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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earlier_alternative_hypotheses:_secondary_burial_and_necropolis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Earlier alternative hypotheses: secondary burial and necropolis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earlier_alternative_hypotheses:_secondary_burial_and_necropolis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the archaeological site in Germany. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Herxheim_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Herxheim (disambiguation)">Herxheim (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg/220px-Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg/330px-Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg/440px-Schaedel_Herxheim_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>Skull found in the archaeological site of Herxheim, exhibited in the museum of <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University" title="Heidelberg University">Heidelberg University</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The archaeological site of <b>Herxheim</b>, located in the municipality of <a href="/wiki/Herxheim_bei_Landau/Pfalz" title="Herxheim bei Landau/Pfalz">Herxheim</a> in southwest <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, was a ritual center and a <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass grave</a> formed by people of the <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a> (LBK) culture in <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a>. The site is often compared to that of the <a href="/wiki/Talheim_Death_Pit" title="Talheim Death Pit">Talheim Death Pit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talheim_Death_Pit#Mass_burial_at_Schletz-Asparn" title="Talheim Death Pit">Schletz-Asparn</a>, but is quite different in nature. The site dates from between 5300 and 4950 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site contained the scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals from different, in some cases faraway regions. Whether they were war captives or <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifices</a> is unclear, but the evidence indicates that they were roasted and <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">consumed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115,_123,_126_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115,_123,_126-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery">Discovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Herxheim was discovered in 1996 on the site of a construction project when locals reported finds of bones, including human skulls. The <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavation</a> was considered a <a href="/wiki/Salvage_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvage archaeology">salvage</a> or rescue dig, as parts of the site were destroyed by the construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HerxheimProject_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HerxheimProject-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a></div> <p>The people at Herxheim were part of the <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">LBK</a> culture. Styles of LBK <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, some of a high quality, were discovered at the site from local populations as well as from distant lands from the north and east, even as far as 500 kilometres (310 mi) away. Local <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> as well as flints from distant sources were also found.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Settlement">Settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The structures at Herxheim suggested that of a large <a href="/wiki/Village" title="Village">village</a> spanning up to 6 hectares (15 acres) surrounded by a sequence of ovoid pits dug over a duration of several centuries. These pits eventually cut into one another, forming a triple, semi-circular enclosure ditch split into three sections. The way the pits were dug over such a length of time, in addition to their use, suggests a pre-determined layout.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structures within the enclosure eroded over time, and "yielded only a small number of settlement pits and a few graves".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pits were either trapezoidal or triangular in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-HerxheimProject_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HerxheimProject-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mass_grave">Mass grave</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mass grave"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The enclosure ditches around the settlement comprise at least 80 ovoid pits containing the remains of humans and animals, and material goods such as pottery (some rare and high-quality), bone and stone tools, and "rare decorative artifacts".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remains of dogs, often found intact, were also recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human remains were primarily shattered and dispersed within the pits, rarely intact or in anatomical position. Using a quantification process known as "<a href="/wiki/Minimum_number_of_individuals" title="Minimum number of individuals">minimum number of individuals</a>" (MNI), researchers concluded that the site contained at least 500 individual humans ranging from newborns to the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "since the area excavated corresponds to barely half the enclosure, we can assume that in fact more than 1000 individuals were involved".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deposition of the human remains occurred only within the final 50 years of occupation at the site.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mortuary_practices">Mortuary practices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mortuary practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2006<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> study revealed the intentional breakage and cutting of various human elements, particularly skulls. Bones were broken with <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology#Other_markers" title="Forensic anthropology">peri-mortem</a> state (around the time of death), as is evident by the fragmentation patterns on the bones, which differ between fresh and dry (old) conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-osteology_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osteology-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2009<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> study confirmed many findings from the 2006 study, but added new information. In just one pit deposit, this study found 1906 bones and bone fragments from at least 10 individuals ranging from newborns to adults. At least 359 individual skeletal elements were identified. This in-depth study revealed many more cut, impact, and bite marks made upon the skulls and post-cranial skeletal elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was apparent that parts of the human bodies were singled out for their marrow content, suggesting <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalization</a> (see below). </p><p>Due to the fractures present on the bones being peri-mortem, the blows to the bones could have been made immediately prior (including as cause of) or soon after death. However, because of their precision placement, it seems more likely that most cuts and blows were made soon after the person's death, indicating a process of defleshing and dismemberment rather than the person being killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Skull_cult_practices">Skull cult practices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Skull cult practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Of particular note from both studies<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the peculiar treatment of the humans' skulls. Many skulls were treated in a similar manner: skulls were struck on "the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal line</a>, splitting faces, mandibles, and skull caps into symmetrical halves".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few skulls were clearly skinned prior to being struck, again, all in the same manner: "horizontal cuts above the <a href="/wiki/Eye_socket" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye socket">orbits</a>, vertical cuts along the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_suture" title="Sagittal suture">sagittal suture</a>, and oblique cuts in the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_bone" title="Parietal bone">parietals</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vault of the skull was preserved and shaped into what is referred to as a calotte (<a href="/wiki/Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">calvarium</a>). During this process the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, which is a source of dietary <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a>, may have been extracted. Additionally, a later study revealed that the tongues of humans were removed.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ritual_cannibalism">Ritual cannibalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ritual cannibalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whether for religious purpose or war, it is apparent from the 2009 study that the humans at the site of Herxheim were butchered and eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only were cut marks found on locations of the <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a> that are made during the <a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">dismemberment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fillet_(cut)" title="Fillet (cut)">filleting</a> process, bones were also crushed for the purposes of <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">marrow extraction</a>, and chewed. Besides the fresh-bone fractures present on many bones, "[processing] for marrow is also documented by the presence of scrape marks in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">marrow</a> cavity on two fragments."<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Skeletal representation analysis revealed that many of the "<a href="/wiki/Spongy_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Spongy bone">spongy bone</a>" elements - such as the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal column">spinal column</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">patella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilium_(bone)" title="Ilium (bone)">ilium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a> - were underrepresented compared to what would be expected in a mass grave. "All these observations are similar to those observed in animal butchery."<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, preferential chewing of the <a href="/wiki/Metapodial" title="Metapodial">metapodials</a> and hand <a href="/wiki/Phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanges">phalanges</a> "speak strongly in favour of human choice rather than more or less random action by carnivores".<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The number of people concerned at Herxheim obviously suggests that cannibalism for the simple purpose of survival is highly improbable, all the more so as the characteristics of the deposits show a standard, repetitive, and strongly ritualised practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A detailed study published by the excavators in 2015 estimates that the site contains the scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals, all of whom were butchered and eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than a third of the dead were juveniles, ranging from newborns to teenagers. Both men and women were among the victims, but in most cases sex determination was not possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015102–106_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015102–106-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The age distribution of the corpses is typical of communities living in preindustrial times, but deviates from the typical age-of-death distribution in such societies; therefore the excavators consider it likely that the victims were deliberately killed rather than dying a natural death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015109–114_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015109–114-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The evidence indicates that the bodies were cooked, probably by <a href="/wiki/Rotisserie" title="Rotisserie">spit-roasting</a> them whole (including the heads) over open fires. Both flesh and bone marrow were eaten, and the skulls were processed into <a href="/wiki/Skull_cup" title="Skull cup">cups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015115_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015115-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An analysis of the bones shows that the victims had lived in a variety of geographical regions – some might have lived near Herxheim, others in other regions populated by the Linear Pottery culture, and a third group had lived in mountainous areas not inhabited by members of that culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treatment of the skull cups (which were used as drinking vessels while feasting on their former owners and then discarded) suggests that the dead were regarded as enemies or outsiders rather than estimated relatives or community members (in the latter case, skull cups were sometimes made as well, but kept as honoured relics).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123–124_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123–124-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two alternative explanations have been suggested for how people from quite different regions ended up in Herxheim, where their lives were violently ended and their bodies consumed. One is that warriors from the region around Herxheim raided other territories and brought captives back for consumption, which would mean that the site was an important centre of a successful warrior culture. The other explanation is that the site was a major religious centre where <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifices</a> (followed by cannibalism) took place and which was visited by people coming from various, sometimes faraway areas, some of whom were killed there. In this case, too, the excavators suspect that the sacrificed were brought as captives or slaves to the site, considering it unlikely (though not completely impossible) that people would have voluntarily travelled towards a faraway region to be sacrificed and eaten there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015126_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015126-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earlier_alternative_hypotheses:_secondary_burial_and_necropolis">Earlier alternative hypotheses: secondary burial and necropolis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Earlier alternative hypotheses: secondary burial and necropolis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original conclusion from the earlier 2006 study was that the site of Herxheim was a ritual mortuary center – a <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropolis</a> – for the LBK people of the area, where the remains of the dead were not just buried, but for reasons unknown, destroyed. They considered the large number of corpses as well as the transportation of pottery and flint from distant areas to the site further arguments for this conjecture.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The projection of the number of individuals present<span class="nowrap"> </span>... to a probable total of 1,300 to 1,500 rules out the possibility of a local graveyard — and points a regional centre at Herxheim to which human remains were transported for the purpose of reburial.... To organise the transport not only of stone tools and pottery but also of human bones and partial or maybe even complete corpses implies an efficient organisational and communication system.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The authors of this study suggested that Herxheim was a site for a type of burial known as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_burial" title="Secondary burial">secondary burial</a>, which consists of the removal of the corpse or partial corpse and subsequent placement elsewhere. They concluded this from the lack of complete, articulated skeletons in the majority of the burials. Another discussed possibility was that of <a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">sky burial</a>, in which the corpse is exposed to the elements and many bones are carried off by scavengers.<sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later 2009 study rejected these possibilities in favour of the cannibalism hypothesis. This resulted in a controversy about which explanation was more plausible, with other archaeologists maintaining that the evidence better fits a scenario in which the dead were reburied following dismemberment and removal of flesh from bones. "Evidence of ceremonial reburial practices has been reported for many ancient societies."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in their later more detailed study the excavators point out that that the human remains were put into the ditches quite shortly after their death (probably no more than a few days), when various body parts were still kept together by soft tissue. This rules out secondary burials and sky burials, since in either case more time would have passed before the deceased would have found their final resting place at Herxheim. It also indicates that the buried died (likely by being killed) at or near Herxheim rather than in the regions where they had lived (which were in some cases far away).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201526_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201526-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the specific treatment of the bodies, such as the splitting of bones to extract the marrow, is typical for cannibalism and does not fit the observed patterns of secondary burials, and various other traces show that the corpses were processed in the same way as animals that are butchered, roasted and eaten. Therefore they consider cannibalism the only plausible explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201540–46,_63,_69–70_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201540–46,_63,_69–70-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fontbr%C3%A9goua_Cave" title="Fontbrégoua Cave">Fontbrégoua Cave</a>, another noted Neolithic site with evidence of potential cannibalism</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Herxheim2009-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2009_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoulestin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Boulestin, B.; et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9225784/Boulestin_B._Zeeb-Lanz_A._Jeunesse_C._Haack_F._Arbogast_R.-M._Denaire_A._2009_Mass_cannibalism_in_the_Linear_Pottery_Culture_at_Herxheim_Palatinate_Germany_._Antiquity_vol._83_p._968-982">"Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Antiquity_(journal)" title="Antiquity (journal)">Antiquity</a></i>. <b>83</b> (322): 968–982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Mass+cannibalism+in+the+Linear+Pottery+Culture+at+Herxheim+%28Palatinate%2C+Germany%29&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=322&rft.pages=968-982&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Boulestin&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9225784%2FBoulestin_B._Zeeb-Lanz_A._Jeunesse_C._Haack_F._Arbogast_R.-M._Denaire_A._2009_Mass_cannibalism_in_the_Linear_Pottery_Culture_at_Herxheim_Palatinate_Germany_._Antiquity_vol._83_p._968-982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerxheim+%28archaeological+site%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115,_123,_126-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115,_123,_126_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 101, 115, 123, 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herxheim2006-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herxheim2006_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrschiedtHaidle2006" class="citation journal cs1">Orschiedt, J.; Haidle, M. N. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927045415/http://www.urgeschichte.uni-tuebingen.de/fileadmin/downloads/Haidle/HerxheimConflictArch2006.pdf">"The LBK Enclosure at Herxheim: Theatre of War or Ritual Centre? References from Osteoarchaeological Investigations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Conflict Archaeology</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 153–167. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.urgeschichte.uni-tuebingen.de/fileadmin/downloads/Haidle/HerxheimConflictArch2006.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Conflict+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+LBK+Enclosure+at+Herxheim%3A+Theatre+of+War+or+Ritual+Centre%3F+References+from+Osteoarchaeological+Investigations&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=153-167&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Orschiedt&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Haidle%2C+M.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.urgeschichte.uni-tuebingen.de%2Ffileadmin%2Fdownloads%2FHaidle%2FHerxheimConflictArch2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerxheim+%28archaeological+site%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HerxheimProject-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HerxheimProject_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HerxheimProject_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.projekt-herxheim.de">Projekt Herxheim</a> (German language).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osteology-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-osteology_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1985" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, E. (1985). "Current developments in bone technology". <i>Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory</i>. <b>8</b>: 157–235. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20170189">20170189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Archaeological+Method+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Current+developments+in+bone+technology&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=157-235&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20170189%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerxheim+%28archaeological+site%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015101,_115_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 101, 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015102–106-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015102–106_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 102–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015109–114-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015109–114_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 109–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015115-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015115_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123–124-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015123–124_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015126-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey2015126_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBower2009" class="citation news cs1">Bower, Bruce (4 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2009/12/controversial-signs-of-mass-cannibalism/">"Controversial Signs of Mass Cannibalism"</a>. <i>Wired</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Controversial+Signs+of+Mass+Cannibalism&rft.date=2009-12-04&rft.aulast=Bower&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2009%2F12%2Fcontroversial-signs-of-mass-cannibalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerxheim+%28archaeological+site%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201526-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201526_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201540–46,_63,_69–70-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulestinCoupey201540–46,_63,_69–70_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015">Boulestin & Coupey 2015</a>, pp. 40–46, 63, 69–70.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herxheim_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulestinCoupey2015" class="citation book cs1">Boulestin, Bruno; Coupey, Anne-Sophie (2015). <i>Cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture: The Human Remains from Herxheim</i>. Oxford: Archaeopress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cannibalism+in+the+Linear+Pottery+Culture%3A+The+Human+Remains+from+Herxheim&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Boulestin&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft.au=Coupey%2C+Anne-Sophie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerxheim+%28archaeological+site%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.projekt-herxheim.de/literatur.htm">Projekt Herxheim</a>: Ongoing list of related publications in German, English, and French.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120924125629/http://news.discovery.com/history/mass-cannibalism-german-village.html">Settlement Site Hints at Mass Cannibalism: Discovery News</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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