geologic time frames and is responsible for much of the Earth's surface <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>. The reaction rate can be made faster however, by reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, although this method requires some additional energy. Alternatively, the mineral could be milled to increase its surface area, and exposed to water and constant abrasion to remove the inert silica as could be achieved naturally by dumping olivine in the high energy surf of beaches.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> When CO 2 is dissolved in water and injected into hot basaltic rocks underground it has been shown that the CO 2 reacts with the basalt to form solid carbonate minerals.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> A test plant in Iceland started up in October 2017, extracting up to 50 tons of CO2 a year from the atmosphere and storing it underground in basaltic rock.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sequestration_in_oceans">Sequestration in oceans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sequestration in oceans">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_carbon_pumps">Marine carbon pumps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Marine carbon pumps">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">Solubility pump</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/440px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/660px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/880px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_food_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic food web">pelagic food web</a>, showing the central involvement of <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">marine microorganisms</a> in how the ocean imports carbon and then exports it back to the atmosphere and ocean floor</div></figcaption></figure> The ocean naturally sequesters carbon through different processes.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">solubility pump</a> moves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the surface ocean where it reacts with water molecules to form carbonic acid. The solubility of carbon dioxide increases with decreasing water temperatures. <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> moves dissolved carbon dioxide to cooler waters where it is more soluble, increasing carbon concentrations in the ocean interior. The <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a> moves dissolved carbon dioxide from the surface ocean to the ocean's interior through the conversion of inorganic carbon to organic carbon by photosynthesis. Organic matter that survives respiration and remineralization can be transported through sinking particles and organism migration to the deep ocean.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The low temperatures, high pressure, and reduced oxygen levels in the deep sea slow down <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> processes, preventing the rapid release of carbon back into the atmosphere and acting as a long-term storage reservoir.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vegetated_coastal_ecosystems">Vegetated coastal ecosystems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vegetated coastal ecosystems">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blue_carbon&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a> is a concept within <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management".<a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-130">[130]</a>: 2220  Most commonly, it refers to the role that <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> can play in carbon sequestration.<a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-130">[130]</a>: 2220  These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">ecosystem-based adaptation</a>. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost, they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-130">[130]</a>: 2220 </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seaweed_farming_and_algae">Seaweed farming and algae</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Seaweed farming and algae">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming#Climate_change_mitigation" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed farming § Climate change mitigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_Forest_(12801115735).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg/220px-Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg/330px-Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg/440px-Kelp_Forest_%2812801115735%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG/220px-Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG/330px-Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG/440px-Seagrass_at_Rapid_Bay_Jetty_P1262907.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">Seaweed</a> grow in shallow and coastal areas, and capture significant amounts of carbon that can be transported to the deep ocean by oceanic mechanisms; seaweed reaching the deep ocean sequester carbon and prevent it from exchanging with the atmosphere over millennia.<a href="#cite_note-nature.com-131">[131]</a> Growing seaweed offshore with the purpose of sinking the seaweed in the depths of the sea to sequester carbon has been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In addition, seaweed grows very fast and can theoretically be harvested and processed to generate <a href="/wiki/Biomethane" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomethane">biomethane</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">anaerobic digestion</a> to generate electricity, via <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration/CHP</a> or as a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. One study suggested that if seaweed farms covered 9% of the ocean they could produce enough biomethane to supply Earth's equivalent demand for fossil fuel energy, remove 53 <a href="/wiki/Gigatonnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigatonnes">gigatonnes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> per year from the atmosphere and sustainably produce 200 kg per year of fish, per person, for 10 billion people.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>]Ideal species for such farming and conversion include <a href="/wiki/Laminaria_digitata" title="Laminaria digitata">Laminaria digitata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fucus_serratus" title="Fucus serratus">Fucus serratus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima" title="Saccharina latissima">Saccharina latissima</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> are being investigated as possible means of carbon sequestration.<a href="#cite_note-Chung2011-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-136">[136]</a> Marine <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> perform half of the global photosynthetic CO2 fixation (net global primary production of ~50 Pg C per year) and half of the oxygen production despite amounting to only ~1% of global plant biomass.<a href="#cite_note-Behrenfeld2014-137">[137]</a> Because <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> lack the complex <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_plant" title="Terrestrial plant">terrestrial plants</a>, the carbon in algae is released into the atmosphere more rapidly than carbon captured on land.<a href="#cite_note-Chung2011-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mcleod2011-138">[138]</a> Algae have been proposed as a short-term storage pool of carbon that can be used as a <a href="/wiki/Feedstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedstock">feedstock</a> for the production of various <a href="/wiki/Biogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenic">biogenic</a> fuels.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg/220px-WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg/330px-WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg/440px-WomenWorking_SeaweedZanzibar_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5045" data-file-height="3363" /></a><figcaption>Women working with seaweed</figcaption></figure> Large-scale seaweed farming could sequester significant amounts of carbon.<a href="#cite_note-:152-6">[6]</a> Wild seaweed will sequester large amount of carbon through dissolved particles of organic matter being transported to deep ocean seafloors where it will become buried and remain for long periods of time.<a href="#cite_note-:73-7">[7]</a> With respect to carbon farming, the potential growth of seaweed for carbon farming would see the harvested seaweed transported to the deep ocean for long-term burial.<a href="#cite_note-:73-7">[7]</a> Seaweed farming occurs mostly in the Asian Pacific coastal areas where it has been a rapidly increasing market.<a href="#cite_note-:73-7">[7]</a> The IPCC <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a> recommends "further research attention" on seaweed farming as a mitigation tactic.<a href="#cite_note-:242-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_fertilization">Ocean fertilization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ocean fertilization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg/170px-Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg/255px-Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg/340px-Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2600" /></a><figcaption>An oceanic <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">phytoplankton bloom</a> in the <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="South Atlantic Ocean">South Atlantic Ocean</a>, off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>. Encouraging such blooms with <a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">iron fertilization</a> could lock up carbon on the seabed. However, this approach is currently (2022) no longer being actively pursued.</figcaption></figure><div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_fertilization&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a> or ocean nourishment is a type of technology for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> from the ocean based on the purposeful introduction of plant <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> to the upper <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> to increase marine food production and to remove <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example <a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">iron fertilization</a>, could stimulate photosynthesis in <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>. The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a>, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in phytoplankton by up to 30 times.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> This is one of the more well-researched <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR) approaches, and supported by the <a href="/wiki/Climate_restoration" title="Climate restoration">Climate restoration</a> proponents. However, there is uncertainty about this approach regarding the duration of the effective oceanic carbon sequestration. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, when the sinking organic matter remineralizes, deep ocean acidity could increase. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks.<a href="#cite_note-Ocean_fertilization_:1-143">[143]</a> The risks of nutrient fertilization can be monitored. Peter Fiekowsy and Carole Douglis write "I consider iron fertilization an important item on our list of pottential climate restoration solutions. Given the fact that iron fertilization is a natural process that has taken place on a massive scale for millions of years, it is likely that most of the side effects are familiar ones that pose no major threat" <a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> A number of techniques, including fertilization by the micronutrient <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> (called iron fertilization) or with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> (both macronutrients), have been proposed. Some research in the early 2020s suggested that it could only permanently sequester a small amount of carbon.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> More recent research publlications sustain that iron fertilization shows promise. A NOAA special report rated iron fertilization as having "a moderate potential for cost, scalability and how long carbon might be stored compared to other marine sequestration ideas" <a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_upwelling">Artificial upwelling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Artificial upwelling">edit</a>]</div> Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around.<a href="#cite_note-Lovelock07-147">[147]</a> Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering <a href="/wiki/Algal_blooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal blooms">blooms of algae</a>, which store carbon when they grow and export[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] carbon when they die.<a href="#cite_note-Lovelock07-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in CO 2, which limits its attractiveness.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder <a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">deep ocean water</a> to the surface <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixed layer</a>. As the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">ocean temperature</a> decreases with depth, more <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> This can be induced by reversing the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic carbon cycle</a> through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> or a mixer array.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algae bloom</a> occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of the seawater, impairing the growth of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. The production of <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogenic_calcification" title="Marine biogenic calcification">marine biogenic calcification</a> and causes major disruptions to the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basalt_storage">Basalt storage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Basalt storage">edit</a>]</div> Carbon dioxide sequestration in <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> involves the injecting of CO 2 into deep-sea formations. The CO 2 first mixes with seawater and then reacts with the basalt, both of which are alkaline-rich elements. This reaction results in the release of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions forming stable carbonate minerals.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Underwater basalt offers a good alternative to other forms of oceanic carbon storage because it has a number of trapping measures to ensure added protection against leakage. These measures include "geochemical, sediment, gravitational and <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrate</a> formation." Because CO 2 hydrate is denser than CO 2 in seawater, the risk of leakage is minimal. Injecting the CO 2 at depths greater than 2,700 meters (8,900 ft) ensures that the CO 2 has a greater density than seawater, causing it to sink.<a href="#cite_note-environmentalresearchweb.org-157">[157]</a> One possible injection site is <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca Plate</a>. Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Lamont%E2%80%93Doherty_Earth_Observatory" title="Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory">Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory</a> found that this plate at the western coast of the United States has a possible storage capacity of 208 gigatons. This could cover the entire <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">current U.S. carbon emissions</a> for over 100 years (as of 2009).<a href="#cite_note-environmentalresearchweb.org-157">[157]</a> This process is undergoing tests as part of the <a href="/wiki/CarbFix" class="mw-redirect" title="CarbFix">CarbFix</a> project, resulting in 95% of the injected 250 tonnes of CO2 to solidify into <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> in two years, using 25 tonnes of water per tonne of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-Matter-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mineralization_and_deep_sea_sediments">Mineralization and deep sea sediments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Mineralization and deep sea sediments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></div>Similar to <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(geology)" title="Mineralization (geology)">mineralization</a> processes that take place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] is determined by the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of <a href="/wiki/Subducting" class="mw-redirect" title="Subducting">subducting</a> surface water.<a href="#cite_note-:62-160">[160]</a> Researchers have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers depth could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effectively, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at least a few more centuries. The neutralization of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">CaCO3</a>, or balancing the concentration of CaCO3 on the seafloor, land and in the ocean, can be measured on a timescale of thousands of years. More specifically, the predicted time is 1700 years for ocean and approximately 5000 to 6000 years for land.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Further, the dissolution time for CaCO3 can be improved by injecting near or downstream of the storage site.<a href="#cite_note-:52-163">[163]</a> In addition to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_mineralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon mineralization">carbon mineralization</a>, another proposal is deep sea <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> injection. It injects liquid carbon dioxide at least 3,000 m (9,800 ft) below the surface directly into ocean sediments to generate carbon dioxide hydrate. Two regions are defined for exploration: 1) the negative buoyancy zone (NBZ), which is the region between liquid carbon dioxide denser than surrounding water and where liquid carbon dioxide has neutral buoyancy, and 2) the hydrate formation zone (HFZ), which typically has low temperatures and high pressures. Several research models have shown that the optimal depth of injection requires consideration of intrinsic permeability and any changes in liquid carbon dioxide permeability for optimal storage. The formation of hydrates decreases liquid carbon dioxide permeability, and injection below HFZ is more energetically favored than within the HFZ. If the NBZ is a greater column of water than the HFZ, the injection should happen below the HFZ and directly to the NBZ.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In this case, liquid carbon dioxide will sink to the NBZ and be stored below the buoyancy and hydrate cap. Carbon dioxide leakage can occur if there is dissolution into <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pore_fluid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pore fluid (page does not exist)">pore fluid</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]or via <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion">molecular diffusion</a>. However, this occurs over thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-:52-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids">Adding bases to neutralize acids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Adding bases to neutralize acids">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification § Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity</a></div> Carbon dioxide forms <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> when dissolved in water, so <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> is a significant consequence of elevated carbon dioxide levels, and limits the rate at which it can be absorbed into the ocean (the <a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">solubility pump</a>). A variety of different <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a> have been suggested that could neutralize the acid and thus increase CO 2 absorption.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> For example, adding crushed <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> to oceans enhances the absorption of carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Another approach is to add <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> to oceans which is produced by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of salt water or brine, while eliminating the waste <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> by reaction with a volcanic silicate rock such as <a href="/wiki/Enstatite" title="Enstatite">enstatite</a>, effectively increasing the rate of natural weathering of these rocks to restore ocean pH.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">needs copy edit</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-step_carbon_sequestration_and_storage">Single-step carbon sequestration and storage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Single-step carbon sequestration and storage">edit</a>]</div> Single-step carbon sequestration and storage is a saline water-based mineralization technology extracting carbon dioxide from seawater and storing it in the form of solid minerals.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abandoned_ideas">Abandoned ideas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Abandoned ideas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection">Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection" title="Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection">Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection</a></div> It was once suggested that CO2 could be stored in the oceans by direct injection into the deep ocean and storing it there for some centuries. At the time, this proposal was called "ocean storage" but more precisely it was known as "<a href="/wiki/Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection" title="Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection">direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection</a>". However, the interest in this avenue of carbon storage has much reduced since about 2001 because of concerns about the unknown impacts on <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-177">[177]</a><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">: 279 </a>, high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence.<a href="#cite_note-:0-109">[109]</a> The "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage" in 2005 did include this technology as an option.<a href="#cite_note-:02-177">[177]</a><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">: 279 </a> However, the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fifth Assessment Report">IPCC Fifth Assessment Report</a> in 2014 no longer mentioned the term "ocean storage" in its report on climate change mitigation methods.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> The most recent <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of "ocean storage" in its "Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy".<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-179">[179]</a>: 12–37  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs">Costs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Costs">edit</a>]</div> Cost of carbon sequestration (not including capture and transport) varies but is below US$10 per tonne in some cases where onshore storage is available.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> For example <a href="/wiki/Carbfix" title="Carbfix">Carbfix</a> cost is around US$25 per tonne of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> A 2020 report estimated sequestration in forests (so including capture) at US$35 for small quantities to US$280 per tonne for 10% of the total required to keep to 1.5 C warming.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> But there is risk of forest fires releasing the carbon.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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M.; Daigneault, A.; Ohrel, S. B.; Ragnauth, S.; Bean, A. (December 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7708837">"The economic costs of planting, preserving, and managing the world's forests to mitigate climate change"</a>. Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5946. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.5946A">2020NatCo..11.5946A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-19578-z">10.1038/s41467-020-19578-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7708837">7708837</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33262324">33262324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=The+economic+costs+of+planting%2C+preserving%2C+and+managing+the+world%27s+forests+to+mitigate+climate+change&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5946&rft.date=2020-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7708837%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatCo..11.5946A&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33262324&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-19578-z&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=K.+G.&rft.au=Baker%2C+J.+S.&rft.au=Sohngen%2C+B.+L.&rft.au=Wade%2C+C.+M.&rft.au=Daigneault%2C+A.&rft.au=Ohrel%2C+S.+B.&rft.au=Ragnauth%2C+S.&rft.au=Bean%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7708837&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+sequestration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodward" class="citation web cs1">Woodward, Aylin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/carbon-capture-storage-expensive-climate-change-2021-9">"The world's biggest carbon-removal plant just opened. In a year, it'll negate just 3 seconds' worth of global emissions"</a>. Business Insider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211130145042/https://www.businessinsider.com/carbon-capture-storage-expensive-climate-change-2021-9">Archived</a> from the original on November 30, 2021. 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb135064767">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb135064767">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000086693&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007551494605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/155393952">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Forestry">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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